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An Introduction to Word Classes

Words are fundamental units in every sentence, so we will begin by looking at these. Consider the words in the following sentence: My brother drives a big car.

We can tell almost instinctively that brother and car are the same type of word, and also that brother and drives are different types of words. By this we mean that brother and car belong to the same word class. Similarly, when we recognize that brother and drives are different types, we mean that they belong to different word classes. We recognize seven MAJOR word classes:

Verb be, drive, grow, sing, think

Noun brother, car, David, house, London

Determiner a, an, my, some, the

Adjective big, foolish, happy, talented, tidy

Adverb happily, recently, soon, then, there

Preposition at, in, of, over, with

Conjunction and, because, but, if, or

Criteria for Word Classes

We began by grouping words more or less on the basis of our instincts about English. We somehow "feel" that brother and car belong to the same class, and that brother and drives belong to different classes. However, in order to conduct an informed study of grammar, we need a much more reliable and more systematic method than this for distinguishing between word classes.

We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a word: 1. The meaning of the word 2. The form or `shape' of the word 3. The position or `environment' of the word in a sentence

1 1. Meaning

Using this criterion, we generalize about the kind of meanings that words convey. For example, we could group together the words brother and car, as well as David, house, and London, on the basis that they all refer to people, places, or things. In fact, this has traditionally been a popular approach to determining members of the class of nouns. It has also been applied to verbs, by saying that they denote some kind of "action", like cook, drive, eat, run, shout, walk.

This approach has certain merits, since it allows us to determine word classes by replacing words in a sentence with words of "similar" meaning. For instance, in the sentence My son cooks dinner every Sunday, we can replace the verb cooks with other "action" words: My son cooks dinner every Sunday. My son prepares dinner every Sunday. My son eats dinner every Sunday. My son misses dinner every Sunday.

On the basis of this replacement test, we can conclude that all of these words belong to the same class, that of "action" words, or verbs.

However, this approach also has some serious limitations. The definition of a noun as a word denoting a person, place, or thing, is wholly inadequate, since it excludes abstract nouns such as time, imagination, repetition, wisdom, and chance. Similarly, to say that verbs are "action" words excludes a verb like be, as in I want to be happy. What "action" does be refer to here? So although this criterion has a certain validity when applied to some words, we need other, more stringent criteria as well.

2. The form or `shape' of a word Some words can be assigned to a word class on the basis of their form or `shape'. For example, many nouns have a characteristic -tion ending: action, condition, contemplation, demonstration, organization, repetition

2 Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible: acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible, suitable, terrible

Many words also take what is called INFLECTIONS, that is, regular changes in their form under certain conditions. For example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually by adding an -s at the end: car -- cars dinner -- dinners book -- books

Verbs also take inflections: walk -- walks -- walked – walking

3. The position or `environment' of a word in a sentence

This criterion refers to where words typically occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words which typically occur near to them. We can illustrate the use of this criterion using a simple example. Compare the following: [1] I cook dinner every Sunday [2] The cook is on holiday

In [1], cook is a verb, but in [2], it is a noun. We can see that it is a verb in [1] because it takes the inflections which are typical of verbs: I cook dinner every Sunday. I cooked dinner last Sunday. I am cooking dinner today. My son cooks dinner every Sunday.

And we can see that cook is a noun in [2] because it takes the plural -s inflection The cooks are on holiday.

If we really need to, we can also apply a replacement test, based on our first criterion, replacing cook in each sentence with "similar" words:

3 I cook dinner every Sunday. The cook is on holiday. I eat dinner every Sunday. The chef is on holiday. I prepare dinner every Sunday. The gardener is on holiday. I miss dinner every Sunday. The doctor is on holiday.

Notice that we can replace verbs with verbs, and nouns with nouns, but we cannot replace verbs with nouns or nouns with verbs: *I chef dinner every Sunday. *The eat is on holiday.

It should be clear from this discussion that there is no one-to-one relation between words and their classes. Cook can be a verb or a noun -- it all depends on how the word is used. In fact, many words can belong to more than one word class. Here are some more examples: She looks very pale. (verb) She's very proud of her looks. (noun) He drives a fast car. (adjective) He drives very fast on the motorway. (adverb) Turn on the light. (noun) I'm trying to light the fire. (verb) I usually have a light lunch. (adjective)

You will see here that each italicized word can belong to more than one word class. However, they only belong to one word class at a time, depending on how they are used. So it is quite wrong to say, for example, "cook is a verb". Instead, we have to say something like "cook is a verb in the sentence I cook dinner every Sunday, but it is a noun in The cook is on holiday".

Of the three criteria for word classes that we have discussed here, the second and third - the form of words, and how they are positioned or how they function in sentences will be emphasized.

4 Open and Closed Word Classes

Some word classes are OPEN, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new ideas are explored. In the late twentieth century, for example, developments in computer technology have given rise to many new nouns: Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email, newsgroup, bitmap, modem, multimedia

New verbs have also been introduced: download, upload, reboot, right-click, double-click

The adjective and adverb classes can also be expanded by the addition of new words, though less prolifically.

On the other hand, we never invent new prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions. These classes include words like of, the, and but. They are called CLOSED word classes because they are made up of finite sets of words which are never expanded (though their members may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time). The subclass of pronouns, within the open noun class, is also closed.

Words in an open class are known as open-class items. Words in a closed class are known as closed-class items.

5 Nouns

Nouns are commonly thought of as "naming" words, and specifically as the names of "people, places, or things". Nouns such as John, London, and computer certainly fit this description, but the class of nouns is much broader than this. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as birth, happiness, evolution, technology, management, imagination, revenge, politics, hope, cookery, sport, literacy....

Because of this enormous diversity of reference, it is not very useful to study nouns solely in terms of their meaning. It is much more fruitful to consider them from the point of view of their formal characteristics.

Characteristics of Nouns

Many nouns can be recognized by their endings. Typical noun endings include:

-er/-or actor, painter, plumber, writer -ism criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism -ist artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist -ment arrangement, development, establishment, government -tion foundation, organization, recognition, supposition

Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms. The plural of regular nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular:

Singular Plural car cars dog dogs house houses

However, there are many irregular nouns which do not form the plural in this way:

Singular Plural

6 man men child children sheep sheep

The distinction between singular and plural is known as NUMBER CONTRAST.

We can recognize many nouns because they often have the, a, or an in front of them:

the car an artist a surprise the egg a review

These words are called determiners, which is the next word class we will look at.

Nouns may take an -'s ("apostrophe s") or GENITIVE MARKER to indicate possession: the boy's pen a spider's web my girlfriend's brother John's house

If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the plural, then the genitive marker appears only as an apostrophe after the plural form: the boys' pens the spiders' webs the Browns' house

The genitive marker should not be confused with the 's form of contracted verbs, as in John's a good boy (= John is a good boy). Nouns often co-occur without a genitive marker between them: rally car

7 table top cheese grater University entrance examination

Common and Proper Nouns

Nouns which name specific people or places are known as PROPER NOUNS. John Mary London France

Many names consist of more than one word: John Wesley Queen Mary South Africa Atlantic Ocean Buckingham Palace

Proper nouns may also refer to times or to dates in the calendar: January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, Thanksgiving

All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS.

Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone unique, they do not normally take plurals. However, they may do so, especially when number is being specifically referred to: there are three Davids in my class we met two Christmases ago

For the same reason, names of people and places are not normally preceded by determiners the or a/an, though they can be in certain circumstances:

8 it's nothing like the America I remember. my brother is an Einstein at maths.

Exercise #1 Identify all the nouns in the following extract. Underline all the words that you think are nouns.

The major thoroughfares were already lit by the new gas, but this was

not the bright and even glare of the late Victorian period: the light flared

and diminished, casting a flickering light across the streets and lending

to the houses and pedestrians a faintly unreal or even theatrical quality.

Count and Non-count Nouns Common nouns are either count or non-count. COUNT nouns can be "counted", as follows: one pen, two pens, three pens, four pens...

NON-COUNT nouns, on the other hand, cannot be counted in this way: one software, *two softwares, *three softwares, *four softwares...

From the point of view of grammar, this means that count nouns have singular as well as plural forms, whereas non-count nouns have only a singular form.

It also means that non-count nouns do not take a/an before them:

Count Non-count a pen *a software

In general, non-count nouns are considered to refer to indivisible wholes. For this reason, they are sometimes called MASS nouns.

9 Some common nouns may be either count or non-count, depending on the kind of reference they have. For example, in I made a cake, cake is a count noun, and the a before it indicates singular number. However, in I like cake, the reference is less specific. It refers to "cake in general", and so cake is non-count in this sentence.

Exercise #2 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined noun is count or non-count.

1. The board will meet tomorrow to consider your application. a. Count b. Non-count 2. The information you gave to the detective was very misleading. a. Count b. Non-count 3. I thought it was a strange comment to make. a. Count b. Non-count 4. Smoking damages your health. a. Count b. Non-count 5. Jean is studying music at college. a. Count b. Non-count 6. I'll have a brandy, please. a. Count b. Non-count

10 Pronouns Pronouns are a major subclass of nouns. We call them a subclass of nouns because they can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence:

Noun Pronoun John got a new job ~He got a new job Children should watch less television ~They should watch less television

In these examples the pronouns have the same reference as the nouns which they replace. In each case, they refer to people, and so we call them PERSONAL PRONOUNS. However, we also include in this group the pronoun it, although this pronoun does not usually refer to a person. There are three personal pronouns, and each has a singular and a plural form:

Person Singular Plural 1st I we 2nd you you 3rd he/she/it they

These pronouns also have another set of forms, which we show here:

Person Singular Plural 1st me us 2nd you you 3rd him/her/it them

The first set of forms (I, you, he...) exemplifies the SUBJECTIVE CASE, and the second set (me, you, him...) exemplifies the OBJECTIVE CASE. The distinction between the two cases relates to how they can be used in sentences. For instance, in our first example above, we say that he can replace John

John got a new job ~He got a new job

But he cannot replace John in I gave John a new job. Here, we have to use the objective form him: I gave him a new job.

11 Other Types of Pronoun

As well as personal pronouns, there are many other types, which we summarize here.

Pronoun Type Members of the Subclass Example mine, yours, his, hers, ours, Possessive The white car is mine theirs myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, He injured himself playing Reflexive ourselves, yourselves, football themselves Reciprocal each other, one another They really hate each other Relative that, which, who, whose, whom, The book that you gave me where, when was really boring Demonstrative this, that, these, those This is a new car who, what, why, where, when, Interrogative What did he say to you? whatever Indefinite anything, anybody, anyone, There's something in my something, somebody, someone, shoe nothing, nobody, none, no one

Case and number distinctions do not apply to all pronoun types. In fact, they apply only to personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, and reflexive pronouns. It is only in these types, too, that gender differences are shown (personal he/she, possessive his/hers, reflexive himself/herself). All other types are unvarying in their form.

Many of the pronouns listed above also belong to another word class - the class of determiners. They are pronouns when they occur independently, that is, without a noun following them, as in This is a new car. But when a noun follows them - This car is new - they are determiners. We will look at determiners in the next section.

A major difference between pronouns and nouns generally is that pronouns do not take the or a/an before them. Further, pronouns do not take adjectives before them, except in very restricted constructions involving some indefinite pronouns (a little

12 something, a certain someone). While the class of nouns as a whole is an open class, the subclass of pronouns is closed.

Exercise #3 In each of the following sentences, a pronoun has been underlined. What type of pronoun is it?

1. Let's contact one another once we've made some a. Personal progress. b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 2. She wants to do it herself. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 3. I can't find them. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 4. I can't believe it's finally ours. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 5. The girl who usually cuts my hair has won the lottery. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite

13 f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 6. He wants to go to Scarborough. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 7. Why are you shouting at me? a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 8. Jim gave me the last copy. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative 9. Nobody said a word all night. a. Personal b. Reflexive c. Possessive d. Relative e. Indefinite f. Reciprocal g. Interrogative

Numerals Numerals include all numbers, whether as words or as digits. They may be divided into two major types. CARDINAL numerals include words like: naught, zero, one, two, 3, fifty-six, 100, a thousand ORDINAL numerals include first, 2nd, third, fourth, 500th We classify numerals as a subclass of nouns because in certain circumstances they can take plurals:

14 five twos are ten he's in his eighties They may also take the: the fourth of July a product of the 1960s And some plural numerals can take an adjective before them, just like other nouns: the house was built in the late 1960s he's in his early twenties the temperature is in the high nineties In each of our examples, the numerals occur independently, that is, without a noun following them. In these positions, we can classify them as a type of noun because they behave in much the same way as nouns do. Notice, for example, that we can replace the numerals in our examples with common nouns:

he is in his eighties ~he is in his bedroom the fourth of July ~the beginning of July a product of the 1960s ~a product of the revolution

Numerals do not always occur independently. They often occur before a noun, as in one day three pages the fourth day of July

The Gender of Nouns The gender of nouns plays an important role in the grammar of some languages. In French, for instance, a masculine noun can only take the masculine form of an adjective. If the noun is feminine, then it will take a different form of the same adjective - its feminine form.

In English, however, nouns are not in themselves masculine or feminine. They do not have grammatical gender, though they may refer to male or female people or animals:

the waiter is very prompt ~the waitress is very prompt

15 the lion roars at night ~the lioness roars at night

These distinctions in spelling reflect differences in sex, but they have no grammatical implications. For instance, we use the same form of an adjective whether we are referring to a waiter or to a waitress:

an efficient waiter ~an efficient waitress

Similarly, the natural distinctions reflected in such pairs as brother/sister, nephew/niece, and king/queen have no consequence for grammar. While they refer to specific sexes, these words are not masculine or feminine in themselves.

However, gender is significant in the choice of a personal pronoun to replace a noun:

John is late. ~He is late. Mary is late. ~She is late.

Here the choice of pronoun is determined by the sex of the person being referred to. However, this distinction is lost in the plural:

John and Mary are late. ~They are late John and David are late. ~They are late Mary and Jane are late. ~They are late

Gender differences are also manifested in possessive pronouns (his/hers) and in reflexive pronouns (himself/herself).

When the notion of sex does not apply -- when we refer to inanimate objects, for instance -- we use the pronoun it:

the letter arrived late ~it arrived late

Determiners Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called DETERMINERS. They indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. The determiner the is known as the DEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used before both singular and plural nouns:

16 Singular Plural the taxi the taxis the paper the papers the apple the apples

The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the INDEFINITE ARTICLE. It is used when the noun is singular: a taxi a paper an apple The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others: any taxi that question those apples this paper some apple whatever taxi whichever taxi Many determiners express quantity: all examples both parents many people each person every night several computers few excuses enough water no escape

Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a numeral. We look at numerals as determiners in the next section.

Numerals and Determiners

17 Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals express quantity: one book two books twenty books In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence: first impressions second chance third prize The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as first is related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they include last, latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners: next week last orders previous engagement subsequent developments When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of nouns. And like nouns, they can take determiners: the two of us the first of many They can even have numerals as determiners before them: five twos are ten In this example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.

Exercise #4 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined word is a numeral or a determiner:

1. Five twos are ten. a. Numeral b. Determiner 2. Seven is my lucky number. a. Numeral b. Determiner

18 3. Each team consists of eleven players. a. Numeral b. Determiner 4. They've invited me to a second interview. a. Numeral b. Determiner 5. He was the last to arrive, as usual. a. Numeral b. Determiner

Pronouns and Determiners There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns. Many words can be both:

Pronoun Determiner This is a very boring book. This book is very boring. That's an excellent film. That film is excellent.

As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more independent than this. They function in much the same way as nouns, and they can be replaced by nouns in the sentences above:

This is a very boring book. ~Ivanhoe is a very boring book. That's an excellent film. ~Witness is an excellent film.

On the other hand, when these words are determiners, they cannot be replaced by nouns:

This book is very boring. ~*Ivanhoe book is very boring. That film is excellent. ~*Witness film is excellent.

The personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc) cannot be determiners. This is also true of the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, and theirs). However, these pronouns do have corresponding forms which are determiners:

Possessive Pronoun Determiner The white car is mine. My car is white. Yours is the blue coat. Your coat is blue. The car in the garage is his/hers. His/her car is in the garage.

19 David's house is big, but ours is bigger. Our house is bigger than David's. Theirs is the house on the left. Their house is on the left.

The definite and the indefinite articles can never be pronouns. They are always determiners.

Exercise #5 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the highlighted word is a determiner or a pronoun: 1. These questions are easy. a. Pronoun b. Determiner 2. Is this yours? a. Pronoun b. Determiner 3. Can I borrow some sugar? a. Pronoun b. Determiner 4. This play of yours - what's it about? a. Pronoun b. Determiner 5. These are really tasty. a. Pronoun b. Determiner

The Ordering of Determiners Determiners occur before nouns, and they indicate the kind of reference which the nouns have. Depending on their relative position before a noun, we distinguish three classes of determiners.

Predeterminer Central Determiner Postdeterminer Noun I met all my many friends

A sentence like this is somewhat unusual, because it is rare for all three determiner slots to be filled in the same sentence. Generally, only one or two slots are filled.

Predeterminers

20 Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows them, and they are of three major types: 1. "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times: twice my salary double my salary ten times my salary 2. Fractions half my salary one-third my salary 3. The words all and both: all my salary both my salaries

Predeterminers do not normally co-occur: *all half my salary

Central Determiners The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are the most common central determiners: all the book half a chapter As many of our previous examples show, the word my can also occupy the central determiner slot. This is equally true of the other possessives: all your money all his/her money all our money all their money The demonstratives, too, are central determiners: all these problems twice that size four times this amount

Postdeterminer Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the Postdeterminer slot: 21 the two children his fourth birthday This applies also to general ordinals: my next project our last meeting your previous remark her subsequent letter

22 Other quantifying expressions are also post determiners: my many friends our several achievements the few friends that I have

Unlike Predeterminers, post determiners can co-occur: my next two projects several other people

Exercise #6 Identify all the determiners in each of the following sentences. Underline all the words that you think are determiners. 1. I'll just have half a cup. 2. She calls her two children twice a week. 3. Your photograph is in all the papers. 4. Both these books were published last year. 5. Other people get double the amount we get. 6. I really need a new computer.

23 Verbs

Verbs have traditionally been defined as "action" words or "doing" words. The verb in the following sentence is rides: Paul rides a bicycle.

Here, the verb rides certainly denotes an action which Paul performs - the action of riding a bicycle. However, there are many verbs which do not denote an action at all. For example, in Paul seems unhappy, we cannot say that the verb seems denotes an action. We would hardly say that Paul is performing any action when he seems unhappy. So the notion of verbs as "action" words is somewhat limited.

We can achieve a more robust definition of verbs by looking first at their formal features.

The Base Form

Here are some examples of verbs in sentences: [1] She travels to work by train. [2] David sings in the choir. [3] We walked five miles to a garage. [4] I cooked a meal for the family.

Notice that in [1] and [2], the verbs have an -s ending, while in [3] and [4], they have an -ed ending. These endings are known as INFLECTIONS, and they are added to the BASE FORM of the verb. In [1], for instance, the -s inflection is added to the base form travel. Certain endings are characteristic of the base forms of verbs:

Ending Base Form -ate concentrate, demonstrate, illustrate -ify clarify, dignify, magnify -ise/-ize baptize, conceptualize, realise

24 Past and Present Forms When we refer to a verb in general terms, we usually cite its base form, as in "the verb travel", "the verb sing". We then add inflections to the base form as required.

Base Form + Inflection [1] She travel + s to work by train [2] David sing + s in the choir [3] We walk + ed five miles to a garage [4] I cook + ed a meal for the whole family

These inflections indicate TENSE. The -s inflection indicates the PRESENT TENSE, and the -ed inflection indicates the PAST TENSE.

Verb endings also indicate PERSON. Recall that when we looked at nouns and pronouns, we saw that there are three persons, each with a singular and a plural form. These are shown in the table below.

Person Singular Plural 1st Person I we 2nd person you you 3rd Person he/she/John/the dog they/the dogs

In sentence [1], She travels to work by train, we have a third person singular pronoun she, and the present tense ending -s. However, if we replace she with a plural pronoun, then the verb will change: [1] She travels to work by train. [1a] They travel to work by train.

The verb travel in [1a] is still in the present tense, but it has changed because the pronoun in front of it has changed. This correspondence between the pronoun (or noun) and the verb is called AGREEMENT or CONCORD. Agreement applies only to verbs in the present tense. In the past tense, there is no distinction between verb forms: she travelled/they travelled.

25

Exercise #7 Identify all the verbs in the following extract. Underline all the words that you think are verbs; they will appear in the box below. Her pace slowed and an ache spread from between her shoulders. Vapours swirled and banked; the light of on-coming headlights drained out of the car. [...] Sodium street lamps burned phosphorescent holes in the fog, but as she turned off Main Street to the cottage she noticed the one which illuminated the alley was out.

The Infinitive Form The INFINITIVE form of a verb is the form which follows to:

to ask to protect to believe to sing to cry to talk to go to wish

This form is indistinguishable from the base form. Indeed, many people cite this form when they identify a verb, as in "This is the verb to be", although to is not part of the verb.

Infinitives with to are referred to specifically as TO-INFINITIVES, in order to distinguish them from BARE INFINITIVES, in which to is absent:

To-infinitive Bare infinitive Help me to open the gate. Help me open the gate.

More Verb Forms: -ing and -ed So far we have looked at three verb forms: the present form, the past form, and the infinitive/base form. Verbs have two further forms which we will look at now.

26 [1] The old lady is writing a play. [2] The film was produced in Hollywood.

The verb form writing in [1] is known as the -ing form, or the -ING PARTICIPLE form. In [2], the verb form produced is called the -ed form, or -ED PARTICIPLE form.

Many so-called -ed participle forms do not end in -ed at all: The film was written by John Brown. The film was bought by a British company. The film was made in Hollywood.

All of these forms are called -ed participle forms, despite their various endings. The term "-ed participle form" is simply a cover term for all of these forms.

The -ed participle form should not be confused with the -ed inflection which is used to indicate the past tense of many verbs.

We have now looked at all five verb forms. By way of summary, let us bring them together and see how they look for different verbs. For convenience, we will illustrate only the third person singular forms (the forms which agree with he/she/it) of each verb. Notice that some verbs have irregular past forms and -ed forms.

Base/Infinitive Present Tense Past Tense -ing Form -ed Form Form Form Form cook he cooks he cooked he is cooking he has cooked walk he walks he walked he is walking he has walked take he takes he took he is taking he has taken bring he brings he brought he is bringing he has brought be he is he was he is being he has been

Exercise #8 A verb has been highlighted in each of the following sentences. Indicate the form of the verb by selecting one of the choices given.

27 1. He plays the piano in a jazz club. a. Present b. Past c. Infinitive d. –ed e. -ing 2. David is singing in the shower again. a. Present b. Past c. Infinitive d. –ed e. -ing 3. He was told not to laugh at policemen. a. Present b. Past c. Infinitive d. –ed e. -ing 4. His arm swelled up after the accident. a. Present b. Past c. Infinitive d. –ed e. -ing 5. The population has increased by 6% since 1970. a. Present b. Past c. Infinitive d. –ed e. -ing

Finite and Nonfinite Verbs

Verbs which have the past or the present form are called FINITE verbs. Verbs in any other form (infinitive, -ing, or -ed) are called NONFINITE verbs. This means that verbs with tense are finite, and verbs without tense are nonfinite. The distinction

28 between finite and nonfinite verbs is a very important one in grammar, since it affects how verbs behave in sentences. Here are some examples of each type:

Tense Finite or Nonfinite? David plays the piano Present Finite My sister spoke French on holiday. Past Finite It took courage to continue after the NONE -- the verb has the Nonfinite accident infinitive form NONE -- the verb has the Leaving home can be very traumatic Nonfinite -ing form Leave immediately when you are NONE -- the verb has the Nonfinite asked to do so -ed form

Exercise #9 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined verb is finite or nonfinite. 1. Paul runs to work every day. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 2. They have run away together. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 3. Tim gave Paul a menacing look. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 4. Katie was watching TV when the phone rang. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 5. We found him smoking behind the shed. a. Finite b. Nonfinite

Auxiliary Verbs In the examples of -ing and -ed forms which we looked at, you may have noticed that in each case two verbs appeared: [1] The old lady is writing a play. [2] The film was produced in Hollywood.

29 Writing and produced each has another verb before it. These other verbs (is and was) are known as AUXILIARY VERBS, while writing and produced are known as MAIN VERBS or LEXICAL VERBS. In fact, all the verbs we have looked at on the previous pages have been main verbs.

Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called HELPING VERBS. This is because they may be said to "help" the main verb which comes after them. For example, in The old lady is writing a play, the auxiliary is helps the main verb writing by specifying that the action it denotes is still in progress.

Auxiliary Verb Types In this section we will give a brief account of each type of auxiliary verb in English. There are five types in total:

Passive be This is used to form passive constructions, eg. The film was produced in Hollywood It has a corresponding present form: The film is produced in Hollywood

We will return to passives later, when we look at voice. Progressive be As the name suggests, the progressive expresses action in progress: The old lady is writing a play It also has a past form: The old lady was writing a play Perfective have The perfective auxiliary expresses an action accomplished in the past but retaining current relevance: She has broken her leg (Compare: She broke her leg)

Together with the progressive auxiliary, the perfective auxiliary encodes aspect, which we will

30 look at later. Modal can/could Modals express permission, ability, obligation, or may/might prediction: shall/should You can have a sweet if you like will/would He may arrive early must Paul will be a footballer some day I really should leave now Dummy Do This subclass contains only the verb do. It is used to form questions: Do you like cheese? to form negative statements: I do not like cheese and in giving orders: Do not eat the cheese Finally, dummy do can be used for emphasis: I do like cheese

An important difference between auxiliary verbs and main verbs is that auxiliaries never occur alone in a sentence. For instance, we cannot remove the main verb from a sentence, leaving only the auxiliary:

I would like a new job ~*I would a new job You should buy a new car ~*You should a new car She must be crazy ~*She must crazy

Auxiliaries always occur with a main verb. On the other hand, main verbs can occur without an auxiliary. I like my new job. I bought a new car. She sings like a bird.

In some sentences, it may appear that an auxiliary does occur alone. This is especially true in responses to questions:

31 Q. Can you sing? A. Yes, I can.

Here the auxiliary can does not really occur without a main verb, since the main verb -- sing -- is in the question. The response is understood to mean: Yes, I can sing.

This is known as ellipsis -- the main verb has been ellipse from the response. Auxiliaries often appear in a shortened or contracted form, especially in informal contexts. For instance, auxiliary have is often shortened to 've: I have won the lottery ~I've won the lottery These shortened forms are called enclitic forms. Sometimes different auxiliaries have the same enclitic forms, so you should distinguish carefully between them: I'd like a new job ( = modal auxiliary would) We'd already spent the money by then ( = perfective auxiliary had) He's been in there for ages ( = perfective auxiliary has) She's eating her lunch ( = progressive auxiliary is)

The following exercise concentrates on three of the most important auxiliaries -- be, have, and do.

Exercise #10 Is the underlined verb a main verb or an auxiliary verb? 1. I will have the soup a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb 2. Police are investigating the incident a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb 3. It is very peaceful here a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb 4. Where does your brother work? a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb

32 5. They have decided to advertise your job a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb 6. He does his homework on the way to school a. Main Verb b. Auxiliary Verb

The Nice Properties of Auxiliaries The so-called NICE properties of auxiliaries serve to distinguish them from main verbs. NICE is an acronym for:

Negation Auxiliaries take not or n't to form the negative, eg. cannot, don't, wouldn't Inversion Auxiliaries invert with what precedes them when we form questions: [I will] see you soon ~[Will I] see you soon? Code Auxiliaries may occur "stranded" where a main verb has been omitted: John never sings, but Mary does Emphasis Auxiliaries can be used for emphasis: I do like cheese

Main verbs do not exhibit these properties. For instance, when we form a question using a main verb, we cannot invert: [John sings] in the choir ~*[Sings John] in the choir? Instead, we have to use the auxiliary verb do: [John sings] in the choir ~[Does John sing] in the choir?

Semi-auxiliaries

Among the auxiliary verbs, we distinguish a large number of multi-word verbs, which are called SEMI-AUXILIARIES. These are two-or three-word combinations, and they include the following:

get to seem to be about to happen to tend to be going to turn out to be likely to have to be supposed to

33 mean to used to

Like other auxiliaries, the semi-auxiliaries occur before main verbs: The film is about to start. I'm going to interview the Lord Mayor. I have to leave early today. You are supposed to sign both forms. I used to live in that house.

Some of these combinations may, of course, occur in other contexts in which they are not semi-auxiliaries. For example: I'm going to London

Here, the combination is not a semi-auxiliary, since it does not occur with a main verb. In this sentence, going is a main verb. Notice that it could be replaced by another main verb such as travel (I'm travelling to London). The word 'm is the contracted form of am, the progressive auxiliary, and to, as we'll see later, is a preposition.

Tense and Aspect

TENSE refers to the absolute location of an event or action in time, either the present or the past. It is marked by an inflection of the verb: David walks to school. (present tense) David walked to school. (past tense)

Reference to other times -- the future, for instance -- can be made in a number of ways, by using the modal auxiliary will, or the semi-auxiliary be going to: David will walk to school tomorrow. David is going to walk to school tomorrow.

34 Since the expression of future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a "future tense". Strictly speaking, there are only two tenses in English: present and past.

ASPECT refers to how an event or action is to be viewed with respect to time, rather than to its actual location in time. We can illustrate this using the following examples: [1] David fell in love on his eighteenth birthday. [2] David has fallen in love. [3] David is falling in love.

In [1], the verb fell tells us that David fell in love in the past, and specifically on his eighteenth birthday. This is a simple past tense verb.

In [2] also, the action took place in the past, but it is implied that it took place quite recently. Furthermore, it is implied that is still relevant at the time of speaking -- David has fallen in love, and that's why he's behaving strangely. It is worth noting that we cannot say *David has fallen in love on his eighteenth birthday. The auxiliary has here encodes what is known as PERFECTIVE ASPECT, and the auxiliary itself is known as the PERFECTIVE AUXILIARY.

In [3], the action of falling in love is still in progress -- David is falling in love at the time of speaking. For this reason, we call it PROGRESSIVE ASPECT, and the auxiliary is called the PROGRESSIVE AUXILIARY.

Aspect always includes tense. In [2] and [3] above, the aspectual auxiliaries are in the present tense, but they could also be in the past tense: David had fallen in love -- Perfective Aspect, Past Tense David was falling in love -- Progressive Aspect, Past Tense

The perfective auxiliary is always followed by a main verb in the -ed form, while the progressive auxiliary is followed by a main verb in the -ing form. We exemplify these points in the table below:

35 Perfective Aspect Progressive Aspect Present Tense has fallen is falling Past Tense had fallen was falling

While aspect always includes tense, tense can occur without aspect (David falls in love, David fell in love).

Exercise #11

Each of the following sentences exhibits aspect. Is it perfective aspect or progressive aspect?

1. David has bought a new house a. Perfective b. Progressive 2. I think we have seen this film already a. Perfective b. Progressive 3. The whole class is going to the theatre tonight a. Perfective b. Progressive 4. John's left his coat in the car a. Perfective b. Progressive 5. Susan's leaving today a. Perfective b. Progressive

Voice There are two voices in English, the active voice and the passive voice:

Active Voice Passive Voice [1] Paul congratulated David. [2] David was congratulated by Paul.

36 Passive constructions are formed using the PASSIVE AUXILIARY be, and the main verb has an -ed inflection. In active constructions, there is no passive auxiliary, though other auxiliaries may occur: Paul is congratulating David Paul will congratulate David Paul has congratulated David

All of these examples are active constructions, since they contain no passive auxiliary. Notice that in the first example (Paul is congratulating David), the auxiliary is the progressive auxiliary, not the passive auxiliary. We know this because the main verb congratulate has an -ing inflection, not an -ed inflection.

In the passive construction in [2], we refer to Paul as the AGENT. This is the one who performs the action of congratulating David. Sometimes no agent is specified: David was congratulated We refer to this as an AGENTLESS PASSIVE

Exercise #12 Are the following constructions active or passive? 1. Jane decided to cancel the party a. Active b. Passive 2. The lecturer was impressed by your essay a. Active b. Passive 3. Your horse is walking on our lawn a. Active b. Passive 4. The top floor was destroyed a. Active b. Passive 5. The pills should be taken twice a day a. Active b. Passive

Adjectives Adjectives can be identified using a number of formal criteria. However, we may begin by saying that they typically describe an attribute of a noun:

37 cold weather large windows violent storms

Some adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:

-able/-ible achievable, capable, illegible, remarkable -al biographical, functional, internal, logical -ful beautiful, careful, grateful, harmful -ic cubic, manic, rustic, terrific -ive attractive, dismissive, inventive, persuasive -less breathless, careless, groundless, restless -ous courageous, dangerous, disastrous, fabulous

However, a large number of very common adjectives cannot be identified in this way. They do not have typical adjectival form:

bad distant quiet bright elementary real clever good red cold great silent common honest simple complete hot strange dark main wicked deep morose wide difficult old young

As this list shows, adjectives are formally very diverse. However, they have a number of characteristics which we can use to identify them.

Characteristics of Adjectives

Adjectives can take a modifying word, such as very, extremely, or less, before them: very cold weather

38 extremely large windows less violent storms

Here, the modifying word locates the adjective on a scale of comparison, at a position higher or lower than the one indicated by the adjective alone.

This characteristic is known as GRADABILITY. Most adjectives are gradable, though if the adjective already denotes the highest position on a scale, then it is non- gradable:

my main reason for coming ~*my very main reason for coming

the principal role in the play ~*the very principal role in the play

As well as taking modifying words like very and extremely, adjectives also take different forms to indicate their position on a scale of comparison: big bigger biggest

The lowest point on the scale is known as the ABSOLUTE form, the middle point is known as the COMPARATIVE form, and the highest point is known as the SUPERLATIVE form. Here are some more examples:

Absolute Comparative Superlative dark darker darkest new newer newest old older oldest young younger youngest

In most cases, the comparative is formed by adding -er , and the superlative is formed by adding -est, to the absolute form. However, a number of very common adjectives are irregular in this respect:

Absolute Comparative Superlative good better best

39 bad worse worst far farther farthest

Some adjectives form the comparative and superlative using more and most respectively:

Absolute Comparative Superlative important more important most important miserable more miserable most miserable recent more recent most recent

Exercise #13

In the following sentences, the underlined words are adjectives. Circle the adjective features (a-c) that each exhibits.

1. His new car was stolen. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 2. Something smells good. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 3. Their restaurant is very successful. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 4. What an unbelievable story! a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 5. My uncle is an atomic scientist. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison.

Attributive and Predicative Adjectives Most adjectives can occur both before and after a noun:

the blue sea ~ the sea is blue the old man ~ the man is old

40 happy children ~ the children are happy

Adjectives in the first position - before the noun - are called ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives. Those in the second position - after the noun - are called PREDICATIVE adjectives. Notice that predicative adjectives do not occur immediately after the noun. Instead, they follow a verb.

Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun, especially in certain institutionalised expressions: the Governor General the Princess Royal times past

We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory when the adjective modifies a pronoun: something useful everyone present those responsible

Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative, attributive adjectives: the shortest route possible the worst conditions imaginable the best hotel available

Most adjectives can freely occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions. However, a small number of adjectives are restricted to one position only. For example, the adjective main (the main reason) can only occur in the attributive position (predicative: *the reason is main). Conversely, the adjective afraid (the child was afraid) can only occur predicatively (attributive: *an afraid child).

41 Exercise #14 Assign the underlined adjectives in each of the following examples to one of the three positions. 1. The green door opened slowly. a. Attributive b. Predicative c. Postpositive 2. This stretch of water is dangerous. a. Attributive b. Predicative c. Postpositive 3. The share-holders present voted a. Attributive against the Chairman. b. Predicative c. Postpositive 4. Jan feels ill. a. Attributive b. Predicative c. Postpositive 5. A larger than normal pay increase a. Attributive was awarded to the nurses. b. Predicative c. Postpositive

We have now looked at the main criteria for the adjective class - gradability, comparative and superlative forms, and the ability to occur attributively and predicatively. Most adjectives fulfill all these criteria, and are known as CENTRAL adjectives. Those which do not fulfill all the criteria are known as PERIPHERAL adjectives. We will now examine the adjective class in more detail.

Inherent and Non-inherent Adjectives Most attributive adjectives denote some attribute of the noun which they modify. For instance, the phrase a red car may be said to denote a car which is red. In fact most adjective-noun sequences such as this can be loosely reformulated in a similar way:

an old man ~a man who is old difficult questions ~questions which are difficult round glasses ~glasses which are round

This applies equally to postpositive adjectives:

42 something understood ~something which is understood the people responsible ~the people who are responsible

In each case the adjective denotes an attribute or quality of the noun, as the reformulations show. Adjectives of this type are known as INHERENT adjectives. The attribute they denote is, as it were, inherent in the noun which they modify.

However, not all adjectives are related to the noun in the same way. For example, the adjective small in a small businessman does not describe an attribute of the businessman. It cannot be reformulated as a businessman who is small. Instead, it refers to a businessman whose business is small. We refer to adjectives of this type as NON-INHERENT adjectives. They refer less directly to an attribute of the noun than inherent adjectives do. Here are some more examples, showing the contrast between inherent and non-inherent:

Inherent Non-inherent distant hills distant relatives a complete chapter a complete idiot a heavy burden a heavy smoker a social survey a social animal an old man an old friend

Stative and Dynamic Adjectives As their name suggests, STATIVE adjectives denote a state or condition, which may generally be considered permanent, such as big, red, small. Stative adjectives cannot normally be used in imperative constructions: *Be big/red/small

Further, they cannot normally be used in progressive constructions: *He is being big/red/small

In contrast, DYNAMIC adjectives denote attributes which are, to some extent at least, under the control of the one who possesses them. For instance, brave denotes an attribute which may not always be in evidence (unlike red, for example), but which

43 may be called upon as it is required. For this reason, it is appropriate to use it in an imperative: Be brave!

Dynamic adjectives include:

calm mannerly careful patient cruel rude disruptive shy suspicious foolish friendly tidy good vacuous impatient vain

All dynamic adjectives can be used in imperatives (Be careful!, Don't be cruel!), and they can also be used predicatively in progressive constructions: Your son is being disruptive in class My parents are being foolish again We're being very patient with you

The majority of adjectives are stative. The stative/dynamic contrast, as it relates to adjectives, is largely a semantic one, though as we have seen it also has syntactic implications.

Nominal Adjectives Certain adjectives are used to denote a class by describing one of the attributes of the class. For example, the poor denotes a class of people who share a similar financial status. Other nominal adjectives are:

44 the old the sick the wealthy the blind the innocent A major subclass of nominal adjectives refers to nationalities: the French the British the Japanese However, not all nationalities have corresponding nominal adjectives. Many of them are denoted by plural, proper nouns: the Germans the Russians the Americans the Poles Nominal adjectives do not refer exclusively to classes of people. Indeed some of them do not denote classes at all: the opposite the contrary the good Comparative and superlative forms can also be nominal adjectives: the best is yet to come the elder of the two the greatest of these the most important among them We refer to all of these types as nominal adjectives because they share some of the characteristics of nouns (hence `nominal') and some of the characteristics of adjectives. They have the following nominal characteristics:  they are preceded by a determiner (usually the definite article the)  they can be modified by adjectives (the gallant French, the unfortunate poor)

They have the following adjectival features: they are gradable (the very old, the extremely wealthy)  many can take comparative and superlative forms (the poorer, the poorest) 45

Adjectives and Nouns We have seen that attributive adjectives occur before a noun which they modify, for example, red in red car. We need to distinguish these clearly from nouns which occur in the same position, and fulfil the same syntactic function. Consider the following: rally car saloon car family car Here, the first word modifies the second, that is, it tells us something further about the car. For example, a rally car is a car which is driven in rallies. These modifiers occur in the same position as red in the example above, but they are not adjectives. We can show this by applying our criteria for the adjective class. Firstly, they do not take very: *a very rally car *a very saloon car *a very family car Secondly, they do not have comparative or superlative forms: *rallier *ralliest / *more rally / *most rally *salooner *saloonest / *more saloon / *most saloon *familier *familiest / *more family / *most family And finally, they cannot occur in predicative position: *the car is rally *the car is saloon *the car is family So although these words occupy the typical adjective position, they are not adjectives. They are nouns.

However, certain adjectives are derived from nouns, and are known as DENOMINAL adjectives. Examples include:

46 a mathematical puzzle [`a puzzle based on mathematics'] a biological experiment [`an experiment in biology'] a wooden boat [`a boat made of wood']

Denominals include adjectives which refer to nationality: a Russian lady [`a lady who comes from Russia'] German goods [`goods produced in Germany']

Denominal adjectives of this type should be carefully distinguished from nominal adjectives denoting nationalities. Compare: Nominal Adjective: The French are noted for their wines. Denominal Adjective: The French people are noted for their wines.

Exercise #15 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined word is an adjective or a noun. 1. Life insurance is not cheap. a. Adjective b. Noun 2. The Prime Minister is a close friend of mine. a. Adjective b. Noun 3. The Chinese Embassy is just down the road. a. Adjective b. Noun 4. Friday is a busy day for me. a. Adjective b. Noun 5. Our patient records are confidential. a. Adjective b. Noun

The Ordering of Adjectives

47 When two or more adjectives come before a noun, their relative order is fixed to a certain degree. This means, for instance, that while complex mathematical studies is grammatically acceptable, mathematical complex studies is less so. Similarly:

a huge red bomber ~*a red huge bomber a long narrow road ~*a narrow long road the lovely little black Japanese box ~*the Japanese black little lovely box

Here we will discuss some of the most common sequences which occur, though these should not be seen as ordering rules. Counter examples can often be found quite easily.

Central adjectives, as we saw earlier, are adjectives which fulfill all the criteria for the adjective class. In this sense, they are more "adjectival" than, say, denominal adjectives, which also have some of the properties of nouns.

This distinction has some significance in the ordering of adjectives. In general, the more adjectival a word is, the farther from the noun it will be. Conversely, the less adjectival it is (the more nominal), the nearer to the noun it will be. The relative order of these adjective types, then, is:

Sequence (1): CENTRAL -- DENOMINAL -- NOUN This is the ordering found in complex mathematical studies, for instance, and also in the following examples: expensive Russian dolls heavy woollen clothes huge polar bears Colour adjectives are also central adjectives, but if they co-occur with another central adjective, they come after it: Sequence (2): CENTRAL -- COLOUR -- NOUN expensive green dolls heavy black clothes huge white bears

48 and before denominal adjectives:

Sequence (3): COLOUR -- DENOMINAL -- NOUN green Russian dolls black woollen clothes white polar bears Participial adjectives also follow central adjectives:

Sequence (4): CENTRAL -- PARTICIPIAL -- DENOMINAL -- NOUN expensive carved Russian dolls heavy knitted woollen clothes huge dancing polar bears

(1) - (4) account for many sequences of up to three adjectives, in which each adjective is a different type. In practice it is rare to find more than three attributive adjectives together, especially if they are all different types. However, such a sequence may occur: certain expensive green Russian dolls Here the sequence is:

Sequence (5): NON-GRADABLE -- CENTRAL -- COLOUR -- DENOMINAL -- NOUN Non-gradable adjectives, in fact, are always first in an adjective sequence. Here are some more examples: Sequence (5a): NON-GRADABLE -- CENTRAL -- NOUN certain difficult problems Sequence (5b): NON-GRADABLE -- PARTICIPIAL -- NOUN sheer unadulterated nonsense Sequence (5c): NON-GRADABLE -- DENOMINAL -- NOUN major medical advances

So far we have looked at sequences in which each adjective is a different type. However, we very often find adjectives of the same type occurring together:

49 big old buildings beautiful little flowers rich young people Here all the adjectives are central adjectives, and in sequences like these it is much more difficult to determine the general principles governing their order. Several schemes have been proposed, though none is completely satisfactory or comprehensive.

The ordering of adjectives is influenced to some degree by the presence of premodification. If one or more of the adjectives in a sequence is premodified, say, by very, then it generally comes at the start of the sequence. The laryngograph provides us with a very accurate non-invasive physical measure of voice. It would be unusual, perhaps, to find very accurate elsewhere in this sequence: ?The laryngograph provides us with a non-invasive very accurate physical measure of voice ?The laryngograph provides us with a non-invasive physical very accurate measure of voice. Conversely, adjective order restricts the degree to which attributive adjectives may be premodified. Consider the following: a wealthy young businessman a very wealthy young businessman

We cannot modify young in this example, while keeping wealthy and young in the same relative order: *a wealthy very young businessman

Nor can we move young to the first position and modify it there, while retaining the same degree of acceptability: ?a very young wealthy businessman

Adverbs

50 Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: [1] Mary sings beautifully. [2] David is extremely clever. [3] This car goes incredibly fast.

In [1], the adverb beautifully tells us how Mary sings. In [2], extremely tells us the degree to which David is clever. Finally, in [3], the adverb incredibly tells us how fast the car goes.

Before discussing the meaning of adverbs, however, we will identify some of their formal characteristics.

Formal Characteristics of Adverbs

From our examples above, you can see that many adverbs end in -ly. More precisely, they are formed by adding -ly to an adjective:

Adjective slow quick soft sudden gradual Adverb slowly quickly softly suddenly gradually

Because of their distinctive endings, these adverbs are known as -LY ADVERBS. However, by no means all adverbs end in -ly. Note also that some adjectives also end in -ly, including costly, deadly, friendly, kindly, likely, lively, manly, and timely.

Like adjectives, many adverbs are GRADABLE, that is, we can modify them using very or extremely:

softly very softly suddenly very suddenly slowly extremely slowly

The modifying words very and extremely are themselves adverbs. They are called DEGREE ADVERBS because they specify the degree to which an adjective or

51 another adverb applies. Degree adverbs include almost, barely, entirely, highly, quite, slightly, totally, and utterly. Degree adverbs are not gradable (*extremely very).

Like adjectives, too, some adverbs can take COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms, with -er and -est: John works hard -- Mary works harder -- I work hardest

However, the majority of adverbs do not take these endings. Instead, they form the comparative using more and the superlative using most:

Adverb Comparative Superlative recently more recently most recently effectively more effectively most effectively frequently more frequently most frequently

In the formation of comparatives and superlatives, some adverbs are irregular:

Adverb Comparative Superlative well better best badly worse worst little less least much more most

Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs and adjectives have important characteristics in common -- in particular their gradability, and the fact that they have comparative and superlative forms. However, an important distinguishing feature is that adverbs do not modify nouns, either attributively or predicatively:

Adjective Adverb David is a happy child *David is a happily child

52 David is happy *David is happily

The following words, together with their comparative and superlative forms, can be both adverbs and adjectives: early, far, fast, hard, late

The following sentences illustrate the two uses of early:

Adjective Adverb I'll catch the early train I awoke early this morning

The comparative better and the superlative best, as well as some words denoting time intervals (daily, weekly, monthly), can also be adverbs or adjectives, depending on how they are used.

We have incorporated some of these words into the following exercise. See if you can distinguish between the adverbs and the adjectives.

Exercise #16 In each of the following pairs, indicate whether the underlined word is an adverb or an adjective: 1a. My train arrived late, as usual. a. adjective b. Adverb 1b. I'm watching the late film. a. adjective b. Adverb 2a. My brother loves fast cars. a. adjective b. Adverb 2b. He drives too fast. a. adjective b. Adverb 3a. This exercise is harder than I thought. a. adjective b. Adverb 3b. I hope you'll try harder in future. a. adjective b. Adverb 4a. The Times is published daily. a. adjective b. Adverb 4b. The Times is a daily newspaper. a. adjective b. Adverb

53 5a. You've just ruined my best shirt. a. adjective b. Adverb 5b. Computers work best if you kick them. a. adjective b. Adverb

Although endings, gradability and comparison allow us to identify many adverbs, there still remains a very large number of them which cannot be identified in this way. In fact, taken as a whole, the adverb class is the most diverse of all the word classes, and its members exhibit a very wide range of forms and functions. Many semantic classifications of adverbs have been made, but here we will concentrate on just three of the most distinctive classes, known collectively as circumstantial adverbs.

Circumstantial Adverbs

Many adverbs convey information about the manner, time, or place of an event or action. MANNER adverbs tell us how an action is or should be performed: She sang loudly in the bath. The sky quickly grew dark. They whispered softly. I had to run fast to catch the bus.

TIME adverbs denote not only specific times but also frequency: I'll be checking out tomorrow. Give it back, now! John rarely rings any more. I watch television sometimes.

And finally, PLACE adverbs indicate where: Put the box there, on the table. I've left my gloves somewhere. These three adverb types -- manner, time, and place -- are collectively known as CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADVERBS. They express one of the circumstances relating to an event or action - how it happened (manner), when it happened (time), or where it happened (place).

54 Exercise #17 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the underlined word is an adverb of manner, time, or place.

1. The thief crept silently across the rooftops. a. Manner b. Time c. Place 2. I'm not feeling well today. a. Manner b. Time c. Place 3. The teacher smiled enigmatically. a. Manner b. Time c. Place 4. We'll meet here after the match. a. Manner b. Time c. Place 5. My aunt never comes to visit. a. Manner b. Time c. Place

Additives, Exclusives, and Particularizers Additives "add" two or more items together, emphasizing that they are all to be considered equal: [1] Lynn's prewar success had been as a light historical novelist; he employed similar fanciful ideas in his war novels [...] Joseph Hocking's war novels are also dominated by romance and adventure.

[2] German firms have an existing advantage as a greater number of their managers have technical or engineering degrees. Japanese managers, too, have technical qualifications of a high order,

In [1], the adverb also points to the similarities between the war novels of Lynn and those of Hocking. In [2], the adverb too functions in a similar way, emphasizing the fact that the qualifications of Japanese managers are similar to those of German managers.

55 In contrast with additives, EXCLUSIVE adverbs focus attention on what follows them, to the exclusion of all other possibilities: [3] It's just a question of how we organize it. [4] The federal convention [...] comes together solely for the purpose of electing the president.

In [3], just excludes all other potential questions from consideration, while in [4], solely points out the fact that the federal convention has no other function apart from electing the president. Other exclusives include alone, exactly, merely, and simply.

PARTICULARIZERS also focus attention on what follows them, but they do not exclude other possibilities: [5] The pastoralists are particularly found in Africa. [6] Now this book is mostly about what they call modulation.

In [5], it is implied that Africa is not the only place where pastoralists live. While most of them live there, some of them live elsewhere. Sentence [6] implies that most of the book is about modulation, though it deals with other, unspecified topics as well.

Other particularizers include largely, mainly, primarily, and predominantly.

Exercise #18 An adverb has been underlined in each of the following sentences. Indicate whether it is additive, exclusive, or a particularizer.

56 1. I was especially pleased to read about your award. a. additive b. exclusive c. particularizer 2. We're only trying to help, you know. a. additive b. exclusive c. particularizer 3. The rise in sea level is largely due to global warming. a. additive b. exclusive c. particularizer 4. Roberts was both a coward and a thief. a. additive b. exclusive c. particularizer 5. Realism is precisely what I'm looking for a. additive b. exclusive c. particularizer

Wh- Adverbs

A special subclass of adverbs includes a set of words beginning with wh-. The most common are when, where, and why, though the set also includes whence, whereby, wherein, and whereupon. To this set we add the word how, and we refer to the whole set as WH- ADVERBS. Some members of the set can introduce an interrogative sentence: When are you going to New York? Where did you leave the car? Why did he resign? How did you become interested in theatre?

They can also introduce various types of clause: This is the town where Shakespeare was born I've no idea how it works

Sentence Adverbs

We conclude by looking at a set of adverbs which qualify a whole sentence, and not just a part of it. Consider the following:

57 Honestly, it doesn't matter.

Here the sentence adverb honestly modifies the whole sentence, and it expresses the speaker's opinion about what is being said (When I say it doesn't matter, I am speaking honestly). Here are some more examples: Clearly, he has no excuse for such behaviour. Frankly, I don't care about your problems. Unfortunately, no refunds can be given.

Some sentence adverbs link a sentence with a preceding one: England played well in the first half. However, in the second half their weaknesses were revealed. Other sentence adverbs of this type are accordingly, consequently, hence, moreover, similarly, and therefore.

58 Prepositions Prepositions cannot be distinguished by any formal features. A list of prepositions will illustrate this point: across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without We can, say, however, that prepositions typically come before a noun:

across town for lunch after class in London at home on fire before Tuesday to school with pleasure by Shakespeare

The noun does not necessarily come immediately after the preposition, however, since determiners and adjectives can intervene: after the storm on white horses under the old regime Whether or not there are any intervening determiners or adjectives, prepositions are almost always followed by a noun. In fact, this is so typical of prepositions that if they are not followed by a noun, we call them "stranded" prepositions:

Preposition Stranded Preposition John talked about the new film This is the film John talked about

Prepositions are invariable in their form, that is, they do not take any inflections.

Exercise #19 Identify all the prepositions in the following extract by underlying them. Dorothy Gilman attended the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts from 1940 to 1945, the University of Pennsylvania, the Moore Institute of Art, and the Arts Students' League from 1963 to 1964. She worked as an instructor of drawing in adult evening school for two years at the Samuel Fleisher Art Memorial. She has also worked as a switchboard operator for the American Bell Telephone Company, and as an instructor in creative writing at Cherry Lawn School, Darien, Connecticut, from 1969 to 1970.

59 Complex Prepositions

The prepositions which we have looked at so far have all consisted of a single word, such as in, of, at, and to. We refer to these as SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS.

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as a single unit. Here are some examples:

according to due to except for along with instead of apart from prior to because of regardless of contrary to

Like simple prepositions, these two-word combinations come before a noun: according to Shakespeare contrary to my advice due to illness

Three-word combinations often have the following pattern: Simple Preposition + Noun + Simple Preposition

We can see this pattern in the following examples:

in aid of in line with on behalf of in relation to in front of with reference to in accordance with with respect to in line with by means of

Again, these combinations come before a noun:

60 in aid of charity in front of the window in line with inflation Marginal Prepositions

A number of prepositions have affinities with other word classes. In particular, some prepositions are verbal in form: Following his resignation, the minister moved to the country I am writing to you regarding your overdraft The whole team was there, including John

We refer to these as MARGINAL PREPOSITIONS. Other marginal prepositions include: concerning, considering, excluding, given, granted, pending

Non-verbal marginal prepositions include worth (it's worth ten pounds) and minus (ten minus two is eight).

61 Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to express a connection between words. The most familiar conjunctions are and, but, and or: Paul and David cold and wet tired but happy slowly but surely tea or coffee hot or cold

They can also connect longer units: Paul plays football and David plays chess. I play tennis but I don't play well. We can eat now or we can wait till later.

There are two types of conjunctions. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (or simply COORDINATORS) connect elements of `equal' syntactic status: Paul and David I play tennis but I don't play well meat or fish

Items which are connected by a coordinator are known as CONJOINS. So in I play tennis but I don't play well, the conjoins are [I play tennis] and [ I don't play well]. On the other hand, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (or SUBORDINATORS) connect elements of `unequal' syntactic status: I left early because I had an interview the next day We visited Madame Tussaud's while we were in London I'll be home at nine if I can get a taxi

Other subordinating conjunctions include although, because, before, since, till, unless, whereas, whether

62 Coordination and subordination are quite distinct concepts in grammar. Notice, for example, that coordinators must appear between the conjoins: [Paul plays football] and [David plays chess] ~*And [David plays chess] [Paul plays football]

However, we can reverse the order of the conjoins, provided we keep the coordinator between them: [David plays chess] and [Paul plays football]

In contrast with this, subordinators do not have to occur between the items they connect: I left early because I had an interview the next day. ~Because I had an interview the next day, I left early.

But if we reverse the order of the items, we either change the meaning completely: I left early because I had an interview the next day. ~I had an interview the next day because I left early. or we produce a very dubious sentence: I'll be home at nine if I can get a taxi. ~?I can get a taxi if I'll be home at nine.

This shows that items linked by a subordinator have a very specific relationship to each other -- it is a relationship of syntactic dependency. There is no syntactic dependency in the relationship between conjoins. We will further explore this topic when we look at the grammar of clauses.

63 Exercise #20 In each of the following sentences a conjunction is underlined. Is it a coordinator or a subordinator?

1. The proposal could not have been considered further unless it a. Coordinator had been signed by all the members back in May b. Subordinator 2. Last year we visited Venice and Pisa a. Coordinator b. Subordinator 3. Have there been any developments since we last met? a. Coordinator b. Subordinator 4. Conversation used to be entertainment, whereas now it's a a. Coordinator means of exchanging information b. Subordinator 5. Meg will drink red or white wine a. Coordinator b. Subordinator 6. I find it very difficult to forgive, although I do eventually a. Coordinator b. Subordinator 7. Karen's definitely coming, but I don't think Pete can make it a. Coordinator b. Subordinator

Coordination Types

Conjoins are usually coordinated using one of the coordinators and, but, or or. In [1], the bracketed conjoins are coordinated using and: [1] [Quickly] and [resolutely], he strode into the bank.

This type of coordination, with a coordinator present, is called SYNDETIC COORDINATION. Coordination can also occur without the presence of a coordinator, as in [2]: [2] [Quickly], [resolutely], he strode into the bank

No coordinator is present here, but the conjoins are still coordinated. This is known as ASYNDETIC COORDINATION.

When three or more conjoins are coordinated, a coordinator will usually appear between the final two conjoins only: [3] I need [bread], [cheese], [eggs], and [milk]

64 This is syndetic coordination, since a coordinating conjunction is present. It would be unusual to find a coordinator between each conjoin: [3a] I need [bread] and [cheese] and [eggs] and [milk]

This is called POLYSYNDETIC COORDINATION. It is sometimes used for effect, for instance to express continuation: [4] This play will [run] and [run] and [run] [5] He just [talks] and [talks] and [talks]

Exercise #21 Each of the following sentences exhibits coordination. Is it syndetic, asyndetic or polysyndetic coordination? The conjoins have been bracketed.

1. [Susie] and [Pippa] called for you this morning. a. Syndetic b. Asyndetic c. Polysyndetic 2. You wouldn't believe how many exams I've got. I've a. Syndetic got [semantics] and [pragmatics] and [sociolinguistics] b. Asyndetic and [psycholinguistics] and [syntax]. c. Polysyndetic 3. This wine has a [rich], [fruity], [full-bodied] quality. a. Syndetic b. Asyndetic c. Polysyndetic 4. I'd like [ham], [eggs] and [fried bread] for breakfast. a. Syndetic b. Asyndetic c. Polysyndetic 5. It was [a happy time], [a carefree time], [a period of our a. Syndetic lives which we will never forget]. b. Asyndetic c. Polysyndetic

False Coordination Coordinators are sometimes used without performing any strictly coordinating role: I'll come when I'm good and ready Here, the adjectives good and ready are not really being coordinated with each other. If they were, the sentence would mean something like: I'll come [when I'm good] and [when I'm ready] Clearly, this is not the meaning which good and ready conveys. Instead, good and intensifies the meaning of ready. We might rephrase the sentence as

65 I'll come when I'm completely ready. Good and ready is an example of FALSE COORDINATION -- using a coordinator without any coordinating role. It is sometimes called PSEUDO-COORDINATION. False coordination can also be found in informal expressions using try and: Please try and come early. I'll try and ring you from the office.

Here, too, no real coordination is taking place. The first sentence, for instance, does not mean Please try, and please come early. Instead, it is semantically equivalent to Please try to come early.

In informal spoken English, and and but are often used as false coordinators, without any real coordinating role. The following extract from a conversation illustrates this:

Speaker A: Well he told me it's this super high-flying computer software stuff. I'm sure it's the old job he used to have cleaning them

Speaker B: But it went off okay last night then did it? Did you have a good turnout?

Here, the word but used by Speaker B does not coordinate any conjoins. Instead, it initiates her utterance, and introduces a completely new topic.

66 Minor Word Classes We have now looked at the seven major word classes in English. Most words can be assigned to at least one of these classes. However, there are some words which will not fit the criteria for any of them. Consider, for example, the word hello. It is clearly not a noun, or an adjective, or a verb, or indeed any of the classes we have looked at. It belongs to a minor word class, which we call formulaic expressions.

Formulaic Expressions

To express greetings, farewell, thanks, or apologies, we use a wide range of FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS. These may consist of a single word or of several words acting as a unit. Here are some examples:

excuse me bye thanks goodbye thank you hello thanks a lot farewell hi sorry so long pardon

Some formulaic expressions express agreement or disagreement with a previous speaker: yes, yeah, no, okay, right, sure

INTERJECTIONS generally occur only in spoken English, or in the representation of speech in novels. They include the following: ah, eh, hmm, oh, ouch, phew, shit, tsk, uhm, yuk Interjections express a wide range of emotions, including surprise (oh!), exasperation (shit!), and disgust (yuk!).

Formulaic expressions, including interjections, are unvarying in their form, that is, they do not take any inflections.

67

68 Existential there

We have seen that the word there is an adverb, in sentences such as: You can't park there. I went there last year.

Specifically, it is an adverb of place in these examples. However, the word there has another use. As EXISTENTIAL THERE, it often comes at the start of a sentence: There is a fly in my soup. There were six errors in your essay.

Existential there is most commonly followed by a form of the verb be. When it is used in a question, it follows the verb: Is there a problem with your car? Was there a storm last night?

The two uses of there can occur in the same sentence: There is a parking space there.

In this example, the first there is existential there, and the second is an adverb.

Uses of It

In the section on pronouns, we saw that the word it is a third person singular pronoun. However, this word also has other roles which are not related to its pronominal use. We look at some of these other uses here. When we talk about time or the weather, we use sentences such as: What time is it? It is four o'clock. It is snowing. It's going to rain.

69 Here, we cannot identify precisely what it refers to. It has a rather vague reference, and we call this DUMMY IT or PROP IT. Dummy it is also used, equally vaguely, in other expressions: Hold it! Take it easy! Can you make it to my party? It is sometimes used to "anticipate" something which appears later in the same sentence: It's great to see you. It's a pity you can't come to my party.

In the first example, it "anticipates" to see you. We can remove it from the sentence and replace it with to see you: To see you is great.

Because of its role in this type of sentence, we call this ANTICIPATORY IT. See also: Cleft Sentences

Exercise #22 In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the italicized word is pronoun it, dummy it, or anticipatory it.

1. It won't do any good to hide from me. a. Pronoun it b. Dummy it c. Anticipatory it 2. I think you've broken it. a. Pronoun it b. Dummy it c. Anticipatory it 3. It's very kind of you to see me at short notice. a. Pronoun it b. Dummy it c. Anticipatory it 4. It was after midnight when I left the office. a. Pronoun it b. Dummy it c. Anticipatory it 5. I've had it with this place - I'm leaving! a. Pronoun it b. Dummy it c. Anticipatory it

70 Introducing Phrases We have now completed the first level of grammatical analysis, in which we looked at words individually and classified them according to certain criteria. This classification is important because, as we'll see, it forms the basis of the next level of analysis, in which we consider units which may be larger than individual words, but are smaller than sentences. In this section we will be looking at PHRASES.

Defining a Phrase

When we looked at nouns and pronouns, we said that a pronoun can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence. One of the examples we used was this: [Children] should watch less television. ~[They] should watch less television.

Here it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. But consider: [The children] should watch less television. ~[They] should watch less television.

In this example, they does not replace children. Instead, it replaces the children, which is a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a NOUN PHRASE (NP), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun. Here is another example: I like [the title of your book]. ~I like [it].

In this case, the pronoun it replaces not just a noun but a five-word noun phrase, the title of your book. So instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more accurate to say that they can replace noun phrases.

We refer to the central element in a phrase as the HEAD of the phrase. In the noun phrase the children, the Head is children. In the noun phrase the title of your book, the Head is title.

71 Noun phrases do not have to contain strings of words. In fact, they can contain just one word, such as the word children in children should watch less television. This is also a phrase, though it contains only a Head. At the level of word class, of course, we would call children a plural, common noun. But in a phrase-level analysis, we call children on its own a noun phrase. This is not simply a matter of terminology -- we call it a noun phrase because it can be expanded to form longer strings which are more clearly noun phrases. [children] should watch less television. [the children] should watch less television. [the children in class 5] should watch less television. [the small children in class 5] should watch less television.

From now on, we will be using this phrase-level terminology. Furthermore, we will delimit phrases by bracketing them, as we have done in the examples above.

The Basic Structure of a Phrase

Phrases consist minimally of a Head. This means that in a one-word phrase like [children], the Head is children. In longer phrases, a string of elements may appear before the Head: [the small children]

For now, we will refer to this string simply as the pre-Head string.

A string of elements may also appear after the Head, and we will call this the post-Head string: [the small children in class 5]

So we have a basic three-part structure:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string childre [the small in class 5] n

72 Of these three parts, only the Head is obligatory. It is the only part which cannot be omitted from the phrase. To illustrate this, let's omit each part in turn:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string childre [-- in class 5] n *[the small -- in class 5] childre [the small --] n

Pre-Head and post-Head strings can be omitted, while leaving a complete noun phrase. We can even omit the pre- and post-Head strings at the same time, leaving only the Head:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string childre [-- --] n

This is still a complete noun phrase.

However, when the Head is omitted, we're left with an incomplete phrase (*the small in class five). This provides a useful method of identifying the Head of a phrase. In general, the Head is the only obligatory part of a phrase.

Exercise #23 Underline the Head in each of the following bracketed noun phrases: 1.[ Cats] make very affectionate pets. 2.[ The editor] rejected the manuscript. 3.We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany. 4.[People who cycle] get very wet. 5.We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells]

73 More Phrase Types

Just as a noun functions as the Head of a noun phrase, a verb functions as the Head of a verb phrase, and an adjective functions as the Head of an adjective phrase, and so on. We recognise five phrase types in all:

Phrase Type Head Example Noun Phrase Noun [the children in class 5] Verb Phrase Verb [play the piano] Adjective Phrase Adjective [delighted to meet you] Adverb Phrase Adverb [very quickly] Prepositional Phrase Preposition [in the garden]

For convenience, we will use the following abbreviations for the phrase types:

Phrase Type Abbreviation

Noun Phrase NP

Verb Phrase VP

Adjective Phrase AP

Adverb Phrase AdvP

Prepositional Phrase PP

Using these abbreviations, we can now label phrases as well as bracket them. We do this by putting the appropriate label inside the opening bracket: [NP the small children in class 5]

Now we will say a little more about each of the five phrase types.

74 Noun Phrase (NP)

As we've seen, a noun phrase has a noun as its Head. Determiners and adjective phrases usually constitute the pre-Head string: [NP the children] [NP happy children] [NP the happy children]

In theory at least, the post-Head string in an NP can be indefinitely long: [NP the dog that chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow that...]

Fortunately, they are rarely as long as this in real use.

The Head of an NP does not have to be a common or a proper noun. Recall that pronouns are a subclass of nouns. This means that pronouns, too, can function as the Head of an NP: [NP I] like coffee The waitress gave [NP me] the wrong dessert [NP This] is my car

If the Head is a pronoun, the NP will generally consist of the Head only. This is because pronouns do not take determiners or adjectives, so there will be no pre-Head string. However, with some pronouns, there may be a post-Head string: [NP Those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the interval

Similarly, numerals, as a subclass of nouns, can be the Head of an NP: [NP Two of my guests] have arrived [NP The first to arrive] was John

75 Verb Phrase (VP)

In a VERB PHRASE (VP), the Head is always a verb. The pre-Head string, if any, will be a `negative' word such as not [1] or never [2], or an adverb phrase [3]: [1] [VP not compose an aria] [2] [VP never compose an aria] [3] Paul [VP deliberately broke the window]

Many verb Heads must be followed by a post-Head string: My son [VP made a cake] -- (compare: *My son made) We [VP keep pigeons] -- (compare: *We keep) I [VP recommend the fish] -- (compare: *I recommend)

Verbs which require a post-Head string are called TRANSITIVE verbs. The post- Head string, in these examples, is called the DIRECT OBJECT.

In contrast, some verbs are never followed by a direct object: Susan [VP smiled] The professor [VP yawned]

These are known as INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

However, most verbs in English can be both transitive and intransitive, so it is perhaps more accurate to refer to transitive and intransitive uses of a verb. The following examples show the two uses of the same verb: Intransitive: David smokes Transitive: David smokes cigars

We will return to the structure of verb phrases in a later section.

76 Adjective Phrase (AP)

In an ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP), the Head word is an adjective. Here are some examples: Susan is [AP clever]. The doctor is [AP very late]. My sister is [AP fond of animals].

The pre-Head string in an AP is most commonly an adverb phrase such as very or extremely. Adjective Heads may be followed by a post-Head string: [AP happy to meet you] [AP ready to go] [AP afraid of the dark]

A small number of adjective Heads must be followed by a post-Head string. The adjective Head fond is one of these. Compare: My sister is [AP fond of animals] *My sister is [fond]

Adverb Phrase (AdvP) In an ADVERB PHRASE, the Head word is an adverb. Most commonly, the pre- Head string is another adverb phrase: He graduated [AdvP very recently]. She left [AdvP quite suddenly].

In AdvPs, there is usually no post-Head string, but here's a rare example: [AdvP Unfortunately for him], his wife came home early.

77 Prepositional Phrase (PP)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES usually consist of a Head -- a preposition -- and a post- Head string only. Here are some examples: [PP through the window] [PP over the bar] [PP across the line] [PP after midnight]

This makes PPs easy to recognise -- they nearly always begin with a preposition (the Head). A pre-Head string is rarely present, but here are some examples: [PP straight through the window] [PP right over the bar] [PP just after midnight]

Exercise #24 Identify the phrase type: 1. Houses are [unbelievably expensive] just now. a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase 2. We [met Paul] last week. a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase 3. [A car that won't go] is not particularly useful. a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase 4. I enjoy eating [in Indian restaurants]. a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase

78 d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase 5. Don't you have to leave [early]? a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase 6. Tell [him] not to worry. a. Adjective Phrase b. Adverb Phrase c. Noun Phrase d. Prepositional Phrase e. Verb Phrase

Phrases within Phrases

We will conclude this introduction to phrases by looking briefly at phrases within phrases. Consider the NP: [NP small children]

It consists of a Head children and a pre-Head string small. Now small is an adjective, so it is the Head of its own adjective phrase. We know this because it could be expanded to form a longer string: very small children

Here, the adjective Head small has its own pre-Head string very: [AP very small]

So in small children, we have an AP small embedded with the NP small children. We represent this as follows: [NP [AP small] children]

All but the simplest phrases will contain smaller phrases within them. Here's another example: [PP across the road]

79 Here, the Head is across, and the post-Head string is the road. Now we know that the road is itself an NP -- its Head is road, and it has a pre-Head string the. So we have an NP within the PP: [PP across [NP the road]]

When you examine phrases, remember to look out for other phrases within them.

Clauses and Sentences So far we have been looking at phrases more or less in isolation. In real use, of course, they occur in isolation only in very restricted circumstances. For example, we find isolated NPs in public signs and notices: [Exit] [Sale] [Restricted Area] [Hyde Park]

We sometimes use isolated phrases in spoken English, especially in responses to questions: Q: What would you like to drink? A: [NP Coffee] Q: How are you today? A: [AP Fine] Q: Where did you park the car? A: [PP Behind the house]

In more general use, however, phrases are integrated into longer units, which we call CLAUSES: Q: What would you like to drink? A: [I'd like coffee] Q: How are you today? A: [I'm fine]

80 Q: Where did you park the car? A: [I parked the car behind the house]

The Clause Hierarchy

The clause I'd like coffee is a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE within the sentence I think I'd like coffee. We refer to this larger clause as the MATRIX CLAUSE:

The matrix clause is not subordinate to any other, so it is, in fact, co-extensive with the sentence.

We say that the matrix clause is SUPERORDINATE to the subordinate clause.

The terms subordinate and superordinate are relative terms. They describe the relationship between clauses in what is called the CLAUSE HIERARCHY. We can illustrate what this means by looking at a slightly more complicated example: He said I think I'd like coffee Here the matrix clause is: He said I think I'd like coffee

This matrix clause contains two subordinate clauses, which we'll refer to as Sub1 and Sub2:

81 Sub1 is both subordinate and superordinate. It is subordinate in relation to the matrix clause, and it is superordinate in relation to Sub2.

Subordinate and superordinate, then, are not absolute terms. They describe how clauses are arranged hierarchically relative to each other.

We can bracket and label clauses in the same way as phrases. We will use the following abbreviations: Matrix Clause: MC Subordinate Clause: SubC

Applying these labels and brackets to our first example, we get: [MC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]]

Just as we've seen with phrases, we can have embedding in clauses too. Here, the subordinate clause is embedded within the matrix clause.

There is a greater degree of embedding in our second example, where there are two subordinate clauses, one within the other: [MC He said [SubC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]]]

Exercise #25 The following sentence contains three clauses, which we've labelled C1, C2, and C3. Decide whether the statements below are true or false: [C1 The bank manager suggested [C2 that we should consider [C3 leasing the building]]] a. C1 is the matrix clause a. True b. False b. C2 is superordinate to C1 a. True b. False c. C3 is subordinate to C1 a. True b. False d. C3 is superordinate to C2 a. True b. False

82 Finite and Nonfinite Clauses

As a working definition, let us say that clauses contain at least a verb phrase: [MC [VP Stop]] [MC David [VP composed an aria] when he was twelve] [MC My solicitor [VP sent me a letter] yesterday]

As these examples show, clauses can also contain many other elements, but for now we will concentrate on the VP. We have already seen that verbs (and therefore the VPs that contain them) are either FINITE or NONFINITE, so we can use this distinction to classify clauses. Clauses are either finite or nonfinite.

Finite verb phrases carry tense, and the clauses containing them are FINITE CLAUSES: [1] She writes home every day (finite clause -- present tense verb) [2] She wrote home yesterday (finite clause -- past tense verb)

On the other hand, nonfinite verb phrases do not carry tense. Their main verb is either a to-infinitive [3], a bare infinitive [4], an -ed form [5], or an -ing form [6]: [3] David loves [to play the piano] [4] We made [David play the piano] [5] [Written in 1864], it soon became a classic [6] [Leaving home] can be very traumatic

These are NONFINITE CLAUSES.

Matrix clauses are always finite, as in [1] and [2]. However, they may contain nonfinite subordinate clauses within them. For example: [MC David loves [SubC to play the piano]]

83 Here we have a finite matrix clause -- its main verb loves has the present tense form. Within it, there is a nonfinite subordinate clause to play the piano -- its main verb play has the to-infinitive form.

On the other hand, subordinate clauses can be either finite or nonfinite: Finite: He said [SubC that they stayed at a lovely hotel] -- past tense Nonfinite: I was advised [SubC to sell my old car] -- to-infinitive

Exercise #26 In each of the following sentences, decide whether the bracketed clauses are finite or nonfinite.

1. [Everybody left just after the ceremony]. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 2. [Inviting your sister] was not a great decision. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 3. I'll be home around ten [if my train is on time]. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 4. [They expect Susan to do all the work]. a. Finite b. Nonfinite 5. [Deprived of oxygen], plants will quickly die. a. Finite b. Nonfinite

Subordinate Clause Types

Subordinate clauses may be finite or nonfinite. Within this broad classification, we can make many further distinctions. We will begin by looking at subordinate clauses which are distinguished by their formal characteristics.

Many subordinate clauses are named after the form of the verb which they contain: TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSE: You must book early [to secure a seat]

BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSE: They made [the professor forget his notes]

84 -ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSE: His hobby is [collecting old photographs] -ED PARTICIPLE CLAUSE: [Rejected by his parents], the boy turned to a life of crime For convenience, we sometimes name a clause after its first element: IF-CLAUSE: I'll be there at nine [if I catch the early train] As we'll see on the next page, if-clauses are sometimes called conditional clauses.

THAT-CLAUSE: David thinks [that we should have a meeting]

The that element is sometimes ellipted: David thinks [we should have a meeting]

Relative Clauses

An important type of subordinate clause is the RELATIVE CLAUSE. Here are some examples: The man [who lives beside us] is ill The video [which you recommended] was terrific

Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such as who, or which. However, the relative pronoun may be ellipted: The video [you recommended] was terrific

Another variant, the REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE, has no relative pronoun, and the verb is nonfinite: The man [living beside us] is ill

(Compare: The man [who lives beside us]...)

Nominal Relative Clauses

85 NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES (or independent relatives) function in some respects like noun phrases: [What I like best] is football (cf. the sport I like best...) The prize will go to [whoever submits the best design] (cf. the person who submits...)

My son is teaching me [how to use email] (cf. the way to use email)

This is [where Shakespeare was born] (cf. the place where...)

The similarity with NPs can be further seen in the fact that certain nominal relatives exhibit number contrast: Singular: [What we need] is a plan. Plural: [What we need] are new ideas.

Notice the agreement here with is (singular) and are (plural).

Small Clauses

Finally, we will mention briefly an unusual type of clause, the verbless or SMALL CLAUSE. While clauses usually contain a verb, which is finite or nonfinite, small clauses lack an overt verb: Susan found [the job very difficult].

We analyze this as a unit because clearly its parts cannot be separated. What Susan found was not the job, but the job very difficult. And we analyze this unit specifically as a clause because we can posit an implicit verb, namely, a form of the verb be: Susan found [the job (to be) very difficult]

Here are some more examples of small clauses:

86 Susan considers [David an idiot]

The jury found [the defendant guilty] [Lunch over], the guests departed quickly

All of the clause types discussed here are distinguished by formal characteristics. On the next page, we will distinguish some more types, this time on the basis of their meaning.

Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types

Here we will look at subordinate clauses from the point of view of their meaning. The main semantic types are exemplified in the following table:

Subordinate Example Clause Type

Temporal I'll ring you again [before I leave]

David joined the army [after he graduated]

[When you leave], please close the door

I read the newspaper [while I was waiting] Conditional I'll be there at nine [if I can catch the early train]

[Provided he works hard], he'll do very well at school

Don't call me [unless its an emergency] Concessive He bought me a lovely gift, [although he can't really afford it]

[Even though he worked hard], he failed the final exam

[While I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint

87 Reason Paul was an hour late [because he missed the train]

I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it]

[As I don't know the way], I'll take a taxi Result The kitchen was flooded, [so we had to go to a restaurant]

I've forgotten my password, [so I can't read my email] Comparative This is a lot more difficult [than I expected]

She earns as much money [as I do]

I think London is less crowded [than it used to be]

The table does not cover all the possible types, but it does illustrate many of the various meanings which can be expressed by subordinate clauses.

Notice that the same word can introduce different semantic types. For instance, the word while can introduce a temporal clause: I read the newspaper [while I was waiting]. or a concessive clause: [While I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint.

Similarly, the word since can express time: I've known him [since he was a child] as well as reason: I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it]

In the following exercise, be aware of words like these, which can introduce more than one type of subordinate clause.

88 Exercise #27 In each of the following sentences, a subordinate clause is bracketed. Decide which semantic type it is, from the choices given: 1. [After visiting Barcelona], the circus moved on to a. Comparative Madrid b. Concessive c. Conditional d. Reason e. Result f. Temporal 2. We had no electricity during the storm, [so we had to a. Comparative use candles] b. Concessive c. Conditional d. Reason e. Result f. Temporal 3. [As long as you're over 18], you can join the army a. Comparative b. Concessive c. Conditional d. Reason e. Result f. Temporal 4. [As he doesn't drive], David always travels by train a. Comparative b. Concessive c. Conditional d. Reason e. Result f. Temporal 5. Amy reached the house [just as it started to snow] a. Comparative b. Concessive c. Conditional d. Reason e. Result f. Temporal

89 Sentences

Most people recognize a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (period), a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally as units which express a "complete thought", though it is not at all clear what a "complete thought" is.

It is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit which consists of one or more clauses. According to this definition, the following examples are all sentences: [1] Paul likes football [2] You can borrow my pen if you need one [3] Paul likes football and David likes chess

Sentence [1] is a SIMPLE SENTENCE -- it contains only one clause.

Sentence [2] consists of a matrix clause You can borrow my pen if you need one, and a subordinate clause if you need one. This is called a COMPLEX SENTENCE. A complex sentence is defined as a sentence which contains at least one subordinate clause.

Finally, sentence [3] consists of two clauses which are coordinated with each other. This is a COMPOUND sentence.

By using subordination and coordination, sentences can potentially be infinitely long, but in all cases we can analyze them as one or more clauses.

90 Exercise #28 In the following examples, determine the sentence type from the choices given. 1. We took a taxi home after the theatre a. Simple b. Complex c. Compound 2. The policeman was not impressed by your alibi a. Simple b. Complex c. Compound 3. As soon as I heard the news, I rushed straight to the police a. Simple b. Complex c. Compound 4. Amy watches football on television, but she never goes to a. Simple a game b. Complex c. Compound 5. If you give your details to our secretary, we will contact a. Simple you when we have a vacancy b. Complex c. Compound

The Discourse Functions of Sentences

Sentences may be classified according to their use in discourse. We recognize four main sentence types:  declarative  interrogative  imperative  exclamative

Declarative

Declarative sentences are used to convey information or to make statements:

91 David plays the piano I hope you can come tomorrow We've forgotten the milk

Declarative sentences are by far the most common type.

Interrogative

Interrogative sentences are used in asking questions: Is this your book? Did you receive my message? Have you found a new job yet?

The examples above are specifically YES/NO INTERROGATIVES, because they elicit a response which is either yes or no.

ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVES offer two or more alternative responses: Should I telephone you or send an email? Do you want tea, coffee, or espresso?

Yes/no interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are introduced by an auxiliary verb.

WH- INTERROGATIVES, on the other hand, are introduced by a wh- word, and they elicit an open-ended response: What happened? Where do you work? Who won the Cup Final in 1997?

Questions are sometimes tagged onto the end of a declarative sentence: David plays the piano, doesn't he? We've forgotten the milk, haven't we? There's a big match tonight, isn't there? 92 These are known as TAG QUESTIONS. They consist of a main or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or existential there.

Imperative

Imperative sentences are used in issuing orders or directives: Leave your coat in the hall Give me your phone number Don't shut the door Stop!

Tag questions are sometimes added to the end of imperatives: Leave your coat in the hall, will you? Write soon, won't you?

In an imperative sentence, the main verb is in the base form. This is an exception to the general rule that matrix clauses are always finite.

Exclamative

Exclamative sentences are used to make exclamations: What a stupid man he is! How wonderful you look!

The four sentence types exhibit different syntactic forms, which we will be looking at in a later section. For now, it is worth pointing out that there is not necessarily a one- to-one relationship between the form of a sentence and its discourse function. For instance, the following sentence has declarative form: You need some help

93 But when this is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a question: You need some help? Conversely, rhetorical questions have the form of an interrogative, but they are really statements: Who cares? ( = I don't care)

The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences

Words, phrases, clauses, and sentences constitute what is called the GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY. We can represent this schematically as follows: sentences consist of one or more... clauses consist of one or more... phrases consist of one or more... words

Sentences are at the top of the hierarchy, so they are the largest unit which we will be considering (though some grammars do look beyond the sentence). At the other end of the hierarchy, words are at the lowest level, though again, some grammars go below the word to consider morphology, the study of how words are constructed.

At the clause level and at the phrase level, two points should be noted: 1. Although clauses are higher than phrases in the hierarchy, clauses can occur within phrases, as we've already seen: The man who lives beside us is ill

Here we have a relative clause who lives beside us within the NP the man who lives

94 beside us. 2. We've also seen that clauses can occur within clauses, and phrases can occur within phrases.

Bearing these two points in mind, we can now illustrate the grammatical hierarchy using the following sentence: My brother won the lottery

This is a simple sentence (S), consisting of a matrix clause (MC): [S/MC My brother won the lottery]

We can subdivide the clause into an NP and a VP: [S/MC [NP My brother] [VP won the lottery]]

The VP contains a further NP within it: [S/MC [NP My brother] [VP won [NP the lottery]]]

So we have a total of three phrases. Each phrase consists of individual words: [S/MC [NP [Det My] [N brother]] [VP [V won] [NP [Det the] [N lottery]]]]

Each of the bracketed units here is a word, a phrase, or a clause. We refer to these as CONSTITUENTS. A constituent is defined as a word or a group of words which acts syntactically as a unit.

As a means of illustrating the grammatical hierarchy, the labelled brackets we have used here have at least one major drawback. You've probably noticed it already -- they are very difficult to interpret. And the problem becomes more acute as the sentence becomes more complex. For this reason, linguists prefer to employ a more visual method, the TREE DIAGRAM.

A tree diagram is a visual representation of syntactic structure, in which the grammatical 95 hierarchy is graphically displayed. Here's the tree diagram for our sentence, My brother won the lottery:

A tree diagram contains exactly the same information as its corresponding labelled bracketing, but it is much easier to interpret.

Form and Function

We have used the word "form" quite often. It was one of the criteria we used to distinguish between word classes -- we saw that the form or "shape" of a word is often a good clue to its word class.

When we looked at phrases, too, we were concerned with their form. We said that phrases may have the basic form (Pre-Head string) - Head - (Post-Head string).

And finally, we classified clauses according to the form (finite or nonfinite) of their main verb.

In all of these cases, we were conducting a FORMAL analysis. Form denotes how something looks -- its shape or appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that the old man is an NP, or that the old man bought a newspaper is a finite clause, we are carrying out a formal analysis.

We can also look at constituents -- phrases and clauses -- from another angle. We can examine the FUNCTIONS which they perform in the larger structures which contain them.

96 Subject and Predicate

The most familiar grammatical function is the SUBJECT. In notional terms, we can think of the Subject as the element which performs the "action" denoted by the verb: [1] David plays the piano. [2] The police interviewed all the witnesses.

In [1], the Subject David performs the action of playing the piano. In [2], the Subject the police performs the action of interviewing all the witnesses. In these terms, this means that we can identify the Subject by asking a wh-question: [1] David plays the piano. Q. Who plays the piano? A. David ( = Subject)

[2] The police interviewed all the witnesses Q. Who interviewed all the witnesses? A. The police (= Subject)

Having identified the Subject, we can see that the remainder of the sentence tells us what the Subject does or did. In [1], for example, plays the piano tells us what David does. We refer to this string as the PREDICATE of the sentence. In [2], the Predicate is interviewed all the witnesses.

Here are some more examples of sentences labelled for Subject and Predicate.

Subject Predicate The lion roared He writes well She enjoys going to the cinema The girl in the blue arrived late dress

97 In each of these examples, the Subject performs the action described in the Predicate. We've seen, however, that there are problems in defining verbs as "action" words, and for the same reasons, there are problems in defining the Subject as the "performer" of the action. The Subject in John seems unhappy is John, but we would hardly say he is performing an action. For this reason, we need to define the Subject more precisely than this. We will look at the characteristics of the Subject on the next page.

Characteristics of the Subject The grammatical Subject has a number of characteristics which we will examine here.

1. Subject-Verb Inversion

In a declarative sentence, the Subject comes before the verb: Declarative: David is unwell. l When we change this into a yes/no interrogative, the Subject and the verb change places with each other:

Interrogative: Is David unwell? If an auxiliary verb is present, however, the Subject changes places with the auxiliary: Declarative: Jim has left already. Interrogative: Has Jim left already?

In this interrogative, the Subject still comes before the main verb, but after the auxiliary. This is true also of interrogatives with a do-auxiliary: Declarative: Jim left early Interrogative: Did Jim leave early?

Subject-verb inversion is probably the most reliable method of identifying the Subject of a sentence.

98 2. Position of the Subject In a declarative sentence, the Subject is usually the first constituent: Jim was in bed Paul arrived too late for the party The Mayor of New York attended the banquet We made a donation to charity

However, there are exceptions to this. For instance: Yesterday the theatre was closed.

Here, the first constituent is the adverb phrase yesterday, but this is not the Subject of the sentence. Notice that the theatre, and not yesterday, inverts with the verb in the interrogative: Declarative: Yesterday the theatre was closed Interrogative: Yesterday was the theatre closed?

So the Subject here is the theatre, even though it is not the first constituent in the sentence.

3. Subject-verb Agreement

Subject-verb AGREEMENT or CONCORD relates to number agreement (singular or plural) between the Subject and the verb which follows it: Singular Subject: The dog howls all night Plural Subject: The dogs howl all night

There are two important limitations to Subject-verb agreement. Firstly, agreement only applies when the verb is in the present tense. In the past tense, there is no overt agreement between the Subject and the verb: The dog howled all night The dogs howled all night

99 And secondly, agreement applies only to third person Subjects. There is no distinction, for example, between a first person singular Subject and a first person plural Subject: I howl all night We howl all night

The concept of NOTIONAL AGREEMENT sometimes comes into play: The government is considering the proposal The government are considering the proposal

Here, the form of the verb is not determined by the form of the Subject. Instead, it is determined by how we interpret the Subject. In the government is..., the Subject is interpreted as a unit, requiring a singular form of the verb. In the government are..., the Subject is interpreted as having a plural meaning, since it relates to a collection of individual people. Accordingly, the verb has the plural form are.

4. Subjective Pronouns

The pronouns I, he/she/it, we, they, always function as Subjects, in contrast with me, him/her, us, them: I left early *Me left early He left early *Him left early We left early *Us left early They left early *Them left early

The pronoun you can also be a Subject: You left early but it does not always perform this function. In the following example, the Subject is Tom, not you:

100 Tom likes you.

Realizations of the Subject In the sentence, Jim was in bed, the Subject is the NP Jim. More precisely, we say that the Subject is realised by the NP Jim. Conversely, the NP Jim is the realisation of the Subject in this sentence. Remember that NP is a formal term, while Subject is a functional term:

FORM FUNCTION Noun Phrase Subject

Subjects are typically realized by NPs. This includes NPs which have pronouns [1], cardinal numerals [2], and ordinal numerals [3] as their Head word: [1] [We] decided to have a party [2] [One of my contacts lenses] fell on the floor [3] [The first car to reach Brighton] is the winner

However, other constituents can also function as Subjects, and we will examine these in the following sections.

Clauses functioning as Subject Clauses can also function as Subjects. When they perform this function, we refer to them generally as Subject clauses. The table below shows examples of the major types of Subject clauses: CLAUSES EXAMPLE functioning as SUBJECTS Finite

That-clause [1] That his theory was flawed soon became obvious [2] What I need is a long holiday Nominal Relative clause Nonfinite To-infinitive clause [3] To become an opera singer takes years of training [4] Being the chairman is a huge responsibility -ing clause

101 Notice that some of these Subject clauses have Subjects of their own. In [1], the Subject clause that his theory was flawed, has its own Subject, his theory. Similarly, in [2], the Subject of what I need is I.

Among nonfinite clauses, only to-infinitive clauses and -ing participle clauses can function as Subject. Bare infinitive clauses and -ed participle clauses cannot perform this function. In the examples above -- [3] and [4] -- the nonfinite Subject clauses do not have Subjects of their own, although they can do: [3a] For Mary to become an opera singer would take years of training. [4a] David being the chairman has meant more work for all of us.

Prepositional Phrases functioning as Subject

Less commonly, the Subject may be realised by a prepositional phrase: After nine is a good time to ring .

Prepositional phrases as Subject typically refer to time or to space.

Some Unusual Subjects

Before leaving this topic, we will point out some grammatical Subjects which may at first glance be difficult to recognize as such. For example, can you work out the Subject of the following sentence? There is a fly in my soup

As we've seen, the most reliable test for identifying the Subject is Subject-verb inversion, so let's try it here: Declarative: There is a fly in my soup. Interrogative: Is there a fly in my soup?

The inversion test shows that the subject is there. You will recall that this is an example of existential there, and the sentence in which it is the Subject is an existential sentence.

102 Now try the same test on the following: It is raining.

The inversion test shows that the Subject is it: Declarative: It is raining Interrogative: Is it raining?

These two examples illustrate how limited the notional definition of the Subject really is. In no sense can we say that there and it are performing an "action" in their respective sentences, and yet they are grammatically functioning as Subjects.

On this page, we've seen that the function of Subject can be realized by several different forms. Conversely, the various forms (NP, clause, PP, etc) can perform several other functions, and we will look at these in the following pages.

Exercise #29 In each of the following sentences, identify the Subject by underlining. 1. Your new neighbours are very noisy. 2. Drinking beer is not permitted. 3. Without thinking, the professor stepped off the pavement. 4. To ensure confidentiality, we will conceal your name and address. 5. There was a storm last night.

Inside the Predicate

Now we will look inside the Predicate, and assign functions to its constituents.

Recall that the Predicate is everything apart from the Subject. So in David plays the piano, the Predicate is plays the piano. This Predicate consists of a verb phrase, and we can divide this into two further elements: [plays] [the piano]

In formal terms, we refer to the verb as the PREDICATOR, because its function is to predicate or state something about the subject. Notice that Predicator is a

103 functional term, while verb is a formal term:

FORM FUNCTION Verb Predicator

However, since the Predicator is always realized by a verb, we will continue to use the more familiar term verb, even when we are discussing functions.

The Direct Object

In the sentence David plays the piano, the NP the piano is the constituent which undergoes the "action" of being played (by David, the Subject). We refer to this constituent as the DIRECT OBJECT.

Here are some more examples of Direct Objects: We bought a new computer I used to ride a motorbike The police interviewed all the witnesses

We can usually identify the Direct Object by asking who or what was affected by the Subject. For example: We bought a new computer Q. What did we buy? A. A new computer ( = the Direct Object)

The Direct Object generally comes after the verb, just as the Subject generally comes before it. So in a declarative sentence, the usual pattern is: Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object

The following table shows more examples of this pattern:

Subject Verb Direct Object The tourists visited the old cathedral

104 She sent a postcard The detectives examined the scene of the crime

Realizations of the Direct Object

The Direct Object is most often realized by an NP, as in the examples above. However, this function can also be realized by a clause. The following table shows examples of clauses functioning as Direct Objects:

CLAUSES EXAMPLES functioning as DIRECT OBJECTS

Finite That-clause Nominal relative [1] He thought that he had a perfect alibi clause [2] The officer described what he saw through the keyhole Nonfinite To-infinitive clause Bare infinitive clause [3] The dog wants to play in the garden -ing clause [4] She made the lecturer laugh -ed clause [5] Paul loves playing football [6] I'm having my house painted

Subjects and Objects, Active and Passive A useful way to compare Subjects and Direct Objects is to observe how they behave in active and passive sentences. Consider the following active sentence: Active: Fire destroyed the palace.

Here we have a Subject fire and a Direct Object the palace.

Now let's convert this into a passive sentence:

Passive: The palace was destroyed by fire The change from active to passive has the following results:

105 1. The active Direct Object the palace becomes the passive Subject. 2. The active Subject fire becomes part of the PP by fire (the by-agent phrase).

Exercise #30 In each of the following sentences, identify the Direct Object by clicking before and after it. 1. Our programmer is testing his new software. 2. He suddenly realised that someone was listening. 3. Amy has decided to go to university. 4. They can't read what you've written. 5. This exercise involves clicking on the screen.

The Indirect Object

Some verbs occur with two Objects: We gave [John] [a present] Here, the NP a present undergoes the "action" (a present is what is given). So a present is the Direct Object. We refer to the NP John as the INDIRECT OBJECT.

Indirect Objects usually occur with a Direct Object, and they always come before the Direct Object. The typical pattern is: Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object

Here are some more examples of sentences containing two objects:

Indirect Object Direct Object Tell me a story

106 He showed us his war medals We bought David a birthday cake Can you lend your colleague a pen?

Verbs which take an Indirect Object and a Direct Object are known as DITRANSITIVE verbs. Verbs which take only a Direct Object are called MONOTRANSITIVE verbs. The verb tell is a typical ditransitive verb, but it can also be monotransitive:

Indirect Object Direct Object Ditransitive David told the children a story Monotransitiv David told a story e

As we've seen, an Indirect Object usually co-occurs with a Direct Object. However, with some verbs an Indirect Object may occur alone: David told the children although we can usually posit an implicit Direct Object in such cases: David told the children the news.

Realizations of the Indirect Object

NPs are the most common realizations of the Indirect Object. It is a typical function of pronouns in the objective case, such as me, him, us, and them. Less commonly, a clause will function as Indirect Object: David told whoever saw her to report to the police. Adjuncts

Certain parts of a sentence may convey information about how, when, or where something happened: He ate his meal quickly. (how) David gave blood last week. (when) Susan went to school in New York. (where)

107 The highlighted constituents here are ADJUNCTS. From a syntactic point of view, Adjuncts are optional elements, since their omission still leaves a complete sentence: He ate his meal quickly. ~He ate his meal. David gave blood last week. ~David gave blood. Susan went to school in New York. ~Susan went to school.

Many types of constituents can function as Adjuncts, and we exemplify these below.

Realizations of Adjuncts

Noun Phrases functioning as Adjuncts David gave blood last week Next summer, we're going to Spain We've agreed to meet the day after tomorrow

NPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time, as in these examples.

Adverb Phrases functioning as Adjuncts They ate their meal too quickly She walked very gracefully down the steps Suddenly, the door opened

Prepositional Phrases functioning as Adjuncts Susan went to school in New York I work late on Mondays After work, I go to a local restaurant PPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time or to place -- they tell us when or where something happens.

Clauses functioning as Adjuncts

Subordinate clauses can function as Adjuncts. We'll begin with some examples of finite subordinate clauses: 108

Clauses EXAMPLES functioning as Adjuncts Finite While we were crossing the park, we heard a loud explosion I was late for the interview because the train broke down If you want tickets for the concert, you have to apply early My car broke down, so I had to walk Nonfinite To-infinitive clause Bare infinitive To open the window, you have to climb a ladder clause Rather than leave the child alone, I brought him to work -ing clause with me Being a qualified plumber, Paul had no difficulty in -ed clause finding the leak Small clause Left to himself, he usually gets the job done quickly His face red with rage, John stormed out of the room

You will notice that these clauses express the range of meanings that we looked at earlier (in Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types). In all cases, notice also that the Adjuncts express additional and optional information. If they are omitted, the remaining clause is still syntactically complete.

Exercise #31 We have now looked at the following grammatical functions: Subject Predicate Predicator Direct Object

109 Indirect Object Adjunct In the following sentences, identify the functions of the bracketed strings: 1. Recently, [finding a job] has become very difficult. a. Subject b. Predicate c. Predicator d. Direct Object e. Indirect Object f. Adjunct 2. Amy sings [very sweetly]. a. Subject b. Predicate c. Predicator d. Direct Object e. Indirect Object f. Adjunct 3. I've left [my keys] in the car. a. Subject b. Predicate c. Predicator d. Direct Object e. Indirect Object f. Adjunct 4. Robert promised [me] that he'd send a postcard. a. Subject b. Predicate c. Predicator d. Direct Object e. Indirect Object f. Adjunct 5. Playing football [is his only pastime]. a. Subject b. Predicate c. Predicator d. Direct Object e. Indirect Object f. Adjunct

Sentence Patterns from a Functional Perspective

In order to summarize what we have learned, we will now look at some typical sentence patterns from a functional perspective. We will then conclude this section by looking at some untypical patterns, on the next page.

110 As we've seen, the Subject is usually (but not always) the first element in a sentence, and it is followed by the verb:

Pattern 1

Subject Verb David sings. The barked. dog yawned. Susan

In this pattern, the verb is not followed by any Object, and we refer to this as an intransitive verb. If the verb is monotransitive, it takes a Direct Object, which follows the verb:

Pattern 2

Subject Verb Direct Object David ballads. sings The to retire. wants professor the defendant guilty. found The jury In the ditransitive pattern, the verb is followed by an Indirect Object and a Direct Object, in that order:

Pattern 3

Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The old man gave the children some money. My uncle sent me a present. The detectives aske Amy lots of questions. d

Adjuncts are syntactically peripheral to the rest of the sentence. They may occur at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, and they may occur in all three of the patterns above: Pattern 4

111 (Adjunct) Subject Verb Indirect Direct (Adjunct) Object Object [1] Usually David sings in the bath [2] Unfortunately the wants to retire this year professor [3] At the start of the judge showe the jury the in a private the trial d photographs chamber

Pattern 4 is essentially a conflation of the other three, with Adjuncts added. We have bracketed the Adjuncts to show that they are optional. Strictly speaking, Objects are also optional, since they are only required by monotransitive and ditransitive verbs, as in the examples [2] and [3] above.

Exercise #32 Match the sentences to the patterns: 1. The wall collapsed. a. Subject -- Verb b. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object c. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object d. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object e. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) 2. During the war, many people lost their homes. a. Subject -- Verb b. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object c. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object d. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object e. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct 3. I promised the children a trip to the zoo. a. Subject -- Verb b. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object c. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object d. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object e. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct 4. When he was 12, David moved to London. a. Subject -- Verb b. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object c. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object d. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object e. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct

112 5. Paul hired a bicycle. a. Subject -- Verb b. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object c. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object d. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object e. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct

Some Untypical Sentence Patterns The sentence patterns we looked at on the previous page represent typical or canonical patterns But you will often come across sentences which do not conform to these patterns. We will look at some of these here.

Extraposition The Subject is sometimes postponed until the end of the sentence. Here are some examples: In first place is Red Rum Inside the house were two detectives More important is the question of compensation

Here, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for stylistic effect. In these examples, the Subject comes after the verb, and is said to be EXTRAPOSED.

Compare them with the more usual pattern:

In first place is Red Rum ~Red Rum is in first place Inside the house were two ~Two detectives were inside the detectives house More important is the question ~The question of compensation is of compensation more important

The Subject is also extraposed when the sentence is introduced by anticipatory it: It is a good idea to book early It is not surprising that he failed his exams

In the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound stylistically awkward:

113 To book early is a good idea That he failed his exams is not surprising Extraposition is not always just a matter of style. In the following examples, it is obligatory:

It seems that he'll be late again ~*That he'll be late again seems It turned out that his secretary ~*That his secretary had stolen the had stolen the money money turned out

Direct Objects, too, can be extraposed. Recall that their typical position is after the verb (Pattern 2). However, when anticipatory it is used, the Direct Object is extraposed: He made it very clear that he would not be coming back.

Again, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward: *He made that he would not be coming back very clear.

Cleft Sentences

A declarative sentence, such as David studied English at Oxford can be reformulated as: It was David who studied English at Oxford

This is called a CLEFT SENTENCE because the original sentence has been divided (or "cleft") into two clauses: It was David and who studied English at Oxford. Cleft sentences focus on one constituent of the original sentence, placing it after it was (or it is). Here we have focussed on the Subject David, but we could also focus on the Direct Object English: It was English that David studied at Oxford or on the Adjunct at Oxford It was at Oxford that David studied English

Cleft constructions, then, exhibit the pattern:

114 It + be + focus + clause

Functions in Phrases

The syntactic functions which we looked at in the last section -- Subject, Object, Predicate, Adjunct, etc -- are all functions within sentences or clauses. We saw, for instance, that most sentences can be divided into two main functional constituents, the Subject and the Predicate:

Subject Predicate [1] The lion roared [2] He writes well [3] She enjoys going to the cinema [4] The girl in the blue dress arrived late

Within the Predicate, too, constituents perform various functions -- in [3], for example, going to the cinema performs the function of Direct Object, while in [4], late performs the function of Adjunct. In each of these cases, we are referring to the roles which these constituents perform in the sentence or clause.

We can also assign functions to the constituents of a phrase. Recall that we have said that all phrases have the following generalised structure: (pre-Head string) --- Head --- (post-Head string) where the parentheses denote optional elements. In this section, we will consider the functions of these parts of a phrase -- what roles do they perform in the phrase as a whole?

We will begin by looking at functions within verb phrases.

Complements Consider the bracketed verb phrase in the following sentence: David [VP plays the piano]

115 In formal terms, we can analyze this VP using the familiar three-part structure:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string -- plays the piano

Let us now consider the functions of each of these three parts.

Actually, we already know the function of one of the parts -- the word plays functions as the Head of this VP. The term "Head" is a functional label, indicated by the capital (upper case) letter. Remember that we also capitalize the other functions -- Subject, Object, Predicate, etc.

Turning now to the post-Head string the piano, we can see that it completes the meaning of the Head plays. In functional terms, we refer to this string as the COMPLEMENT of the Head. Here are some more examples of Complements in verb phrases:

pre-Head string Head Complement never needs money -- eat vegetables not say what he is doing

In each case, the Complement completes the meaning of the Head, so there is a strong syntactic link between these two strings.

At this point you may be wondering why we do not simply say that these post-Head strings are Direct Objects. Why do we need the further term Complement?

The string which completes the meaning of the Head is not always a Direct Object. Consider the following: She [VP told me]

116 Here the post-Head string (the Complement) is an Indirect Object. With ditransitive verbs, two Objects appear: We [VP gave James a present]

Here, the meaning of the Head gave is completed by two strings -- James and a present. Each string is a Complement of the Head gave.

Finally, consider verb phrases in which the Head is a form of the verb be: David [VP is a musician] Amy [VP is clever] Our car [VP is in the car park]

The post-Head strings here are neither Direct Objects nor Indirect Objects. The verb be is known as a COPULAR verb. It takes a special type of Complement which we will refer to generally as a COPULAR COMPLEMENT. There is a small number of other copular verbs. In the following examples, we have highlighted the Head, and italicized the Complement: Our teacher [VP became angry] Your sister [VP seems upset] All the players [VP felt very tired] after the game That [VP sounds great]

It is clear from this that we require the general term Complement to encompass all post-Head strings, regardless of their type. In verb phrases, a wide range of Complements can appear, but in all cases there is a strong syntactic link between the Complement and the Head. The Complement is that part of the VP which is required to complete the meaning of the Head.

Complements in other Phrase Types

Complements also occur in all of the other phrase types. We exemplify each type in the following table:

Phrase Type Head Typical Examples

117 Complements Noun Phrase (NP) noun PP respect for human rights

the realization that nothing clause has changed Verb Phrase (VP) verb NP David plays the piano

They realized that nothing clause has changed

She looked at the moon PP Adjective Phrase adjective clause easy to read (AP) PP fond of biscuits Adverb Phrase adverb PP luckily for me (AdvP) Prepositional Phrase preposition NP in the room (PP) PP from behind the wall

Adverb phrases are very limited in the Complements they can take. In fact, they generally occur without any Complement.

Noun phrases which take Complements generally have an abstract noun as their Head, and they often have a verbal counterpart:

the pursuit of happiness ~we pursue happiness. their belief in ghosts ~they believe in ghosts. the realization that nothing has changed ~they realized that nothing has changed.

Exercise #33

In each of the following phrases, identify the Complement by underlining it. 1. unable to swim 2. the fact that the money was stolen

118 3. below the horizon 4. learning to drive 5. aware of his potential

Adjuncts in Phrases

The term "Complement" is not simply another word for the "post-Head string" -- post- Head strings are not always Complements. This is because the post-Head string is not always required to complete the meaning of the Head. Consider: [NP My sister, who will be twenty next week,] has got a new job.

Here the relative clause who will be twenty next week is certainly a post-Head string, but it is not a Complement. Notice that it contributes additional but optional information about the Head sister. In this example, the post-Head string is an ADJUNCT. Like the other Adjuncts we looked at earlier, it contributes additional, optional information.

Adjuncts can occur in all the phrase types, and they may occur both before and after the Head. The following table shows examples of each type:

Typical Phrase Type Head Examples Adjuncts

Noun Phrase (NP) noun PP the books on the shelf AP the old lady clause cocoa, which is made from cacao beans

Verb Phrase (VP) verb AdvP she rapidly lost interest PP he stood on the patio

Adjective Phrase (AP) adjective AdvP it was terribly difficult

Prepositional Phrase (PP) preposition AdvP completely out of control

Complements and Adjuncts Compared 119 Complements differ from Adjuncts in two important respects: 1. Complements immediately follow the Head In most phrases, the Complement must immediately follow the Head: David [VP plays [Complement the piano] [Adjunct beautifully ]]

In contrast, the reverse order is not possible: *David [VP plays [Adjunct beautifully] [Complement the piano]]

Similarly: fond [Complement of biscuits] [Adjunct with coffee] ~*fond [Adjunct with coffee] [Complement of biscuits]

Complements, then, bear a much closer relationship to the Head than Adjuncts do.

2. Adjuncts are "stackable" In theory at least, we can "stack" an indefinite number of Adjuncts, one after another, within a phrase. For example, consider the NP:

Adjunct Adjunct Adjunct Adjunct the book on the shelf by Dickens with the red cover that you gave me...

In contrast with this, phrases are limited in the number of Complements that they can take. In fact, they usually have only one Complement. Ditransitive verb phrases are an exception to this. Recall that they take two Complements: We [VP gave [Complement James] [Complement a present]]

Exercise #34 In the following NP we have bracketed two strings. the use [of computers] [in schools] Decide whether each string is a Complement or an Adjunct. of computers a. Complement b. Adjunct in schools a. Complement b. Adjunct

120 Specifiers

Adjuncts can appear before the Head of a phrase, as well as after the Head. For example, in the following NP, the Adjunct sudden is part of what we have been calling the pre-Head string:

? Adjunct Head Complement

the sudden realization that nothing has changed

In this section we will look at the function of the remaining part of the pre-Head string. In this example, what is the function of the in the phrase as a whole?

We refer to this part of the phrase as the SPECIFIER of the phrase. Again, Specifiers may occur in all the major phrase types, and we exemplify them in the following table:

Phrase Type Head Typical Specifiers Examples Noun Phrase (NP) noun determiners the vehicle an objection some people Verb Phrase (VP) verb `negative' elements not arrive never plays the piano Adjective Phrase (AP) adjective AdvP quite remarkable very fond of animals Prepositional Phrase (PP) preposition AdvP just across the street

An important point about Specifiers is that they relate to the Head + Complement sequence, and not to the Head alone. For example, in the AP very fond of animals, the Specifier very relates to fond of animals, not just to fond: Amy is very fond of animals Q. Amy is very what? A. *Fond

121 A. Fond of animals

In functional terms, then, the three-part structure of a phrase can be summarised as: (Specifier) -- [Head -- (Complement)]

Exercise #35 Identify the function of the bracketed strings in each of the following phrases: 1. early [editions] of the evening newspapers. a. Specifier b. Head c. Complement d. Adjunct 2. examined the evidence [with great care]. a. Specifier b. Head c. Complement d. Adjunct 3. [many] examples of Greek sculpture. a. Specifier b. Head c. Complement d. Adjunct 4. an [extraordinary] state of affairs. a. Specifier b. Head c. Complement d. Adjunct 5. very anxious [to make a good impression]. a. Specifier b. Head c. Complement d. Adjunct

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