The Information-Seeking Behavior of Museum Visitors A Review of Literature Tori Orr; May 19, 2004

ABSTRACT: The dynamics of museum visitor information-seeking behavior indicate the importance of creating a better fit between people and museum services in two critical areas: between human needs and the changing purpose of museums in society, and between human meaning-making and museum methods. Each of these areas provides a promising direction for museums to incorporate unintentional or passive behaviors that do not involve seeking and which are not necessarily task oriented, into exhibit goals. This paper discusses visitors as consumers, as learners, and as celebrants of museum information motivated by a quest for enlightening, social and numenous experiences. To varying degrees these behaviors transcend all types of museum information presentation whether in historical, fine art or technology museum environments.

KEYWORDS: museums and art galleries, museum visitors, information needs, information seeking, visitor behavior, group experience, audience analysis, art appreciation

The mental state involved in emotionally responding to the object can be very different from the mental state involved in reading and thinking. While our desire to effectively facilitate meaning pushes us to emphasize communication through language, many museum experiences are firmly rooted in feelings that are not enhanced by words. --Andrew J. Pekarik (Feeling or Learning?)

Introduction to information via the more basic human need for play and creativity. With the museum’s diverse In the context of a consumer-based “experience audience comes a variety of aesthetic tastes, cultural economy,” a museum visit is a purchase option an connections and intellectual curiosities motivated by individual chooses to achieve something they want. deeply held feelings and expectations. These But unlike the gain perceived from a free visit to a unintentional behaviors create rituals and experiences public library, a museum visit is not utilitarian. There where often information is merely sought for are few practical, directly attributable outcomes. stimulation or entertainment or even encountered Museum visiting does not assure one a better job, a without being sought at all. raise in salary, or an easily identifiable solution to a question or problem but it does come with a price. So Scope of Research why do people pay? What behaviors motivate them to visit? This review of literature is intended for information specialists interested in current academic research on, Research into the information seeking behavior of and analysis of, museum visitor behavior and museum visitors has been challenging because it does motivation. The review could also be helpful to not easily reveal goal-oriented behaviors or museum directors and curators and those interested in intentional actions as much as it involves more cultural anthropology and leisure studies as they holistic ways of meeting daily information needs. apply to cultural institutions. Much like libraries, museums are information rich structures with wide ranging audiences made up of Museum visitor behavior encompasses, as detailed different ethnic, class and regional groups which can by Stephen Case in Looking for Information, “the be subdivided and examined. Yet unlike the totality of other unintentional or passive behaviors behavioral needs of managers, scientists or seniors that do not involve seeking” and which are not seeking to resolve a predetermined information gap necessarily task oriented (Case 2002, p. 14). In his or need, the information needs of museum visitors do scenarios Case highlights what he considers to be not always result in a reduction of uncertainty. “blind spots” and posits his defense of the connection Instead, through browsing, scanning and serendipity between entertainment and information thus, museum visitors create a more amorphous connection Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 2

Part of this bias against entertainment groups of women and solitary men. There were also undoubtedly comes from our tendency to over members of school classes usually during weekdays rationalize human behavior. We prefer to see and very few couples with small children. Every people primarily as thinking beings. Hence we article referencing a particular institution provided a emphasize cognitive factors in behavior rather more detailed demographic for that institution under than affective influences...It is not merely examination. popular society but scholarly discourse that tends to shove entertainment under the rug. In the case All these observations are supported by much larger of information seeking research, any content that studies done on museum visitors by Eilean Hooper- is potentially diverting has often been defined as Greenhill (1994). Greater detail is not provided here “out of scope.” (p. 102) because none of the studies that emphasize visitor demographics answer the questions posed in the As research into the literature progressed, the introduction, or address different aspects of potential unspoken and perhaps unrecognized preconceptions meaning created in materials provided by the influencing certain studies became clearer, so the museum. “Meaning is produced by museum visitors mention of Case’s point of view was enlightening and from their own point of view, using whatever skills became seminal to this examination. and knowledge they may have, according to the contingent demands of the moment, and in response Although initial database research for academic to the experience offered by the museum” (Hooper- journals on the specific subject of visitors involved Greenhill 2002, p. 5). It seems that even with hard studies dating as far back as the 1950s, much of the numbers, an analysis of simple demographics hardly most recent research (from around 1980 onward) matters. The information provided by museums is not points to a perception that museums themselves are in dependent on demographics as much as it depends on transition. They are no longer simply repositories of a very unique, personal and internal emotional objects and artifacts stored for presentation, posterity experience. and edification. They are expected to engage with the public and compete with the rest of the entertainment Visitors As Consumers industry for tourist dollars and leisure time while maintaining their learning functions. Therefore this Market researchers who study the psychological review focuses on the most recent articles available dimensions of consumer behavior have worked out that form a cohesive architecture on the subject. It some interesting methods of uncovering what should be noted that this study is not all-inclusive happens when consumers make their choices, even since a few cross-referenced articles could not be when they are not aware of their own motivations. located and so have not been included. One method which could have interesting The User Group applications in a museum context is known as ZMET (Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique), patented Since museum visitors are not a part of an by Gerald Zaltman, a professor at Harvard Business occupational group, they are most widely School. Zaltman claims that 95 percent of the investigated based on non-work characteristics of thinking that underlies behavior is unconscious to the people usually in their role as consumers where purchaser. His interview method uses photographs demographic variables are only considered to ensure chosen by the interviewee, storytelling, a laddering that the people studied are comparable. Museums interview technique, and a creative montage to appeal to the public on every level, so it is recognized surface and interpret the metaphors that embody the that when people are clustered into groups and assumptions underlying the interviewee's decision labeled, the convenient fictions used for the purpose process (Zaltman 1997). of analysis and planning often reinforce stereotypes and create a tendency to remove the diversity Information can be a commodity but museum inherent in a unique perspective or life-style most visitor consumer behavior is stimulated by important to those interested in the more personal information in context as presented in exhibitions in impact of museum information on the individual. the same way advertising promotes a feeling where customers are said to enjoy learning about a product The material created by demographic observations even without an immediate purchase in mind. Buying on museum visitors at all times of the week and day a book, purchasing artworks, posters, or mementos of by several different studies implies in general that experience, and returning or recommending the visitors are noticeably older, predominantly female experience to others are offshoots of a visitor’s and predominantly white and well-dressed. There encounter with information that created a new were three social arrangements in evidence: couples, awareness, a new need, or generated a new Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 3 connection. statement, which would be heresy even twenty years ago, is now accepted common wisdom. Visitor engagement demands entertainment because the public increasingly views museums as a kind of Visitors As Learners tourist destination with the accompanying expectations (Gardner 1986). In this sense the Nineteenth century museums were premised on the museum becomes a kind of amusement park shaped communication and learning theory where the by the visitor’s desire for enlightenment in an visitor/learner was passive, understood knowledge to entertaining format. The information encountered be objective and information-based, and accepted the turns into a two-way conversation between the museum as an authority on that information. That curator and the visitor, with the visitor looking to premise as undergone a radical shift in the last decade construct meaning from what they see in relation to due to the changing desires of museum visitors. Now their background, and the curator looking to influence when people visit museums as students their behavior this interpretation by constructing knowledge through is geared to engage with a set of ideas or objects. objects, narratives and histories. 2

In a presentation given in March 20021, Zahava Stephen Weil in an essay covering museums and Doering, Director of Institutional Studies at the their visitors states that “...objects displayed in the Smithsonian, argued that rather than communicating museum do not have any fixed or inherent meaning.” information, the “most satisfying exhibitions for Objects do not themselves represent facts. But visitors are those that resonate with their experience “meaning making,” or the “process by which those and provide new information in ways that confirm objects acquire meaning for individual members of and enrich their [own] view of the world.” She the public will in each case involve the specific believes this is why people visit, and what they seek: memories, expertise, viewpoint, assumptions and something new that enforces what they already know connections that the particular individual brings.” [emphasis added]. A colleague of hers goes on to (Weil 2004, p. 212 and Silverman, 1994, p. 162). state that museums, upon close examination, turn out Weil credits the “almost unparalleled ability of to not be particularly effective in accurately objects to stimulate so diverse a range of responses” conveying detailed factual knowledge. (Pekarik as a gift to the visitor. “Some museums are 1999). celebratory, others seek to console. Some try to stimulate a sense of community, others to capture The point of this is to emphasize that although a memory. And some simply offer the important visitor might derive considerable personal enrichment refreshment to be found in breaking the grip of from viewing objects, they may never improve their everyday routine.” (Weil 2004, p. 72) As celebrants ability to distinguish between them as a result of the museum visitor seeks connection with the past or visiting the museum where they are displayed––nor is with one another. Weil emphasizes this by listing that likely to be their goal. Again this harkens back to some figures concerning attendance at the Case and the myths of information and information Smithsonian and his reflections on these numbers is seeking (with his reference to Brenda Dervin’s 1976 edifying: landmark study in the development of user-centered theories and everyday information needs). The Of sixteen thousand visitors interviewed between second myth states having information is not the 1994 and 1996—visitors who had come on their same as being informed, and interpreting information own, not as a part of any organized school or is “based on an internal, rather than external, locus of other tour—only 14 percent had come by control.” (Case 2002, p. 8) themselves. For the other 86 percent, their museum visits were interwoven with a social Visitors As Celebrants experience. As Deborah Perry, Lisa Roberts, Kris Morrissey, and Louis Silverman have Current articles in museum science will all at least pointed out (Journal of Museum Education, fall briefly mention how it is unduly restrictive to 1996), “People often come [to museums] with conceive of the museum’s relationship to the public their families and other social groups, and they purely in terms of educational potential. That often come first and foremost for social reasons. Although visitors say they come to museums to 1 Doering, Z. (2002) Visitors to the Smithsonian: A summary of research & implications. Smithsonian 2 For an excellent review of this trend see the New York Institution. Times article Brooklyn Museum, Newly Refurbished, Seeks www.tepapa.govt.nz/our_resources/National_Services/New an Audience by Randy Kennedy and Carol Vogel, April 12, slink/TePapaPPT_presentation.pdf 2004. http://tinyurl.com/2lxft Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 4

learn things, more often than not the social numenous response better than others (i.e., sites that agenda takes precedence. Quality family time, a focus on human suffering and sacrifice foster the date, something to do with out-of-town guests, a strongest affective response). They provide examples place to hang out with friends: these are some of of three aspects of the impulse that should be studied the primary reasons people chose to go to in greater detail in all locations. These aspects are (1) museums. (p. 67) deep engagement and/or transcendence (loss of sense of time); (2) empathy (imagining earlier times, Popular Themes people’s feelings, experiences, hardships); and (3) awe or reverence (being on hallowed ground, The Numen Impulse in Museum Visitors spiritual communion with hallowed objects, a feeling of pilgrimage) (pgs. 67, 68). In an exploratory survey conducted by ethnologists Catherine Cameron and John Gatewood, the idea that The article ties in concerns about trying to teach humans have a desire to make a personal connection versus providing an experience and mentions the with the past is called “numen-seeking.” Although visitor goals of creating their own “personal heritage” there has been a boom in the interest in collecting, since a recent survey of more than 1,800 Americans historical novels and re-enactment, and retro-fashion concluded that the history people like best is one home design and furnishing, what is collectively related to their own personal connection to a family, a called the heritage movement (or nostalgia craze place or an ethnic past. (p .72). depending on your perspective), museum professionals claim to know relatively little about The Visitor “Consumes” Information people’s motivations for visiting historical sites and museums. In their article they mention that despite Prentice, Davies and Beeho (1997) paid routine marketing analysis and demographic particular attention to how people try to “consume” assessments, probing interest in historical sites is not cultural attractions using a sample survey in often done (Cameron and Gatewood 2003). Edinburgh, a large city studded with opportunities for visiting museums free of charge. The paper is very There are, however, theories many of which, long and detailed and includes discussion of according to the authors appear to be based on constraints on potential visits (or visitors compared to subjective impression rather than empirical research. non-visitors which is also mentioned in detail by In their paper they cite that recent heritage tourism Prince (1990), but which is outside the scope of this research draws on social-psychological models of review). They challenge the old “linear model of affective and cognitive needs. Their own statistical consumption” with consumers seen as “information analysis reveals one important finding not well processors” along with cognitive theory dominated documented in the heritage-tourism literature but co- by business school thinking. They say, exists with other interests, needs and desires. “Time travel may function a little like foreign travel in that Overall, the study of consumption has moved some people wish to make a more personal and from a micro (economic or information emotional connection with a time/place...This desire processing) perspective to a macro perspective for an affective connection with an earlier time is where consumers are seen to be socially termed ‘numen seeking’” (p. 56). The characteristics constructed...Competing attitude models abound; of this is primarily a desire for a sense of (or feeling of particular interest to goal-directed behavior for) a period in time, but correlates with an interest and museum studies is the model of Trying to in authentic history, a personal connection with Consume. (p. 47). people or place and a way to create memories. Further investigation of their report makes Cameron and Gatewood say the numen concept has apparent, after many tables and statistics, that what not been empirically investigated before but there are visitors are trying to consume is the “Ideal Day Out” conceptual references to it primarily in the field of and what they desire is not a stable set of beliefs, but religious studies. A current proponent of “numinous “meanings” (it is assumed as opposed to things) awareness” is cited as Alondra Oubré who in 1997 people can link to their lives, or interpret their lives explored the evolution of the numinous mind in by. (p. 60). prehistory and defines it as “the capacity to mediate Interestingly, the Prince study suggests that between self and others, time and space.” (p. 66). “...museums as exhibition spaces are not associated Basically it describes the power of objects to awaken by the public in any way with commercial operations. deep emotions, even elicit tears. They acknowledge Their linking with commercial exhibitions is that obviously some museums and sites create a marginal in the extreme.” (Prince 1990, p. 161) This Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 5 might suggest that while behaviorists may consider Gallery Information Systems, to more general museum visitors as consumers, that is not how they Guidepoint Systems (which help visitors navigate the would probably perceive themselves. Speaking of museum space). Some specific needs were found perceptions, which Prince devotes quite a few pages after analyzing the enquiries to the museum. These to, despite both museums and libraries being were broken down to type of inquiry, essential depositories of information and beneficiaries of a features, and enquiries by department. Of the object considerable degree of public support for related questions were queries related to a specific maintenance and development, the public “clearly object or object type. “Less common were queries differentiates between [their] roles and therefore relating to people, places, detailed descriptive aspects between them as institutions and as visit and administrative matters (acquisition, loan, etc.). destinations.” (pp.161-162). Other aspects including dates, associated events and bibliographic categories had a low incidence.” (p. Prince conducts several studies on what visitor’s 147). Booth provides his own review of literature want and suggests that museums are able to provide a primarily outlining projects that employ screen-based multifaceted experience involving both physical systems to transmit information about temporary relaxation and intellectual exploration (which is again exhibits since an analysis of the use of these systems referenced and expounded on by Combs (1999)). He convinces science museums that interactive access also solicits suggestions for improvement to increase provides “a significant means of communication.” likelihood of a museum visit. His analytical abilities (p.149). and empirical study skills are impressive, but this material is heavily reliant on predefined social groups Booth validated and identified three different (such as The Salaried Middle Class, The Working groups of visitors and information needs: Class and the Intermediate Group) which has potential to become dated very fast as trends, The general visitor who requires information on economics and attitudes change frequently within opening hours, prices, the Museum’s facilities, society. In addition, many of the visitor “desires” he what’s on, notable exhibits and navigation aids in examines are not for more or different information the Museum; the educational visitor who but for convenience or services, i.e., longer hours, requires (in addition to the above information for better catering, more advertising, more inviting general visitors) more detailed information to exhibitions, etc., rather than a stated desire for more help plan visits...and project based information; information on a particular topic. The exception is a and finally the specialist visitor who requires (in general desire for workshops, but this is mentioned addition to the information for general visitors) without any additional discussion. (Prince 1990, p. detailed information concerning the Museum’s 165). collections and access to its expertise, together with links to other sources of information. (p. Looking for Images and Objects 150) Overall what emerges for Booth is that in order to No museum visitor studies are better able to get to meet the visitor’s needs for specific information on the dirt on visitor information seeking behavior than objects, a range of different information outlets is those done on science and technology museums. One required. These outlets would cater to the browsing, study that is central to this specialty is Booth’s scanning and serendipity of museum visitor behavior analysis of the London Science Museum where and be located not only throughout the museum itself providing better information is identified as a where they can be accessed at point of need, but also priority. A science or technology museum’s for orientation inside entrances, in information obligation is to interpret contemporary science centers for further research, and external access to “...often in areas where the objects themselves are not support planning, questions and ‘virtual visits’ (in self-explanatory.” The demographics at these addition to the enlightenment and entertainment museum types shift dramatically as well with “75% required of more humanities focused museums). He of visitors either school children or family and friends acknowledges it is important to match technology to accompanied by children...with a maximum of 10% the audience, to promote several linked databases of of ‘specialists and enthusiasts’. These groups form museum information, and to investigate remote well defined constituencies which would be expected access in greater detail. Future improvements in to have discrete information requirements.” (Booth technology to transmit content where “geographically 1998, pgs. 139-140). dispersed content” can be brought together to serve both main groups of visitors and provide for those A survey of 50 in-depth interviews accompanies the with language difficulties or disabilities is also Booth study and evaluates everything from the discussed. A point needs to be made here that this is Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 6 the only paper found in this review that specifically period of education, and those visiting in a group acknowledges the needs of disabled or the language of two adults to make greater use of barriers of non-English speaking visitors. interpretation. Overall, then, the “effectiveness” of interpretation seems to be the result of an Visitor’s Use of Interpretive Media interaction between visitor and interpretive medium, rather than being due solely to the This theme concerns visitor interactions with properties of the medium. (p. 146) exhibitions (interpretation centers), textual material in outdoor panels, stereo-audio tours, and general Targeted information as a response to visitor interest expressed in using interpretive media. In a information seeking is money well spent since “summative evaluation” done by Duncan Light which visitors do make use of it at some level, but the focused on interpretive media at heritage sites, educational impact of interpretation remains in possible explanations for differing behavior is question. More specifics on targeted information as it discussed, highlighting both the attributes of the applies to objects in an art museum is discussed by media and the visitors. When studying interpretive Edwards, Loomis and Fusco (1990). Their study media “...it is recognized that the effectiveness of covered a number of questions about visitor interpretation is a concept that is both ambiguous and experiences and the value they placed on difficult to define.” (Light 1995, p. 134), but his accompanying interpretive information and aids. conclusions are interesting and the article is worth They identified four clusters of perceived needs: (1) reading in its entirety for anyone interested in visitor information on how to look at art, (2) interpretive behavior when encountering supplemental materials. aids, (3) historical background for viewing art, and (4) characteristics visitors want to know about works Most interesting of his explanations for the of art. Although this study is not cited directly by difference in attention and behavior is that the Light, it remains part of a high-level view of a very quantity of information provided is important. important topic related to information needs and Packages of information which can be read quickly, expectations. exhibitions with less than 30 displays and short audio monologues require considerably less investment of Current and Future Trends time and effort prevent visitor fatigue. (p.143). Bringing the Museum Home Also of interest was the examination of quality of text using the Fry Test of readability (after Fry, Hosting a remote access “virtual visit” is not 3 1968 ), and based on sentence length and number of limited to the realm of science and technology syllables in a passage of 100 words a methodology museums. While Booth goes into detail about remote which could be helpful when considering future access for visit planning, technical enquiries, and trends in handheld and computer screen presentation delivery mechanisms particular to his specialty, many of interpretive media (see below). museum researchers are finding ways to aid their visitor base by providing them information that The indications of this study suggest that “a desire would convince them, in their wide range of leisure for understanding and informal learning is an consumption activity choices, that the ideal day important requirement of [their] leisure time.” (Light would be had at their specific museum, with the 1995, p. 144) This bridges perceived gaps between caveat that if you can’t experience a real visit, you those who insist entertainment and leisure hold no can still look, learn and often even purchase, further components of information seeking and those who addressing the consumption and curiosity demands of see information seeking as a holistic aspect of our museum visitors. daily life. In his conclusions he asserts, Having a website violates some of the motivations ...visitors do not all respond to different for visiting museums. For instance, it is difficult to interpretive media in the same way. Some visitor create true numenous experience or social analog groups are more likely to seek out information, because of the barrier of screen and machine. particularly the more detailed presentations.... However, many museums see it as the only way to For such visitors learning, understanding and reach communities of visitors limited by geography, appreciation would seem to be especially time or ability and answer their specific information important requirements. ...There was also some needs for a non-immersive but still playful, tendency for older visitors, those with a longer enlightening and entertaining experience.

3 Fry, E.A. (1968) A readability formula which saves time, Journal of Reading, 2(7), 513-516, 575-578. Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 7

Of course, websites as sources of information school” museum visitor behavior surveys are still indicate different behavior patterns, require different reliable, they leave room for improvement. models and address different needs. As Case notes, “...entertainment-seeking is more of a ritualized Conclusion behavior that is less goal-directed and more habitual than instrumental use of media (Dozier & Rice, This review of the literature focused on the 1984).” (Case 2002, p. 104). The theoretical analysis information-seeking behavior of museum visitors. It of image retrieval and empirical user studies on has enumerated the issues inherent in studying accessing information in images is helpful here. information science in the context of numative Ornager studies the increasing number of image environments and the difficulties in analyzing databases and internet access to them in areas apart internalized meaning-making. It briefly addressed the from the technical. She reveals there are patterns in conflicts within the information study community the ways queries are expressed: regarding passive information seeking as it concerns entertainment and leisure, and it reflects on what To sum up the requirements, the users want an makes museum visitor information seeking unique interface which provide[s] improved access to from visits conducted artificially through technology. the images, i.e., a lead-in vocabulary. They also require possibilities to broaden or narrowing Determining how best to use this information [sic] their queries, and/or to search from different depends on the goal. If the goal is to address visitor aspects, i.e., to look for related concepts. One attendance (encourage visitor involvement and searching need can be met by browsing access to improve return visitor statistics) then an awareness of images, which will also support a search for the primary motivations and the three specific user types expressional aspect. (Ornager 1997, p. 209). would be necessary and projects for those user groups should be designed with them in mind. If designing Bringing the museum into the home will never and refining new exhibits or interpretive media for a replace a museum visitors’ need for a more visceral more general audience were the goal, then any and physical connection to a place, an object or a project should review how people identify objects, group of like-minded art, history or science how they create their own meanings regardless of enthusiasts. But as each new technology emerges curator perspective, and how they use supplemental (such as hand-held information devices or materials to augment their understanding. “holographic” recreations) the result will be a requirement for museums to respond with broader The most common methods employed in examining avenues for context relevant information when and museum visitors have been the survey, remote where the user needs it most. observation and personal interviews. A thorough study would benefit from multiple methods. Another Studying the Visitor “Cluster” method not mentioned that could prove useful for studying visitors in specific sub-groups or context is Most surveys conducted by museums describe the the focus group interview. Because people often visit kinds of people who visit but do not do much to museums as members of a social group (families, address motivation that suggest typologies (like level students, couples), there is merit in interviewing them of interest, expectations, or commitment visitors may in these groups and understanding their personal have to the museum). A paper examining the Denver descriptions of how they seek information together. Art Museum was published emphasizing a new trend in “how survey data can be analyzed to provide As noted by Lois Silverman, “Given the nature of insights about visitors that go beyond the usual the visit, factors of self-identity, companions, and descriptive summaries of individual survey leisure motivations, it is no wonder that a large questions.” (Edwards, Loomis and Fusco, 1990, p. portion of visitors’ meaning-making is subjective or 21). This type of analytic study uses a cluster analysis “personal.” (Silverman 1995, p. 164). Subjective technique and describes methodology using Likert meaning requires subjective strategies since scales that would be useful in future studies into any reminiscence, imagination and “wonder response” all industry examining visitor behavior. In this particular comprise part of the human impulse for information study responses suggest that involvement level can be as enlightenment. Silverman creates a sense of the an important way to view visitor behavior. The scope of things to come when he concludes museums process of the study overall highlights important must meet a variety of human needs and thereby points that might not have been apparent in a purely “render[ing] fuzzy the distinctions between museums descriptive study, and suggests that while “old and other institutions such as temple, church, school, hospital, and playground.” (p. 168). Museum Visitors and Information-Seeking 8

No matter how you slice and dice the visitor and unique as humanity itself, making their statistics, the idea that permeates the literature and information related behavior reflective and iterative. makes the most basic sense is that every visitor’s Like players both observing and performing in a play, motivations and seeking patterns are still rooted in museum visitor information seeking becomes its own the experience of being human. In that context creative activity when encouraged in an environment museum visitors (those who seek out the collections where creativity is celebrated. and experiences presented by objects and environments created by other humans) are as diverse

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References

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