Appeals to Logos, Ethos, and Pathos

In order to persuade their audiences, writers and speakers use what Aristotle called the appeals: logos, ethos, and pathos. A good argument will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its case.

Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of all time, lived from 384—322 B.C.E.

Speakers and writers appeal to a reader’s sense of logos when they offer clear, reasonable premises and proofs, when they develop ideas with appropriate details, and when they make sure readers can follow the progression of ideas. The message will make sense, and it can be based on facts, statistics, and other empirical and logical evidence. The words logic and logical are derived from logos.

Writers use ethos when they demonstrate that they are credible, good-willed, and knowledgeable about their subjects, and when they connect their thinking to readers’ own ethical or moral beliefs. Ethos is how well the speaker convinces the audience that he or she is qualified to speak on the particular subject. Quintilian, a Roman rhetorician and theorist, wrote that the speaker should be the “good man speaking well.” This emphasis on good character meant that audiences could assume that the speaker has the best intentions and he is searching for the truth about an issue. The word ethical derives from ethos.

PATHOS

When writers draw on the emotions and interests of readers, and highlight them, they use pathos, the most powerful appeal and the most immediate—hence its dominance in advertisements.

Pathos can be in the form of metaphor, simile, a passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust. Pathos can be particularly powerful if used well, but most speeches do not solely rely on pathos. Pathos is most effective when the author uses ethos to connect with an underlying value of the reader.

In order to sway the audience, the speaker may use pathos to evoke feelings of fear, love, sympathy, compassion, pity, envy, anger, hate, or contempt.

Consider Brutus’ words as he explains to the Roman people why the conspirators killed Caesar. His argument appeals for the most part to ethos and logos, and only briefly to pathos.

Brutus in Act III, Scene 2:

Romans, countrymen, and lovers! Hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. Believe me for mine honor, and have respect to mine honor that you may believe. Censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses that you may the better judge. If there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of Caesar's, to him I say that Brutus' love to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.

Had you rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live all free men? As Caesar loved me, I weep for him. As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it. As he was valiant, I honor him. But, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There is tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honor for his valor, and death for his ambition. Who is here so base that would be a bondman? If any, speak—for him have I offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If any, speak—for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country? If any, speak—for him have I offended. I pause for a reply.

Then none have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to Brutus. The question of his death is enrolled in the Capitol. His glory not extenuated wherein he was worthy, nor his offenses enforced for which he suffered death.

Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony, who, though he had no hand in his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying—a place in the commonwealth— as which of you shall not? With this I depart: that, as I slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have the same dagger for myself when it shall please my country to need my death.