onta nais arta eurs rom e en Islan s . Kno a e M g p g f S v d b L k , 5 n i M K nz i in ente f ront row une 22 19 3 ra c s c e e c r o . J , . ( F f ) THE FRIEND LY M ON TAGN AI S

AN D THEIR NEIGHBORS

IN THE UN GAV A PENINSULA

The Frien d ly M on tagn ais

an d Their N eighbors in the

FRANCIS HARPER

U N I V E R S I T Y O F K A N S A S L A W R E N C E K A N S A S UNIVERSITY or KAN S AS

MUSEUM OF NATUR AL HIST OR Y

EEHHI NR: EL IUYYLQOQU) PDKLL.

7 1-12 2 . 0 0 lat es Miscella neous Publication No . 3 , pp , p

Published A ril 20 1964 p ,

Biological investigations in this region in 1953 were supported by the Arctic Institute of N orth America ( through contractual ar rangements with the Office of N aval Re search ) and by the Research and Develop ment iv sion O ice of The ur eon Gen D i , ff S g eral e artment f , D p o the Army . The results are b eing prepared for publication under a n n i n n n gra t from the Natio al S c e ce Fou datio . Reproduction in whole or in part is per mitted for any purpose of the United States o ernmen G v t.

N 9“I T; 0 I N

T HE ALLEN P RE SS n Lawre ce, Kans as 1 964 THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAIS AND THEIR NEIGHBORS IN THE UNGAVA PENINSULA

C O N T E N T S

Introduction

Differentiation between Montagnais , Naskapi , and Cree Geographical and ecological distribution of Ind ian tribes in the

Tribal characteristics The Eastern Cree The Naskapi W Davis Inlet band Northwest River band The Montagnais

Montagn ais friends

Some contr ibutors to the ethnology of the Ungava Peninsula

_ Acknowledgments - u Literature cited Index

INTR ODUCTI ON

One would wish the Eskimos and Ind ians Of Ungava and N orthern L abrador to join th at select academy of uncrushable small p eoples th at inclu des as dis tin uished mem ers the L a s the aroes e the eo le of T ristan d a un a g b pp , F , p p C h ,

some r awa s and a s and the exican Indians . A k Dy k , M

El on 2 3 . ( t , 194 z36 )

’ A brief summer s experience ( in 1953 ) with certain members Of the Seven Islands or Moisie band Of Montagn ais Indians has left me with a distinct impression that friendlin ess is one Of their outstanding - characteristics . ( Self possession , I might add , is another . ) Evi d ently Couper had a similar feeling in regard to the Mingan band 95 - some years ago , and Tanner in regard to the Montagnais Naskapi in u r if Of Davis Inlet and Northwest River q ite recent yea s , we may judge by the quotations from their works that are presented on sub sequent pages . ’

How, then , are we to interpret the subtitle of Professor Speck s volume of 1935 : Nas kapi: S avage Hunters of the Labrad or Penin “ sula ? Here he used the term Naskapi to include the Montagnais l Of the North Shore of the Gu f of St . Lawrence as well as the true

ka as i . N p of the northern interior In fact, my late friend and neighbor made no very sharp distinction between the two tr ibes and frequently “ - gave them the joint designation of Montagnais Naskapi . Perhaps “ we shall have a better understan ding Of the word savage in the ’ n book s subtitle if we i terpret it as primitive or untutored , rather than as fierce or barbarous .

’ — in the l 600 s— In much earlier times , however say there was no i doubt at all as to the savage nature Of the Montagna s . One who reads ’ Parkm an s The J esuits in North America in the S eventeenth Century is likely to gain from that volume a shuddering impression of the unspeakable tortures practiced by this tribe on their native enemies

and on some of the Jesuit fathers as well . Of in Hand Works on Indians North America general ( for example ,

book o N ort Am r an n ia . h e ic I d ns 1 2 1907 1910 . f , Parts and , and ; E S 1907- 1930 1929 1939 1940 Curtis , ; Palmer , ; Kroeber , ; Wissler, ; Swan 1952 1957 in ton, ; Driver and Massey, ) or of Canada particular 1955 ( for example , Jenness , ; Leechman , give comparatively little ( or even no )space to the Indians of the Ungava Penin sula . In order, therefore , to prepare a compendium no more ambitious than the present one on the characteristics and distribution of the several

r inf r t ibes ( or subtribes ), it has been necessary to assemble the o

mation from many sources , most of them dealing with merely a seg

ment of the Indian population of the entire peninsula .

IF E E IATI E WEE AI S A I AND CREE D F R NT ON B T N MONTAGN S , NA K P ,

“ asko ies R The N p , Mountaineers [ Montagnais ] , and Moose iver i Ind ans are sprung from the same stock, the Cree, extending over the f centre of Britis h North America . They are not sufficiently di fer entiated to be classed as dialectically distinct; although the linguistic differences between the Naskopies and Moose River Indians are

greater than between the N askopies and the Mountaineers . “ l Nasko ie to e Physical y, the p appears be b tween the two ; the i a Moose River ( or East Ma n )Indian is the t ller, somewhat stouter, - t two . n darker skinned , and the be ter man of the The Mou taineers are ” of il 1 r l o . 888 smaller statu e, wel bu t and als of dark color ( Turner,

“ The number [ of Naskapi words] obtained is sufficient to prove that the people of this region [ Fort Chimo] belong t o the Cree n n an d a i branch . The Mou tai eers Little Wh le R ver Indians belong to and n the same stock, the difference in their la guage is due wholly ”

1894 zl 84 . to . environment ( Turner, ) “ The western people [ Eastern Cree along James and Hudson bays] differ greatly in customs and man y words Of their language from the

nen t Ne o s [Naskapi] . The mountaineers differ but little in their cus

and n in ul toms , o ly speech as much as wo d be expected from the i l 1 94 2 . . 8 z 67 different locality in wh ch they dwel ( Turner, ) — Low ( 1896z44 45) distin guishes no less than four Indian groups in the Ungava Peninsul a : “ ri a The principal t bes of Labrador are the Montagn is , the eastern

Nascau ees n . and western p , and the coastal India s of Hudson Bay The Montagnais inhabit the countr y extendin g south of a line drawn f i to o . westward from Ham lton Inlet, the headwaters the St Maurice

ascau ees River . The N p inhabit the interior country north of this line,

or I from the bottom of James Bay eastward to Hamilton nlet . The

of Koksoak northern limit their territory is marked by the River, from

t to a its mou h the Stillwater Branch [L rch River] , and by this stream t s i di westward o Richmond Gulf on Hud on Bay . This l ne vides the of and n l Indian territory from that the Eskimo , the bou dary is wel

n to t of observed , the latter keepi g far the nor h it, when hunting deer

n the i r t r . i land, and Ind ans ra ely crossing it from the sou hwa d “ The coastal Indian s of Hudson Bay are confined to a narrow mar

n of to gin extendi g from the bottom James Bay Little Whale River, ” th Low did i tr al along e east coast . ( While not here g ve a ib name to t as v m a his l t group, he e idently had in ind what others have v riously 4 I L AT I . IVE P UB S . M US . N . UN RS TY OF KANSAS , H ST

i - or called the Eastern Cree , Swampy Cree , Mistass ni Cree , James

Bay Cree . ) “ f The M ontagnais o Lake St . John speak a somewhat different

of Bersirnis of dialect from that , and it again differs from the dialects

i r i of M ngan o Northwest River . These d fferences dialect in the same tribe are slight, and are mostly in the slang and interjections . The to of Nascau ee same differences apply the dialects the p , Mistassini

‘ Nichicun i i Fort ChimO of and , d ffer ng from that of , and all from that ? [Great ] Whale River and Rupert House . But these differences are all so small that the Montagnais canoemen conversed readily with i Nichicun the natives at Mistassin , , Fort Chimo and Northwest River , o l on of and were nly slight y puzzled the coast Hudson Bay, where the f L 4 O . ow 1896 z 6. number Ojibway words is greater ( , ) to According natives Of Rupert House and East Main , the Mistas sini band is not specifically differentiated in any way from the groups whose tradin g quarters are at Rupert House and at East Main River Culturally and lin guistically there is the closest similarity

t not for be ween them , and were it the separate habitat, the separate r i o headquarters , the sepa ate ch eftaincies , t gether with a certain consciousness Of independence Of each other, there would be little

t d f r o o h . need employ ifferent designations the t ree bands ( Speck ,

“ For dialectic reasons the Rupert House and East Main Indians i and should be ident fied with the Mistassini Montagnais . ( Speck , 1 2 4 1 39 0 9 3 z 57. to 9 z7 ) On the other hand, according Michelson ( , Nichicun . t fig the Ruper House , East Main , Mistassini , and

a -di n bands spe k a y alect, while the Montag ais proper ( from Lake to - St . John Seven Islands )speak an l dialect . Speck ( 1926b)has a further discussion Of tribal relationships “ The customs and speech of the bands throughout the Labrador n o Peninsula are in the wider sense essentially u if rm . Differentiation is chiefly noticeable between the smaller bands located on the

. on southern watershed toward the St Lawrence , those the northern dl or Ungava and Atlantic watershed, and thir y those in that portion i o of the pen nsula facing t wards Hudson Bay . There has been in the past a tendency among ethnologists to classify these groupin gs as t n to though they possessed ribal differentiation , by referri g them as

Montagnais , Naskapi and Cree, respectively . There seems , however, to i -con be little real cause for this term nology , since neither group sciousness nor internal political relationship can be shown for the no t no u same areas , fixed dialectic proper ies and definite cult re anal HARPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA ogies appear to mark them out distinctly within the geogr aphical r boundaries mentioned for them . As for racial cha acteristics , similar u types , in head form , face width , complexion and stat re, seem , from a i Of av ilable data, equally d spersed over the whole extent the pop P 274—275 ulation . [ p. ] “ to In It would then be more appropriate , I believe, to refer the i Of - d ans the whole area as Montagnais Naskapi , there being some authority in earlier literatur e for the retention of these two names . The designation Of the bands on the eastern coast of James and Hud n ur to son Bay as Cree, by Ski ner, proves upon f ther test be for the v present inad isable , in view of the fact that the dialects here possess affinities with those of the Labrador interior as much as with the

Cree proper . And again a correction may be made in the prevail

w the ing Opinion , one much promulgated by ethnological riters , that t Height of Land, forming the watershed be ween the St . Lawrence

t n the so- and the Arc ic drainage area , is a bou dary dividing called Montagnais on the southern side from the S O-called N askapi on the i f . u th e O north It t rns out, indeed , that nhabitants the southern b n a coasts , from a out Seven Isla ds e stward, are , in both speech and r i habit, almost identical with the interior g oups recogn zed as true P 275 u t t . . Naskapi, and hence deserve incl sion wi h hem [ ] “ tu i From a cul ral and at the same time a d alectic viewpoint, the i whole pen nsula falls into three subdivisions , the most extensive and

i if one i the the most s mpl ied is that cover ng the whole northern , cen and Nichicun to tral eastern territory , from Lake north Ungava Bay east to the Atlantic Labrador coast The same groupin g

i n f . embraces the southeastern coast, com ng up i to the Gul of St Law rence about as far as Seven Islands This is the area to which the l term Naskapi has been app ied quite generally in the past, and we l t i may sti l refer to the bands wi h n it by the same name . From n i f this poi t on , ascend ng the Gul and river coast of the St . Lawrence to n r to a little above Quebec and then sweepi g northwa d a point, 1 2 n . 5 . 7 an d t above Lake St . Joh , about Lat , Long , eas ward following to tu the Height of Land back the longi de of Seven Islands , is the i boundary of the traditional Montagnais cultural and dialect c type . The Indians realize marked differences between the bands occupyin g the interior and those near the coasts . The northwestern sector

r finally, from below Rupert House and Rupert River northwa d as far as the uninhabited region north of Lake Minto and east to 72 about latitude longitude] , is characterized by a set of dialectic and cultural factors entitlin g it to recognition at present as another I F A PUB LS . M US . NAT . I . 6 UNIVERS TY O KANS S , H ST

k . separate subdivision . It remains as yet an actually un nown block For this group we may propo se the name of Mistassin i-Cree It might be unn ecessary to give this group a separate name were it not f r of to o the divergence their speech , in respect phonetics , from that ” of the accepted Naskapi type in the centr al and eastern interior . — 276 277. ( Pp . In a later work ( 1935 )Speck shows less than complete consistency - fol in adherin g to the dual appellation of Montagnais Naskapi . The lowing quotations from it show that he found it convenient to main “ of tain separate designations in various cases . The Montagnais Lake ” “ h r of r St . Jo n ( p . From another qua ter the Naskapi ter itory, ” “ 119 of o r this time from the Mistassini ( p . ) The modes pr cedu e in scapulimancy [ among the N askapi] are similar to those among the ” “ o s Montagnais ( p. The Naskapi, ranging fr m Seven Island ” “ east and north ( p . The pack strings Of the Mistassini Indians ” are even more highly conventionalized than those of the Montagnais 2 “ ” . of . ( p 07 The St . Augustin band Naskapi ( p ’

tu e . . In accord with Speck s atti de, my lat revered friend, Dr John R “ The a of Swanton , says ne rest relatives the Monta “ gnais -Naskapi are the Cree from whom they are set Off by certain “ phonetic peculiarities . The separation Of the Naskapi is without sufficient justification . i ’ The t tle Of Lips treatise ( 1947) Naskapi Law ( Lake St . John and Lake Mistassini Bands ) — is somewhat startlin g in view Of the fact that practically all authorities regard the Lake St . John Indians

of for as Montagnais , while a good number them ( example , Skinner, i Cabot, Jenness , Tanner, Leechman ) class fy the Mistassini Indians f . o as Eastern Cree Lips , like Speck, makes constant use the expres “ ” - sion Montagnais Naskapi . It would scarcely be meet for one without any pretensions to competence in ethnology to take serious issue with the scholars who n mi imize the differences between the Cree , the Montagnais , and the f f rt . not ou t o to ew Naskapi It may be place , however, quote a fu her on Opinions the subject .

Hand book o American Ind ians l . The f ( Bur . Am . Ethnology Bul 3 0 . 1 1 2 191 907 . 0 , pt , , and pt , )treats the Cree , the Montagnais , and the Naskapi separately .

a o n r t Half a century g Alanson Ski ner, a f iend Of my you hful days , made two summer trips to James Bay and subsequently published an extensive treatise ( 1911 ) on the Eastern Cree whom he had vis i d n of te and investigated o both sides the bay . His map HARPER : TH E FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UN GAVA

1 Muskeko-wu fig . )shows the territory of the Eastern Cree ( or g as in cluding all the eastern tr ibutaries of Ja mes Bay and of the adja cent part of Hudson Bay northward thr ough the Great Whale River a i basin . The eastern and northern bound ries , in the Ungava Pen n Nichicun the sula , extend to and include Lake Mistassini , Lake, Great Of Whale and Little Whale rivers , and some the headwaters of the Th ar n . e L ch River, which drai s into Ungava Bay same map places i the Montagnais on the northern tributaries of the St . Lawrence R ver l and Gu f, and the Naskapi on the tributaries of Ungava Bay and about the headwaters of the Hamilton River . ’ Michelson ( 1939z70 ) disagrees decidedl y with Skinner s classifi cation : It can not be too strongly emphasiz ed that east Of Hannah Bay [ at the south end of James Bay] Cree leaves Off an d Montagnais ’ i ni Naskapi begins . Mistassin , Waswa pi , Rupert s House , East Main , Nichi un Ri - g , Fort George and the Great Whale ver bands are y dia lects of Montagnais -Naskapi to which the d ialect Spoken at the ni i k northeast corner Of Lake K a ap s au may now be added . That the Fort George and Great Whale River ban ds distinctly form a subgroup

Within this larger one is confirmed . He adds on a later page I am compelled to state that the i 1911 sic map and accompanying remarks by A . Sk nner ( ) is [ ] practically without value The author had insufficient skill to ” i is - know what l nguistically Cree and what is Montagnais Naskapi . ’ 2 2 7 . 1 n all i . r Michelson s map ( p , fig )i dicates the Ind an territo y of - the Ungava Peninsul a as occupied by the Montagnais Naskapi . h i in However, it does show t ree d fferent areas this territory , each i al u characterized by a d fferent di ect . Act ally, these areas are corre lated fairly well with the distr ibution of the three different tribes or

' tn bal subdivisions recogn ized by others : the y -dialect among the n- i l- i Cree, the d alect among the Naskapi , and the d alect among the

Montagnais . The last dialect, however , is not represented as extend n ing eastward beyond Seven Isla ds . ( There is a divergence of opin ion among ethnologists as to whether the natives Of the eastern part f o the North Shore are Montagnais or Naskapi . ) e Nearly all authors ( other than Sp ck and Michelson ), both before

n be and after Ski ner, that I have consulted, seem to in fairly general agreement with his views on the distribution of the Indian tribes Of th e Ungava Peninsula . They at least distinguish the population Of the Hudson and James bays dr ainage from that Of the rest of the

1890 1922 r 1939 peninsula , and some of them ( Low, ; Cabot, ; K oeber, ; 194 19 1 8; , 55; , . . 196 Neilson, Jenness Leechman J W Anderson , ) 8 I E I OF AN F E . M US . NAT . HI . UN V RS TY K SAS U LS , ST

n i of di desig ate th s population as Cree . With the free movement in vid uals ll a to , especia y in later ye rs , the territories Of other bands t one and tribes , it must be expected that the speech characteris ic Of

tribe may easily be found here and there among other tribes . Mi ’ chelson s l lin uistic classi ication as is essential y a g f , indicated by the

title of his paper . ’ The reader Of Cabot s fascinating pages ( 1912 )on the t rue Naskapi

of the areafl ur e- George River p blooded , fiercely independent in - uf nature, largely self s ficient in their local resources , living primarily on the Barren Ground caribou and clad main ly in the skins of these animals until recent decades— finds it difficult ( to say the least ) to his i associate them very closely in mind with the urbane, fr endly, i o of obliging, and quite civil zed North Sh re Montagnais the present “ n day . The Naskapi , as untamed aborigi es , Stone Age people , lay f n t i of i hold o o e . The look in he r eyes is the look the pr mitive man

1 12 6 re re 9 z8 . of the . Open ( Cabot, ) But even these Naskapi, as p sented by the remnants that were starved out of the interior by the caribou scarcity some forty years ago and have clustered about the

and no r i eastern northern coastal settlements , are longe the pr mitives

how ld # such as he knew . And my o friend would deplore the change ’ ’ f to me 2os on in He himsel used tell in the , occasionally dropping for the of tu al how a chat with me at Boston Society Na r History, he not l i a ot on y lived somewhat l ke an Indi n when in Labrador, but g

so n ian that he felt I d .

’ in The Naskapi men , as revealed Cabot s photographs , appear

of no rather tall and spare . The Montagnais are generally more than

4 not medium height ( see cover; pl . , fig . and some , though all, Of

n k l 911 : 195 them i cline toward chun iness . Prichard ( ) discusses to physical differences between the two peoples . They talk each

t so nfo M cKenz ie of other with difficul y; I was i rmed by Ben , the i i o Moisie or Seven Islands group . Wh le the r kinship is evident fr m

r of i a general simila ity in their names birds and other an mals , these

not l names are usua ly identical in the two languages . “ in In general, the Montagnais are rather badly clothed trading

i The Nascau ees store furn shings . p are still considerably in skins , ”

no 1922 20 . . z 9 some, in fact, with cloth garments at all ( Cabot, ) “ Nasko i The p and Montagnais intermingle freely, intermarry and

to di . are able converse without fficulty In physical appearance also , 2 l 19 5z 28 . there is considerable resemblance ( Waugh , ) Watkins remarks From what I have heard and read

10 I E I OF E . M US . NAT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS FU LS , H ST

The Crees extend from James Bay up the west coast of Quebec i s l of Pen n ula , hunting partly in and also . The rest is country Nas r i copies and Montagnais . The broad t ibal d fferences between the Indians may be narrower than this [ the uncomplimentary name ap plied by the Montagnais to the Naskapi and the complimentary name to l t applied by the Naskapi themselves] wou d make hem seem , and ‘ Am erican ethnologists favour the portmanteau term Nascopie—Mon ’ tagnais which is more correct but lacks the convenience of a port ” 2 4 194 2 9. . z manteau ( Elton, 1947 2 s on i t Tanner ( , )expresses him elf as follows d fferen iation “ The customs and speech of the bands throughout the Labrador in i Peninsula are the wider sense essentially uniform , but d fferentia tion is noticeable between the smaller bands located ( a ) on the on southern watershed toward the St . Lawrence , ( b ) the northern or Ungava and Atlantic watershed and ( c ) in the portion facing ” towards Hudson Bay ( p . After reviewing the Opinions of Speck and others on the differen iation of 5 t . 87 the Montagnais and the Naskapi, Tanner grants ( p ) that Speck “has entered upon an appropriate and practical path” in “ referring to these geographical gr oupin gs as Montagnais -Nas k i aupee . But he cont nues “ NO i i to real, thorough ethnological d stinct on can be clearly shown

two n Naskau ee Mon exist between the territorial cla s , the p and the

tagnais . The small differences which can be traced in their soci ology and their material culture will probably be taken by many to nl f ethnologists be o y nuances o the basic characteristics . In spite of this I thin k that for the most important practical reasons the two

groups must be kept apart in the following presentation . If we take an anthropogeographical view of the questions which interest n 587 us here I thi k we can find an acceptable systemization . ( Pp .

“ It seems to me that the same more or less subconscious conception

of two f of the l , let us say, di ferent derivatives hunting ife is vaguely present in the minds of the white population of Labrador when they k speak Of the N as aupee and the Montagnais . It should be specially

. h t . . w o mentioned hat the managers Of the H B C stations , may be reckoned as best acquainted with the Labrador Indians whose lan to if tw o n i guage they speak , continue d ferentiate be een the M ntag a s

k to on and the Nas aupee. Also among them it seems be just the nature of the hunting grounds and its consequences that the differ

entiation of the two gr eat groups is based . ( P . HARPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

“ n Accordi g to what some Montagnais told me, the language of the Barren Ground Naskaupee differs so much from their southern kins d t n n men that they had sometimes ifficul y in u derstandi g each other, a fact showing that they represent different clans which have lived ” 664 apart for a rather long time ( p . if As a mere zoologist and zoogeographer, not properly qual ied to n i xpress an eth ological Opin on , I shall merely remark that I find it ’ easy and natural to abide by Tanner s view . Jenness ( 1955z270 while discussing the Montagnais and the the di u Naskapi in same pages , nevertheless sting ishes the two tribes in r r : name, territory , material cultu e , and bu ial customs “ Thes e two tribes were the first to come into close contact with n r Europeans , yet they have remai ed , in some dist icts , almost more

primitive than any other Indians of Canada . The territory of the Montagnais comprised the huge square boun ded on one side by the

l w . north shore of the Gu f Of St . Lawrence bet een the St Maurice river

On Of and Seven Islands , the other by the height land that separates i the waters flowing into the St . Lawrence from those flow ng into i James Bay . The Naskapi occupied a st ll larger area ; they roamed the entire Labrador peninsula east of a line from Seven Islands to k c ichiku n lake Nichi un , and a se ond from lake N to Ungava bay , with the exception of the narrow belt Of coast-line from Ungava bay to the k P 270 strait of Belle Isle , which was controlled by Es imo . [ p. “ Both the Montagn ais and the Naskapi were nomadic peoples f ignorant o agriculture and livin g exclusively by hunting and fishing . Th and o eir dialects were almost identical, their customs SO cl sely

i ri di in al ke that the two t bes were hardly st guishable . The Mon

- o s tagnais country was a well wooded area ab unding in moose , wherea much of the Naskapi territory was Open plateau covered with grasses and lichens [Here Jenness scarcely allows for a sufficient proportion in — F Of forested lands the Naskapi territory . the natural feed in - f O . g ground for herds barren ground caribou The Montagnais ,

therefore, covered their conical wigwams with birch bark and hunted

principally the moose during the winter months , moving down the to m to a rivers in the spring spear sal on and eels , and h rpoon the seals

that were then plentiful along the shores of the St . Lawrence . The i Naskapi , on the other hand , covered the r wigwams with caribou u l i skin , and hunted the caribou from midsummer nti early spr ng ,

when some of them moved down to the coast, like the Montagnais , i while others remained nland to fish in various lakes and rivers , and l P to . . hunt hares , porcupines , and other smal game [ 12 N I E I OF PUB LS . M US . N AT . I . U V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

“ The southern Montagn ais generally went bare-headed in winter But the harsher climate in the interior of the Labrador i l of the r pen nsula compe led the Naskapi , and some more northe n of m to Montagnais , to adopt the tailored shirt the coastal Eski o , and

f r P fit it occasionally with a hood o winter use . [ . “ n r t The Montag ais wrapped thei dead in birch bark , buried hem in the ground but the Naskapi deposited them on scaffolds or ” suspended them from trees ( p . “ s di r to r Contact with European was sast ous both t ibes Later , the game supply diminished owing to intensive slaughter with fire arms The struggle for existence then became harder and starva di tion more frequent . The fur trade helped the In ans until white men encroached on their best trapping and huntin g grounds ; then it f d n called or greater effort an yielded diminishi g returns . Measles m t i of and other diseases deci ated he r ranks , and many the interior i to on to nat ves , urged by missionaries settle the coast, fell victims f t lung af lic ions aggravated by the damp sea air. S O o both the M ntagnais and the Naskapi declined rapidly . Today of the two tribes combined number less than four thousand . Most l or in to the survivors are sti l hunters and trappers , more less encha ed - i for f ammuni the trading posts where they d spose Of their furs ri les , in n - rama hones tion, woollen cloth g, cloth tents , sewi g machines , g p ,

and other products Of our modern civilization . The Naskapi in the centr e and north of the Labrador peninsula have been too isolated to mingle much with Europeans but the majority of the Montagnais ” of i In i i carry an infusion wh te blood the r ve ns . ( P . Contrary to what Jenn ess has said regarding the moose and the Barren Ground caribou as the primary game animals of and aska i the Montagnais the N p , respectively, it was the eastern the for woodland caribou, rather than moose , that filled this role the

to of t 1896 : Montagnais up the end the last cen ury ( see Chambers , so th t of and it still does in e more easterly par s their territory .

on of Mon Comeau , in his classic the North Shore tells a tagnais drive in the Godbout area in which 81 of these caribou were

of killed , but he apparently says nothing the Montagnais hunting m moose . In his day the caribou was fairly com on as far west as the f vicinity o Quebec City . It is only in recent years that the moose has extended its range eastward from the Saguenay to the Moisie River

a ( H rper, While the ethnologists are discussing the degree Of differentiation

between Cree , Naskapi, and Montagnais , it is perhaps fitting that HARPER : T HE FR IE N DLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

these peoples themselves should be heard on the subject . They apply ill distinctive names to the three groups . While it may st be a ques tion whether each group is a tribe by itself or whether all three are i to merely subdivisions Of a single tribe , it is h ghly convenient rec o niz e k w to t g each group by a name no n , and used by, the na ives , from days Of long ago . di n In all this scussion , it may be just as well to bear in mi d the following remarks by Barbeau ( 1927 z48 If they soun d pessi u mistic, perhaps they are justifiably so . It is unfort nate that the science of ethnology could not have become full -fledged several centuries ago , when the earth and its peoples were certainly in far more natural condition than today , and probably in a more promising condition as well . “ i our — tu The racial characterist cs Of aborigines their fea res , their i r u l — bod es , thei aptit des , their intel igence have , in the last cen turies e i , chang d almost beyond recognit on “ No native at the present day can boast in all certitude Of an nu mixed ancestry . “ i the n Nasko i The legg ngs , poi ted hat of the p , were all introduced by the traders and the missionaries “ The ethnologist is a fool who so far deceives himself as to believe that his field notes and specimens , gathered in the raw from half

Of l un ad ul breeds or decrepit survivors a past age , stil represent the ra te ted knowledge or crafts of the prehistoric races of America . GE OGRAPHI CAL AND ECOLOGI CAL DISTRIB UT I ON OF INDIAN TRI BES I N THE UNGAVA PENINSULA

At this point it may be in order to review the distr ibution Of all r d Of th ee In ian tribes the Ungava Peninsula from , say, the latter part

n tr of the ni eteenth century to the present time . For their dis ibution l —572 in sti l earlier days , Speck )may be consulted . 2 “ m This author map ) shows the approxi ate location , ” 1850 of Of - since about , local groups or bands Montagnais Naskapi .

the i All the Indians of pen nsula are treated under this designation , without any sharp distinction into the three separate tr ibes that have n been recog ized by certain other authors . Speck writes “ of retaining the terms Montagnais and Naskapi in a general sense for n the i habitants of the Labrador peninsula , by using the form Montagnais-Naskapi agreed upon by Hallowell and myself for the ” group as a whole .

For the purposes of the present paper, the list below indicates the tribal affiliations of the various bands named by Speck 14 I I E OF A PUB L S . M US . NAT . I UN V RS TY K NSAS , H ST .

Eastern Cree Nichicun B and East M ain B and Mistassini B and Big River B and Rup ert House B and White Whale River B and [White Whale River is an old designation of Little Whal e River ( see

ro . ue ec Bu in x m re rt s on the istrict Of r. es tracts r o o P v Q b M , E f p d Un a a or New ue e c ed . g v Q b , Nas kapi Un gava B and B arren Ground B and M ontagna is -Nas kapi ( of mixed origin ) Northwest River B and D avis Inlet B and Montagna is a o n an L ke St . J h B d Moisie B and Chicoutimi B an d Min gan B and Tadousac B and N atashqu an B an d E scoumains B an d Musq uaro B an d ersimis an B B d St . Augu stin B and Godbout B and Michikamau B and Shelter Bay B an d Petitsikapau B and t ar rit n an ia iskau an S e. M gu e e B a d K p B d

—598 on In his text, Speck ) presents notes the native hi u names , story, population , h nting territories and systems , trading f o 26 . centers , and organization these bands i of In general, the distribut on the three tribes has corresponded rather closely to the several great drainage systems Of the peninsula : the Eastern Cree on the waters flowin g into James Bay and the south of Koksoak eastern part Hudson Bay; the Naskapi in the basins Of the , to Whale, and George rivers , which are tributary Ungava Bay; and n the Montagnais in the St . Lawrence and Hamilton basi s , which are r has t ibutary to the Atlantic . Such an approximate distribution been

on n 1939 : indicated maps by Ski ner fig . Kroeber ( map — 1a 1 4 222 . 9 7 . 584 585 , in end pocket ), Tanner ( , fig , and , fig

n 1955: ma 270A Jen ess ( p , in end pocket ), and Leechman

“ i These three tribes have dist nct boundaries , beyond which they i f of . r seldom wander Of late years , however, a g adual n lux the i o the di to western people has poured nt Ungava strict, due the de crease Of the food supply along that portion of the eastern coast of

Hudson Bay . ( Turner , “ t Along the eastern coast Of James Bay, as far north as Lit le Whale t o . River, are be found the Eastern Cree “ There is some interchange of [ Naskapi] p opul ation between 1921 the George River and the Fort Chimo regions . In there were in three Fort Chimo men and a boy the George River band . ( Waugh, 2 l 19 5z 28 . ) HA RPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UN GAVA

Wissler map ) indicates the Eastrnain an d Hamilton i - in a s rivers as the d viding l e between the Naskapi and the Montagn i , and restricts the Eastern Cree to northeastern Ontario near James

Bay .

1939zma 1a Kroeber ( p , in end pocket ) shows Montagnais ter

ritory extendin g from the Gulf Of St . Lawrence north to Hamilton

K ania iskau i . River and Lake p , west to nclude the Lake St John area ,

u . and east to include the St . Aug stin and St Paul rivers ; the Naskapi not i territory , to the north of that of the Montagnais , but includ ng a coastal strip extending all the way from Hamilton Inlet in the east t o Cape Jones in the west; the Cree territory , from beyond the south western boundary Of the peninsula northward to include Lake Mis i t assin i and the lower half of the basin of Eastrna n River . This map “ att empts to indicate tr ibal territories [ Of North America] approx imately as they were constituted at the time of the first occupation ” by Europeans ( p . The Nas copies of the Ungava band ran ged for the most part K oksoak in the and Whale River valleys and adjacent uplands , cen ” tered i 1942 z250 on Fort Chimo for the r trade ( Elton , ’ 1 4 222 9 7 . Tanner s map ( , fig ) shows the Montagnais ter ri or t y extending from the Lake St . John area east to the Atlantic Coast Of w south Hamilton Inlet, and north from the Gulf Of St . La rence to K ania iskau Petitsika au Michikamau i the Lakes p , p , , and Melv lle ; of Naskapi territory , from the northern boundary the Montagnais Of n nearly to Ungava Bay, and including most the basi s of the Kania

iskau Mu skekO-wu p , Whale , and George rivers ; the g ( Cree ) terri s of tory, occupying the drainage system of the ea t side James and ”

Hudson Bays north to Clearwater Lake . ’ Jenn ess map 270A ( 1955 zin end pocket ) attempts to Show the of locations the tribes [Cree , Montagnais , and Naskapi] immediately before the fur trade brought about widespread disturbances” ( that is

to 1525 A D . ar e say, about ) These locations based upon Speck “ 1926bz274 r ( who has relied mainly on the material cultu e . His boundaries would have to be greatly changed if linguistic differ ”

nce . e s were made the criterion ( P . “ On the north [the Cree] were bounded [in former times] by the coast-lin e from Eastmain river nearly to Churchill; on the east by ”

lakes Mistassini and Nichikun ( p . Teal recognizes the three groups : Mountaineers di ( Montagnais ), Little Whale River In ans ( Eastern Cree ), and Naskapi; he provides no detail ed information on the distribution 16 I E I OF N PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KA SAS , H ST of to of two the Naskapi, and only a few words as that the other

tri bes . A map in Leechman shows the boundary between the Naskapi and the Cree ( here labeled Mistassini-Cree ) extending to Nichicun from Lake Mistassini Lake , and thence northward ( west of the Kaniapiskau River )to about latitude From this point the western boundary Of the Cree territory curves southwestward t o of m not of the mouth East ain River, but does reach the coast north n d the latter point . This territory i cludes practically all the rainage of of and to the east side Hudson James bays north Clearwater Lake, with the exception of the lowermost portions Of the rivers north of a n r m or the E stmain . NO defi ite bounda y between the Swa py Cree (

Mistassini Cree )and the more western Cree is indicated . This map ( except for the above-mentioned coastal stIip) corresponds rather ’

to n l 911 : 10 . closely Ski ner s ( , fig

J . W . Anderson extends the territory Of the James Bay to i Cree eastward Mistassin and southward to Waswanipi . the di of r Within peninsula , the stribution the three t ibes is corre to lated at least some extent with geological , climatic, and biotic condi i r t tions . Their entire range is v rtually rest icted o the Canadian Shield 2 2 1939 3 2 o . z o . ( see Bruce, , map; Kimble and G od , fig ; Ge l 1O4SA r of Survey Canada , map , The ter itories the Eastern - Cree and the Naskapi lie mainly in the Hudsonian Life zone , while f - that o the Montagnais is mainly in the Canadian Life zone ( cf. 1 n Harper, map , and map though projecti g well up into the Hudsonian in the central interior . Neither Of the two t to i - other tribes is res ricted wholly its principal l fe zone . The to Naskapi, in former days , hunted caribou some extent in the Arctic f - h or Li e zone, but t is treeless region was scarcely a natural perma

for i i for nent home them , in v ew Of the r dependence upon wood

1946z19—20 i warmth and cooking . ( Swanton [ ] d scusses a certain correlation between life-zones and the former distri bution Of Indian tribes in the Southeastern United States . ) An isotherm representing a mean January daily temperature of - ° 1953 1—1 f 5 . : o F ( see Thomas , chart )separates most the Eastern

aska i f n two Cree and the N p from most o the Montag ais . The first ° tribes range northward to a January isotherm of approximately —12 ° to and the Montagn ais southward to a January isotherm of +8 to + 10 Humidity ( or vapor pressure )becomes progressively less

r of 1953 zcharts 2—1 toward the no th at all seasons the year ( Thomas , , 2—2 2—3 2 , , Thus the Naskapi and the Eastern Cree experience,

18 I E I F P L . A I O UB S M US . N T . . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

There is some dis crepancy in the ab ove-suggested correlation in

tr . For one the dis ibution Of caribou and Indians thing , the Naskapi have not followed the Barren Ground caribou into Eskimo territory in the extreme northeastern and northwestern parts of the Ungava “ n Koks ak Peni sula . From o River to Hudson Bay the respective areas covered by the two races [Indians and Eskimos] are separated ap ” of Nasta oka proximately by the line the p and Larch Rivers ( Cabot, From Lake Mistassini northward at least to Nichicun

- of l a of Lake , the primary big game animal the Eastern Cree , ike th t

n a n the Montag ais farther e st, was origi ally the woodland caribou , although in the extreme north of their territory the Cree probably found the Barren Ground caribou at certain seasons . Under the Spur of modern industrializ ation and through the par tial failure of such an important food resource as the two species of

to n i r caribou , we seem be wit ess ng in recent yea s a general break

Of r b of tri s in down the o iginal oundaries bes and band , especially

r 1954 o ce tain areas . On this point Miss Leacock ( )makes s me cogent remarks “ Fur ther field work has shown the hunting territory to be less “ to clear out than it first appeared to Speck . Reference is made the continual readjustment of band lands to fit the needs of band mem ” bers . ( P .

of — Petitsika au Kania iskau The six central bands Speck p , p , Michi u — kamau, Ste . Marg erite, Moisie, and Shelter Bay have merged into “ one by their common interest in and dependence upon the trading

all k o post at Seven Islands . They are n wn generally as Seven

Islands Indians . ( P . “ The attitudes of the present-day Montagn ais toward band af ” filiation or attachment to a given locality are utterly casual ( p .

n one r A large and perhaps perma ent congregation , in small a ea , 1 Of diverse tribal elements was apparent by 960. Several hundred representatives of the three Labrador tribes had then been attracted to the Knob Lake area by the Opportunities for employment in the

r In mining indust y, and had been settled by the government in an n 26 dian reserve on the neighbori g John Lake . There were Naskapi

20 l on one of and Cree fami ies from Fort Chimo side the reserve, and 50 Montagnais families ( including 300 individuals ) from Seven Is n lands and Moisie o the other side . Language barriers were said to

in litt . two . u 5 1960 keep the groups separate ( Fred Farah , , Aug st , ,

f r c z i on the basis o information supplied la gely by Sebastien M Ken e. ) HARPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

TRIB AL CHARA CTERI STI CS

In the followin g pages I have endeavored to assemble from some of the prin cipal sources a brief account of the salient physical and psychological traits and the general manner of life Of the three t ribes or of certain of their subdivisions . in It is Obvious that times past, as well as recently, there has been considerable wandering on the part of the Indians of the penin i sula . In the r unending quest for food it has happened not merely that members of one band have entered or traversed the normal ter ritor l y of a neighboring and friend y band , but that there have been

r similar occurrences with respect to tribal territories . These t es ill passes seem , in general , to have been accepted with fairly good w ,

t . an d or at least wi hout outright clashes The Cree , Naskapi , Monta gnais may have been drawn together somewhat not merely by their as m near relationship , but also a result of aggression by their co mon

c . i 1863 an d enemy, the Iroquois ( f H nd , , Turner ,

1894 z267 Low 1896z45 1922 z201 1931 z562 ; , ; Cabot, ; Speck, ; Tanner , 1947 ,

The East ern Cree

“ At Lake Mistassin i ( 1884 ) some 35 or 40 families of the Monta

ri the r i i gnais Cree] t be usually summer in neighbou hood , l v ng on wild fowl and fish from the Lake and dispersing in autumn through ou t l 1 85 n . 8 the surrounding region to trap and hu t ( F . H Bignel ,

r i 1882 to 1884 Tu ner who resided at Fort Ch mo from , writes on the Little Whale River Indians : The sou thwestem fork [ Riviere d u Gu é ] of Larch River drains the eastern sides of the same mountains whose western l pes are drained i by the Little Whale River . Th s course is followed by the Little aska i Koksoak Whale River Indians to join the N p of the Valley . ( P .

“ The Indians dwellin g to the southwest of the Ungava district n n differ rather more than the Mou taineers [Montag ais ] , in their

s . speech , from the Indian of the Ungava district They average , for k i Nas o es . both sexes , slightly taller than the p The men are spare , and have small limbs and extremities . The cheek bones ar e also more

i l . prominent, although th s is part y due to the thin visage “In their personal habits they are much more tidy than their eastern

dr i Of relations . Their ess d ffers but little from that their neigh i n m ti . bors . The men occupy their t e in hun ng and fishi g The 2 N I E I OF PUB LS . M US . NAT . I . 0 U V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

[wood land P] reindeer have in recent years become so scarce in t he vicinity Of Fort George that many of the Indians have left that to tw to locality and journeyed the eas ard , dwelling in proximity the

asko ies or . . N p , even with them ( P “ Their purchases are made with furs of the same kinds as those

procur ed in the Ungava district . The black bear is procured in great ”

a . numbers by these Indi ns . ( P Low ( 1896z45 )probably refers to the Eastern Cree in the follow

in : Nascau ees g remark The western p are, as a rule , the tallest men n o t in Labrador, many Of them bei g six feet and ver in height, s raight

and Of light physique . Low ( 1890z24 )writes of the Indians at Lake Mistassinr “ - t e to 150 . Twen y six families b long this post, about persons in all or They speak a dialect Of the Algonquin Cree language , being a tribe of that great family which inhabits the country from the Rocky n s o f u t . not o Mou tain the Atlantic As a rule they are great stat re , of n though some the men are fi e stalwart fellows , six feet tall . m s From long contact with the Hudson Bay CO . and issionarie to they are all pretty well civilized , everybody being able read and write in a kind of syllabic shorthand “ r not They are all pe fectly honest, and would touch provisions left the o to m in w ods even save themselves fro starvation . “ ai to of Great respect is p d the bones and flesh the bear and beaver, their skulls are always scraped clean and set up on p oles facing the

sun . Low also gives an account (1896: 101)of the Indians of the Nichicun Lake area : “ s to r ascau e ri These Indian belong the weste n N p e t be . They speak a of w a di lect closely resembling that the Montagnais . O ing to of k in the small numbers caribou illed this region , the natives are ’ forced to clothe themselves in gar ments bought from the Hudson s

. wi Bay Company They live in wigwams covered th cotton , as they cannot get either the deer-skin used in the north or the bir ch bark i f cover ng o the south . “ The huntin g grounds of the Indians of Nichicun extend from the

-of— on to - of height land the southward, the head waters the Great T Whale River on the North . o the eastward they hunt as far as Lake

Kaniapiskau and down its discharge about fifty miles . There appears to be quite an extensive area between their eastern boundary and the western limit of the hunting grounds of the Hamilton River In

McKenz ie dians [However, Sebastien , coming probably from a HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 21

O iscoteo base at or near Seven Islands , was in the p Lake area about 1 12 Nichicun in 905. 0 This is some miles east of Lake , and the Kania

iskau h f p drainage system . Possibly t ere had been some shi t in tribal — h F H. r boundaries by that time . ] There is also a la ge area wit out on of K oksoak K ania iskau Ri r hunters both sides the [ p ] ver , f om Nichicun where the Indians leave off, to where those from Ungava

n o s begin , as signs of Indian were seen along that stream for nearly 2 Nichicun 00 . miles The greatest number hunt to the westward of , or about the head-waters an d tributaries Of the Big [ Fort George] and

East Main Rivers . ’ The following are excerpts from Skinner s accoun t ( 1911 ) of the Eastern Cree along James Bay “ The Cree themselves claim that the Naskapi are closely related

to . a them It is possible that the Naskapi may be a b nd of the former ,

The kept primitive by their isolation from European contact . Eastern ” m th f Cree also clai a relationship with e Montagnais O Labrador .

( P . of In former times the Eastern Cree dwelt in lodges bark , in or TO- l t sk s , brush day they are usua ly covered wi h i canvas . The sk n lodge has become Obsolete “ f n i O . Formerly, many lodges were bu lt caribou ski s ( P . “ m In former ti es , leather and fur clothing was used extensively ” “ Later European garments of all sorts have been universally

. ll l u adopted Moccasins , it is true , are sti worn especial y by the h nters ; and rabbitskin garments and blankets are used in winter . It it not

f to l h ld n Of in requent, however , see sma l c i ren dressed in clothi g the ” old style . ( P . “

Before European contact, hooded coats of caribou skin tanned

m a with the hair, somewhat resembling Eski o parkas , were lso worn ” [by the men] in winter ( p . “ Coats with attached hoods made of woven rabbitskin were also ” used ( p . t Mistassim The Montagnais sometimes come o Lake ( p . “ i to t Ow ng the scarci y Of food, permanent village communities

r could not exist, as the Eastern Cree are obliged to scatter th ough the

a i . forest, a family here and a family there, Often m ny m les apart Usu

a i his ally, man hunted w th sons and their families , but when these grew lar ge they separated . “ ’ Now , the Cree meet at the Posts of the Hudson s Bay Company, ’ brin ging in the winter s hun t Of furs to trade for the necessities Of the

t o th s following season . They spend from two four weeks at e Post 22 I E I OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

56 and then return to their scatt ered hunting grounds . ( Pp . “

n n or . Duri g the Wi ter the rabbit, hare, is the staff Of life Every t seven h year, it is said , that the rabbits are seized with a disease i which sweeps them away in great numbers . Dur ng the periods

di . when rabbits are scarce, the In ans experience great suffering Durin g these bad years the Indians are not infrequently driven to who cannibalism . There are individuals at nearly every post have

tasted human flesh under these conditions . ( P . t n O her foods discussed are beaver, caribou , bear, ly x, seals , whales ,

r and t . ducks , geese, loons , part idges , pike , s urgeon ( pp “ of The nose , heart, and tongue all species Of the deer family are ” considered great delicacies ( p . This reminds me of the courtesy Shown a party from the Geological Survey of Canada in 1914 on the l two u lower Ta tson River, Mackenzie , when Dogrib h nters pre

sented us with the heart of a moose that they had just killed . Skinner gives only a little notice to bows and arrows of the Eastern “ For us e in Cree . in games , bows and blunt arrows are seen daily

use by the Indian boys at all the Posts . The bows range from several to r feet five o six inches in length . ( P . A photograph Of such 3 2 of bows and arrows , taken by Skinner, appears as plate , figure ,

im o . the present report . In olden t es b ws and arrows were used in wars “ of t bo The arrows were made iron willow, and tipped wi h ne; the ” n - ho f r short si ew backed w o juniper o tamarack ( p . Cabot says ( 1922 ) “ A certain number Of Indians from [Little or Great] Whale River to mo or to also come Chi more less regularly, perhaps more Often Fort r n n t George o other posts o Hudson Bay . Their dialect is o very for i to a easy the other Ind ans underst nd , probably from its Ojibway ” n 196 affi ities . ( Pp . “ The thir ty families who trade at Mistassini are counted a n as Nasc upees . All the Indians k own by this name are properly m Swampy Crees . Those at Chi o say that they came originally from ” southwest of Hudson Bay to get away from the Iroquois . ( P . “ The general life and culture of this interesting [ Mistassin i] group

is marked by a laudable and in telligent conservativeness . The Mis tassini are clean and robust and appear very healthy and well con ” d itioned for people whose whole life is passed in the remote bush . 2 4 m t n 19 3 z 55 . ( Speck, ) For ti es Of famine , there are reciprocal hun i g i i 4 privileges between the Mistassini and the N ch cun Indians ( p . 58 — “ ” “ Speck 61 ) refers to the Mistassini people as one Of ” “ the divisions of the Naskapi ; and Davids on refers to the H ARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 23

Mistassini Naskapi band Of Lake Mistassini .

By 1925 the Nichicun band had become dispersed . Only eight fam ilies Old di remained at their station , and made a long annual tra ng ds t . journey to Rupert House . Others had se tled at Seven Islan u li ( Speck, This marked change in the stat s and affi ations Of the band is the subject of further comment by Speck and Eiseley ( 1942 z232 “ The Nichiku n band has been dis solved as a social unit since the ’ abandonment of the Hudson Bay s [ sic ] Company [post] at Lake 1 1 Nichikun circa 9 9.

“ ' Members of this band were met with d urin g several periods when

Speck was working at Seven Islands in 1915 and 1925. Following Of hand the dispersion of the families the , he was told that some took up their residence with the Moisie Indians while others j oined the bands west of them . Questioning disclosed the fact that the Nichikun families did on n n not separate and hunt or trap alone inherited hunti g grou ds , as ” do the Montagnais south of them . “ By 1910 the hunters had married or interrnarried with French k i n spea ing Indians trad ng at Seven Islands , and had come u der the sway of priests where they had hithert o be en adherents of the Church of to i s i England and , in addition the r English were u ing Canad an

French with no less fluency than the Seven Islands natives . Nichicun ac oss The journey from the area to Seven Islands , r sev

one . eral river systems , must have been an extraordinarily arduous Although Low spoke of the Nichicun Indians huntin g to ? K an ia iskau the eastward ( only )as far as p Lake , Speck and Eisley “ ( 1942 z227— 228 ) remark on a very close conn ection between the K ania is kau il Ste . Marguerite Indians and the p fam ies immediately ” “ north of them ; als o on the rather vague geographical boundaries ” that separate them . — Speck 599 )had assembled much of the general in for mation then available concernin g the six bands Of Eastern Cree é é inhabiting the Ungava Peninsula , and his r sum may be consulted to advantage . n As we have seen above , the Montag ais have been undergoing amalgamation with some Of the Eastern Cree as well as with the —591 Naskapi . Speck ) remarks on the hunters of the Kaniapiskau band and t heir ann ual migration to the post at Seven f u 1947 islands . Perhaps it was in view O this Sit ation that Tanner ( ,

222 the K an ia iskau fig . ) has included headwaters of the p 24 I E I OF P L . M AT UB S US . N . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

i in On of a . o R ver the territory the Montagn is the ther hand , Michelson remarks “The dialect at the northern end Of Lake Kaniapiskau is Obviously closely related to the dialect of Ru ’ ” on pert s House James Bay . Speck refers to the independent ethn ic character of 1915 r t the Mistassini band , which numbered , in , approximately thi y i 137 . o on fam ly units , with about souls He also c mments “ the White Whale Little Whale] River group as an almost un ” in to known band, with a communal hunt g range north Lake Minto and Stillwater Larch] river and then eastward almost to i k Kaniap s au river . Tanner 1947 refers ( perhaps a little hastily )to the Mis ” tassini Cree as at present a quite unknown group . Neilson ( 1948 ) writes of this group : “ They still Observe the superstition that to look back after once leaving the shore invites certain disaster in the form of tempestuous ” waves and winds that spring up without warning ( p . “ The Indians of the territory are the easternmost members of the

t . now widespread Cree ribe The Mistassini band, numbering more

r i than six hund ed, are probably amongst the most unspo led Indians i to t in Canada today, due almost ent rely relatively little contact wi h l of - the whites . They sti l follow the nomadic ways their fore fathers , i f . . 150 living by ishing , hunting and trapp ng ( Pp “ f The members o the band differ considerably in appearance . of Those from the southern part the territory , including some families

the l from Chibougamau and Waswanipi districts , are genera ly short - - o t e . and st cky, broad headed and with rather Mongoloid fea ur s On o Nichicun o r the ther hand , the Indians fr m the northe n districts , as ”

l . ar e . a group , usually ta l and Of good physique ( P “ Not more than three or four men in the whole band speak either French or English so all trading at the p ost is done in the James Bay Cree dialect “ Deaths resulting from starvation are not unknown in the winter ’ ” f to t in spite o the tr aders efforts mitigate food shor ages . ( P . “ six r -Nasco ie d who About hund ed Montagnais p In ians , speak “ nor neither French English , come from points as distant as Lake ” “

Nichicun a . , and summer at Mist ssini Post ( Godfrey, By 1949 it was said that the Nichicun Indians could no longer

r for count upon ca ibou food ( Pomerleau ,

f of . o Dr . Bertram H Harper, the Department National Health

f r m in litt . 5 on and Wel are , has kindly t ans itted ( , October ,

26 I E I OF N PUB LS . M US . NAT . I . UN V RS TY KA SAS , H ST r i of re t appers and hunters , enjoy ng the use the extensive beaver ’ Nottawa and serves of y River, Rupert s House , Old Factory Fort ’ of now George . A number stragglers from Rupert s House spend of t of most the year in the settled dis ricts Abitibi , hunting, trapping and seas onal work in lumber camps . “The main bands are

’ 535 Nemaska : 118 Rupert s House, and ( Nemiscau ) ; Eastmain : 175 and Old Factory : 319; Fort George and Kanoapscow: 784; l 1 2 Great Whale River and Richmond Gu f : 8 .

A remar kable story of beaver conservation in the James Bay area an d of its highly beneficial results to the Cree Indians has been ef t 192 —29 fec ively told by W . A . Anderson In the 8 season only four beaver skins were brought in to Rupert House . The Indians n the were in dire need , and some were starving . Thereupo local ’

Hudson s Bay Company manager, James Watt, subsidized the beaver

so to the not to the a lodges , speak, by inducing Indians molest anim ls f r f o o . in a period years They received from him , return , an approx imate cas h equivalent for the beavers they would have trapped and s of a sold . As a re ult this enlightened measure , the beavers in that rea had in creas ed by 1938 to and by 1939 to In 1940 the Rupert House preserve was opened to the Indian trappers under i l careful regulat ons . Each trapper was al owed an exact quota based f 19 i upon the number o beaver lodges on his trapline . By 59 the fam ly cash incomes Of the Indian hunters averaged between and The flesh Of the beaver is almost as important to them as the ”

now u . pelt . By any standards the Indians are prospero s And “ today there are square mil es of beaver preserves in the f o al . Province Quebec one The model Rupert House preserve, i of f establ shed largely through the efforts Mrs . Maude Watt a ter her ’ now i husband s death , is superv sed by her . For a fur ther account of beaver conservation in the James Bay area , see J . W . Anderson The extension of the same sort Of conservation policy to the other fur - to - bearers , and likewise the caribou and other hard pressed game a o far e i nimals , would g toward ensuring the permanent pr servat on of these irreplaceable features of the wilderness areas of the con

tinent .

Until recently so little dir ect information has come out of the Mis t assini area concernin g the life of the Indians on their winter trap HARPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 27

n - to s a pi g grounds , that I venture in ert the following fragment ry 26 1955 Vé ronn eau in litt . notes of my good friend J . Laurent ( , June , ,

14 wi . and May , who spent parts of two recent nters there ° °

2 . 5 5 N . 7 the . About headwaters of the Nemiscau River ( lat , long a 1955 di in January and Febru ry, , some In ans were hunting 75 of beaver . They reported the animals taken , apparently by five

n s r . families . They evide tly con idered these results ve y poor They were also eatin g moose and a lot of snowshoe rabbits and using the fur of the latter species to make garments for their young childr en . Two e b ar skulls had been set up in a tree, in accordance with the usual native ceremonialism ( see Speck ,

n é ronneau two di s The followi g winter Mr . V met In an trapping

f r f . . N . o v O . fur in the icinity Lac Quentin ( lat , long W where they had their main cache . They were part of a gr oup of li k in . fami es that had come from Lake Mistassini the fall These , li e t of the o hers at the headwaters the Nemiscau , could speak neither

French nor English . But they could eat quantities of pies and pastries # The above notes suggest that the winter hunts in the areas north west and north of Lake Mistassini are conducted by communal

t Eisele groups ra her than by separate family units ( see Speck and y , 1942 218-220 After 13 months of field work somewhere in the Lake Mistassini 1959 il area , Rogers and Rogers ( ) present a most interesting and luminating account of the daily and seasonal round of activities s i r among the Mista sini Indians , includ ng t avel , hunting, trapping , i and fish ng , feasts , camp routine , such as division of labor among men , women , and children . Dogs are used to some extent for trac in t tion . The authors spent n e months wi h a hunting group of 13

d o d of members . They not in icate the tribal affiliations these Mis a in t ss i Indians . “ The winter trapping camp [ Of a Mistassini family] would be on

t of and for a ract land which by tribal custom inheritance would , all

r . practical pu poses , be owned by the Indian His rights would be respected by the other members of the tribe and no one would hunt n t h or trap o his lands wi hout his express permission . T is was the n ancient way of conservation of the Mistassi i Cree . “ m t The whole camp , sometimes as many as three fa ilies hun ing h toget er for the winter, would be kept busy on these varied tasks all — [preparations for the winter] and would lend a hand men , women

. . 1961 106 and children ( J W . Anderson , I E S I F E . M US . N AT . I . UN V R TY OF KANSAS U LS , H ST

The Nas kapi

In 1731 the Jesuit Laure met the Naskapi to the north Of Ashua ni 1 nicou a an pi Lake . In 853 Father Arnaud found them on Ma g

Lake and stated that their hunting grounds lay to the northwest . In ’ the l 860 s to , according Hind their territory extended from as to m ri Lake Mist sini the Atlantic, and in su mer they made t ps down t various ributaries of the St . Lawrence to meet their priest at Seven ’ 1 f Nasc u i Islands . In the 880 s they occupied the basins o the a p and

Hamilton rivers and traded at Rigolet and Northwest River . In earlier years they had traded at Fort Chimo on the Koksoak River Nasco i Petitsika u 1947 e a . and at Fort p on p Lake ( Tanner, ,

’ ’ McLean who of John , was in charge the Hudson s Bay Company s post at Fort Chimo from 1837 to 1842 ( meanwhile discoverin g on e Grand Falls the Hamilton River ), left a brief but valuable arly — record 265)of his observations on the local Naskapi . His of too as impressions them were none favorable , may be gathered from some of the followin g passages “ The Indians inhabitin g the interior Of Ungava [number] about P one to . 25 hundred men able bear arms [ . 8 ] “ all ns a Nasco ies Of the India I h ve seen , the p seem most averse ’ to locomotion; many of them grow up to man s estate without once

visiting a tr ading post . “ The Nascopie freely in dulges all the grosser passions of his na ture; he has no term in his language to express the sensation of P 259 shame . [ . ] “ The Nascopies depend principally on the rein-deer for subsist ence “ in a Partridges [Ptarmigan] are very numerous certain loc lities , n t f i P but ca not be trusted o as a means o liv ng [ . “ In their intercourse with us the Nascopies [ are] selfish and in hospitable in the extreme But no people can exercise the of t t or o f laws hospitali y with greater generosi y, Sh w less sel ishness , a i towards each other than the N scop es . “ ascO ies u r t to The N p , s rrounded by kindred t ibes , are s rangers the m of u a cala ities war, and are consequently a peacef l , h rmless people; yet they cherish the unprovoked enmity of their race towards the to o or poor Esquimaux , whom they never fail attack, when an pp ”

f . tunity Offers o doing so with impunity ( P . ’ inl a son ar of McLe an s Chirno Nicol F y , a contempor y at Fort , “ in 1833 1942 z243 : The di wrote , as quoted by Elton ( ) In ans never HA RPER : TIE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

m leave the coast [Fort Chi o area] , where deer are most numerous , Of t above four five days journey, and hat is when they go to look for ” birchrin d r for their canoes . ( From other sou ces , it is evident that this search was made along the K aniapiskau River . ) Some further information on the Naskapi of the Ungava Bay

1854 zl 26 129 region is presented by Davies ( , , his source was an i the journal of an anonymous writer ( probably John McLe ). The r hunting grounds ( he says )extend from near the coast of Ungava Bay

to i of . the upper waters of streams that fall nto the Gulf St Lawrence , n and westward along the height of land nearly to Lake Mistassi i . l h in h They general y keep toget er in large camps , t is respect differing t in from the Montagnais . The lat er seldom or never hunt together The large numbers ; two families generally associate for that purpose . Naskapi frequenting the posts on Ungava Bay consist of 40 or 50 i famil es . Hind ( 1863 )gives one of the earlier accounts of the Nas kapi; it is of much interest in showing how widely the tr ibe ranged over the peninsula at that period In testimony before a Select Committee of the House of Commons 1857 o il i n in , passages were qu ted from a letter from W l am Ken edy to Lord Elgin “ t o r Starvation has , I learn , commit ed great hav c among you Old asco ies friends the N p , numbers of whom met their death from want of n one last winter, whole camps them were fou d dead , without sur vivor to tell the tal e Of their sufferings ; others used as food the dead bodies of their companions At Fort Nascopie the Indians were ’ dying in dozens by starvation says it was s fault 18 not of . 63 in giving them enough ammunition ( Hind, , Hind refers later to some Naskapi who had come from the far interior to see the priest at the mouth of the Manicou agan ( 1 196 to some having their lodges as far to the southwest as Lake Pletipi to five or six families winterin g on the north side of the Height of Land in the valley of the Ashuanipi and to Naskapi from Petitsikapau Lake “ The country of the Nasqu apees extends from Lake Mistassini to the Atlantic coast of the Labrador Peninsula They occupy the

e- an d tabl land , and it is only lately that they have visited the coasts shores of the Gulf an d River St . Lawrence in considerable numbers .

i M anicou a an They make their way from the interior, ch efly by the g ,

h . n t e t . u Ste Marguerite , the Tri i y, and the Moisie rivers In fig re the Nasquapees are shorter an d of lighter build than the Montagnais ; 30 NI E I OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . U V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

h - u l t ey have very delicately formed and clean cut feat res , smal n hands and feet, a large and rather soft eye , i clined towards the i hi h nose; their ha r is intensely black , coarse, and t ck, their teet reg a ular and beautifully white . They spe k a dialect Of the Cree lan ai guage, and can hold communication with the Montagn s without f t . any di ficul y The men are tattooed in the cheek, generally from the - to n i cheek bone the nostril o either side . The marks wh ch I saw of li a to an d consisted Slight cuts about a ne long, p rallel each other, ” in about a l e apart . “ il AT SHEM the of The ev deity, , is terror and the bugbear the Nas ” quapees “ The Nasquapee ar row for killin g the caribou is of peculiar con

t . or o struc ion The head is made Of iron copper ( formerly Of b ne ), of of i out and consists a piece metal about six nches long, beat , pointed and barbed at one end; the other is let into and fastened to of r for k the shaft with sinew . The head the common a row illing m l r ptar igan, porcupine, and sma l bi ds , is very heavy, and resembles s in every particular the Montagnai arrow . n i h o The able eth ologist Turner, after resid ng at Fort C im from 1882 to 1884 -114 of on , makes some comments ) interest k i f as a 350 . the N p o that area . They then numbered about souls “ T i r hey are slightly above the average height, hav ng na row bodies , m l small li bs and de icate extremities ; their face is rather flat, with the t of excep ion the cheek bones , which are somewhat prominent, though

not so the . a much as in Indians Of plains Their h ir is black, to t coarse and abundant, occasionally disposed waviness , though his l is more especial y noticeable in the women than in the men; and is , to i n e ari on doubtless , due their pecul ar man r Of we ng the hair a f — P . 109 110 piece o curved woo d about which it is rolled . [ p ] - r var The men hunt the reindeer, fur bea ing animals , and the f i r or . ious birds , principally pta migan , food The re ndeer forms the of o for principal source the fo d supply, and affords skins suitable l ” to m . conversion into garments wel adapted the cli ate ( P . “ of l In their social intercourse , the allotment tasks fal s most heavily

th ru of upon the females . They are e d dges the men . They fetch

an d to water, fuel, prepare the tent, bring the slain deer camp , assist

s the the in hauling the sled and paddling canoes , together with

i of in of r add tional labors sew g and the care the child en . “ r o t of i in Thei dwelling is the c nventional ype Wigwam , in th s stance covered with the inferior qualities of the Skins of the rein ” deer . ( P . HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

“ Their summer journeying is accomplished by means of the birch fl- abas kha n hearin bark can oe ; in winter the at sled ( t ) is used for g - s . the household and other valuable effect The large , oval snow shoe is made here to perfection . ( P . “ Nasco i r I cannot assert that the p e has any bad t ait of character, or is of m . any vices worthy com ent He honest, faithful and ever ready ” i to a d . a friend ( P . In a later paper ( 1894 )Tur ner writes “ i i They differ Sl ghtly in customs from their neighbors , but the r di i r an d w speech is somewhat fferent, be ng ve y rapidly uttered ith u e u most sing lar inflections of the voice . A conversation may be b g n Of i n or in the usual tone , and in a moment changed to that a wh ni g a il in nf petul nt ch d . That their voice is penetrat g may be i erred from the fact that durin g quiet days it is not unusual for parties to Koks oak converse from Opposite sides of the river , at Fort Chimo , ” r where the river is nea ly a mile and a half wide . ( P . ’ Tur ner s remark on the carrying power Of the Nas kapi voice recalls ° to i il 25 13 1920 m nd a ch ly morning ( temperature about April , , ’ on of b the snowy shore frozen Lac La Biche , Al erta, when a dog s ’ ’ bark or a man s voice at a quart er or half-a-mil e s distance rang sharp and clear across the wonderful stillness . For examples of the extra ordinary carrying power Of both human and avian voices on the s 146—147 150 152 Sussex Downs in England, see Hud on , , “ r n Although thei food consists Of rei deer [ caribou] , ptarmigan , t e i fish , and o her game, the d er is the r main reliance , and when i o without it, however great the r abundance of other fo d , they con ” 1 94 2 a 8 z 76 . sider themselves st rving ( Turner , ) “ bow l The and arrow is still used to ki l ptarmigan , hares , and rabbits . The bow is made of larch or spruce wood . The arrows ar e feathered with ptarmigan feathers . The head is usually an egg ”

off . shaped knob , terminating in a Slender point which soon breaks 12 2 3 . 13 ( P . , figs There appears to be a close similar ity between the Naskapi bow 3 o . and arr ws for small game and those of the Eastern Cree ( pl ,

2 s i M cKenz ie fig . ) and the Montagnais type, as made by Seba t en 3 ’ f . . 0 O ( see p ( See also p , for Hind s description the Naskapi l arrow for kil ing caribou . ) “ The eastern Nascaupees are usually not above five feet six inches

l all a r tal , slightly built and not at muscular , being incapable of c r y

irti ing half the loads of the Montagnais . They are als o the d est and

a i most degraded Indians of Labrador . The co stal Ind ans have appar 32 I E I OF N UE . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KA SAS F LS , H ST

of of ently a large admixture white blood, as many them have blue a eyes and the men as a rule have strong beards . They be r in figure an d face a certain resemblance to their northern neighbours the Es m n il . ki o , bei g heav y built and unlike the typical Indian The admix t u for of re of white blood would account this difference physique , ” and it may also have been induced by their living along the sea coast .

1896z45 ( Low, Natu akami on Ri in 1896 Low At Lake the Larch ver, , found a number of Naskapi engaged in killing caribou ; he also ( 1898 18 as i on one of ) reported them hunt ng the main tributaries , the u Gu Kenogamist uk or Riviere d é . The total number living about the of Koksoak d n tributaries the River and tra i g at Fort Chimo , he said “ 2 e to Nascau e 1898 z 2 150. e e ( ), was about Th y belong the p trib , and or speak a dialect Of the Cree Algonkin language . They are a poor ,

or o degraded people, without thrift foreth ught, and as a rule, very n t lazy . Bei g caribou hunters they can hardly be induced o trap fur

l on of - bearing animals . They depend whol y the herds barren ground

r for of ca ibou their food and clothing, and sell a certain number

s not for own u to caribou skin required their use, with a few f rs , the

’ for Hudson s Bay Company powder, shot, tea, sugar and tobacco ,

s f f the i o . which compri e all the r necessaries li e Foxes , both white and

of r fur varieties the red species , form thei principal hunt, but otters are o t also taken, and in early spring they made excursions s u hward ” i f r nto the wooded country o martens . Wallace -210)writes : In winter the Naskapi at Fort Chimo use garments ( includin g

o n f k not leggings and m ccasi s )that are made o cari bou s in . They are “ so or T ar clean prosperous as the Montagnais . hey e perhaps the

m on the t - most pri itive Indians North American con inent to day .

t r of Caribou , Ptarmigan , and fish are hei chief food . Half them perished in the winter of 1892—93 through failure Of the caribou

i f ichikam u hunt . The d vide north o Lake M a is the southern and the

f aska i George River [ area] the eastern boundary o the N p territory .

r 1908 was on f Mrs . Hubba d ( ) e o the few white persons ( and certainly the first white woman ) to visit the camp of the Barren Ground band on the east side of Indian House Lake; and she left as adequate a record as might be expected from a stay of no more than

or so on 20 1905. an hour August , A few excerpts follow “ They had markedly Indian faces and those of the Older men showed plain ly the battle for life they had been fighting . They were

34 IVE I OF AN PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN RS TY K SAS , H ST

w of t m nasal t ang, which in the excitement arrival, and at such i es

irn assive al . they are not p , becomes most a whine As untamed in r one . o aborigines , Stone Age people, they lay hold Of The lo k thei

f f . eyes is the look o the primitive man o the open . ( P “

o . They were pe ple in the primitive hunter stage Nowhere else , k of i to i r of perhaps , was the li e these Ind ans be found , a l ttle g oup a i t n - race h gh in personali y, yet livi g substantially in the pre Columbian f n if o . age the continent If they had guns and kettles and k ives , they fur o t es sold and b ught new conveniences , these changed lit le the sential no own u life . They knew language but their ; they had pl ral

wives ; they lived wholly on meat and fish; they used no salt . The d f clothing and lo ges were mainly o skin s . They lived under their ” in ld 1 9 own t o e . . 8 law, heir faith unchang d ( Pp “ Smiles prevailed everywhere as I went about; we were guests f o o the camp . The older w men did various operations on the skins

hr f with their different tools , made pemmican , went t ough many acts o i m their rout ne . They lifted the covering skins fro whatever I cast

o my eyes up n , showed me what was there and what everything was for of dr . Most their ied meat and other things were piled close along w side the lodges , covered ith skins . ( P . “ o - The h use wives were pleasantly grave and simple . These Older

o all t o women l oked hard worked and thin , under heir unusual t il

i t a upon meat and Skins , besides the r household du ies . The men p

’ ear an of o p ed well fed and easy . The m s work pr viding game was

n . mere sport as thi gs were ( P . “ They had speared no less than twelve or fifteen hundred deer ” [ caribou] in a few weeks ( p . “ o After supper the neighbors came in , mostly w men whose men had ld n of 1906 one to . o gone the shore My acquainta ces , every , brought

of s nor presents meat and skins and mocca ins , had they lost their pleasing manners I remembered . “ What went on in the course of the evening brought to us as real i t n a phase of the primitive life as I had seen . Wh le we were ea i g the

r dr people roasted Whitefish over the fi e, the chil en in particular

no chewed the dried meat . There was vegetable food; Whitefish and

r d ied deer meat were all . “ one We were given Skins and blankets for the night . Some kept

on a little fire, putting wood when necessary, and we were wholly f o . . comfortable . Breakfast was dried meat boiled ( P “ Now o , in November, the snow is ver the country, there is meat HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

i n d for the winter, and the lodge l fe at its best is goi g on in the Sheltere t if bays . In such times of plen y the Indian l e is peculiarly attractive, perhaps more so than the life of any other hunter race that survives on n t r l earth . The people are lords over their fi e coun y , asking litt e

i im . favor, ever, save that the deer may come in the r t e It was one of the notable privileges of my wil derness days to have the best of their

to o as more country myself for s me years , unexplored it was , and even 2 . 85 to me was the relation with the people themselves ( Pp . In another work Cabot remarks “ All all f u in , the li e Of these people [the Naskapi] remains sing larly unchanged . It may be doubted whether another such survival Of the purely primitive hunter, at the same time of so high a personality as

be in that of the savage of temperate America , is to found any part

r of the world . The ca ibou are to them what the buffalo were to the ”

Indians Of the plains .

’ Waugh ( 1925 )provides a useful supplement to Cabot s account “ Nas ko i The total numbers of the p , past as well as present, are

to i 1921 somewhat difficult ascerta n . In there were only 16 adult 75 Th 80 all . e hunters in the George River band , or some or in num w 200 3 ber at Fort Chimo and vicinity was said to be bet een and 00 . - . i in 250 ia R Wh te, a fur trader resid g at Nain , states that fully Ind ns i ’ 1 4 — came out at Vo sey s Bay in 91 . Durin g the win ter of 1918 1919 an

of a l and h to epidemic influenza , sm l pox measles reduced t ese the 1 21 P. 12 remnant seen in 9 . [ 8 ] “ A change in the attitude of the eastern N askopi to their neigh

’ V ois e s bors has evidently been takin g place . They now trade at y 2 On out u n 191 . Bay, and first came for this purpose d ring the wi ter of this occasion they camped several miles from the two smal l posts and prepared to spend the remain der of the winter within reach of f w n supplies and certain of the com orts of civilization . Next i ter they

out u camped still closer, and have been coming reg larly ever since . [P

ns il m Moccasi are st l worn , but the Eski o skin boot, reaching to the knee and capable Of excluding the wet, is much in favor .

[p. Huntin g territories among the Naskopi are apparently not as ex

c l e a t y divided off as among other Algonkians , probably b cause they ar e so few in numbers and because the country over which they n wander is so vast in extent . Due respect , however, is show by each family or group to the area selected by another . IVE I OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . 36 UN RS TY KANSAS , H ST

“ s of n for is A con iderable amount their hunti g, especially caribou ,

conducted in common . “ The Naskopi has [sic ] evidently profited by their contact with o the Eskimo and often engage in the hunt for harbour seals . An ther ‘ ’ - Eskimo touch is jigging through the ice for tom cod in the spring . P [ . “ The principal dependence of the Naskopi in the matter of food i is the caribou . Th s animal migrates in herds which are o to waylaid , a fav rite method being spear it in the water as it crosses

or . on some river lake The carcasses are hauled up the shore , the skin

i to the i . and entra ls removed , and the meat left dry in sun and w nd P 131 [ p. “ Every now and then the caribou migrate in some round-about 1921 direction and the Indians have a serious time in consequence . 22 of o was a season this kind, but the Indians , f rtunately, caught f P o to . plenty fur and were able buy supplies [ . “ n r l n Nasko i i The ordi a y dwel i g Of the p is the Wigwam . Th s

of of s or consists a stack pole covered with caribou skin canvas . A i - small open ng is left at the top as a smoke hole . The floor is covered

w i in r to with spruce t igs , wh le the cent e , some stones are arranged

r - An form a fi e place . innovation very much in favor at present is a - sheet iron stove with pipes . The door is merely a flap of skin or P 132-133 canvas . [ p. ] “ The Naskopi are noted for the long journeys they undertake on

for i t foot, as well as the speed at wh ch hey travel .

r n The toboggan was fo merly the favorite wi ter conveyance, but

the Nasko i e o George River p at present use a sl dge with thin , br ad runners “ Snowshoes are of the round type used by the M ontagnais .

now r of s Corpses are buried ve y much after the fashion the white , though they are often placed in trees when a death occurs inland

n he t . on r . duri g winter Later they are bu ied . ( P In the following remarks by Wissler we s eem to

of r miss the sympathetic understanding a Tu ner, a Cabot, a Speck, an

or : Elton , a Tanner “

Far up in Labrador live the Naskapi . NO white man seems to

to t nn to r to want live in their coun ry, SO they ca ot claim be ma tyrs s white expan ion . They have taken from the white man many of the

i of for conven ences civilization but the most part, they have to out own been free work their social problems . If the reader HARPER : TH E FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 37

i asks what thes e Nas kapi achieved with all the r freedom , we fear the

is . answer , not much ri Their life is hard; many of them die young, but the t be has survived by solving the problem of existing in a harsh envir onment . ” Possibly they are as happy as most of us . n in These remarks might be answered by sayi g that the Naskapi , m o l t their pri itive state, had developed a higher degree of s cial equa i y, an d tn to r individual liberty, fi ess their envi onment, than the inbah itants of many civilized countri es . The mere fact that they had sur vived and maintain ed their numbers for centuries before comin g into contact with civilization is a sufficient tribute to their resource r fuln ess and adaptability . Thei deterioration has resulted from con h tact wit avaricious traders , who profited unduly from their labors , e h i spread the diseas s of civilization among t em , diluted the r racial r of i u purity, and cont ibuted to the depletion the r vital food reso rce

’ Cabot s Caribou— by placing in their hands the deadly modern weapons of wholes ale destruction . Without the interference of the n white man , they might have continued i definitely in their com

arativel not p y happy state ; furthermore , they would have been forced

t t r n to discard heir primitive caribou cul u e by becomi g mine laborers . “ The conditions of life here and the fate in hardship of thes e natives [ Montagnais -Naskapi] of the cold-forest and steppes zones of Canada have evoked much commiseration among writers on the

North , which they fully deserve ; but it is chiefly because of their singular adaptation and fitness t o the places where they are found that they claim our attention and evoke interest in the principles

i t . underly ng the processes rather than pi y for their lot ( Speck ,

1935zl 6 fn . , ) “ The [Naskapi] bands have always been few and poor and dogged by bitter catastrophies of starvation . “ Thes e Indians achieved a sort Of balance which the acquisition Of ” i firear ms must have changed in large degree but st ll left possible . 2 1942 z 50 . ( Elton , ) “ In eastern Ungava lived the Barren Ground people . Their territory

’ was the George s River Valley up to the head of Indian House Lake - a ns t n . broad expa e of the river, famous as a caribou hun i g place

l r They wandered as we l in the ba rens west of Whale River, marching u with the Ungava Indian lands . The Barren Gro nd band traded , if at i 1916 al l . , with Davis Inlet Since the deer fa led in and influenza

1919 l an d swept through them in , on y a few are left these have now 38 I E I OF S FUE . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSA LS , H ST

out to to . o come Nain trade ( Elt n , “ n of The Indians [Naskapi, mai ly] Labrador are usually described h of the as a degenerate and rat er poor branch race, inferior in many

i r to . respects the Eskimos Th s opinion has come from the t aders , who seem to have expected an in dependent nomad people to alter at

of f to the e n once its way li e in order help trad ; from eth ologists , hoping to discover new and complicated customs and beliefs ; from t n il to u to n oe f explorers , wan i g w d hunters t rn ca ing and packing or

to t mono wages ; and from missionaries , whose attempts in roduce g arny and a stran ge theology have usual ly failed to penetrate far below f n n i 1 42 o . 9 z351 the surface the I dia m nd ( Elton ,

’ McKenz ie who of m Sebastien , was manager the Hudson s Bay Co

’ an s M cKenz ie 1916 to 1936 nf p y post at Fort from , i ormed me that about 20 to 40 people ( presumably hunters or heads Of families )

r in of f would t ade there the course a year . Some o the Naskapi came

far i from as away as Ind an House Lake, while others were local

McK nz i i s about Fort e e. St ll other Indian were Cree from Great

'

We to . hale River, wh nce there were canoe routes his post He spoke f n o doi g as much as worth of business in a year . The prin ci al t oo p furs were mink, marten , and ot er . His trade g ds came by — - boat from Fort Chimo a three to five days journey . I gathered from Sebastien that the relations between the N askapi

f n to and the Montagnais were amicable . He himsel had bee Indian

f di t 4 r to . o o 5 o 50 House Lake , hunt Some the In ans there , up years

Old, had never seen the sea . ’ o 1947 —700 Tanner s c mprehensive and excellent account ( , )

aska i on of McLean Of the N p is based in part the prior records , Tur

o on his own ner, Cab t, and others , and in part Observations , chiefly l at Davis In et and Northwest River . By his time there had been some

’

x n . mi ture , not only with Montag ais but even with Eskimos Tanner s

o account shoul d be read in its entirety . Some quotations fr m it foll ow “ From the fir st moment it was clear that I was meeting with a fragment of mankind who had to a great extent been preserved f n from the influence o Europeanizi g culture ( p . “ Meas ured by economic and social standards the Naskaupi must f be considered among the most primitive peoples o the earth . But this Opin ion must not be regarded as a disparagin g one in their own

for df a un environment, in the go ors ken regions where they live an usually high degree of buoyancy and inventiveness is demanded HARP ER : THE FR IE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UN GAVA

i . even to keep alive, and these qualities they certa nly possess The isolation from contact with the white people and the conditions of

i ri nature under wh ch they live, have evidently been cont butory Of t s i l causes the retention of their primi ivene s , wh ch as we shal see ” i f ra n . O d ec ultu t o . ( p . once resulted from a process ( P I have found no proof that [the Barren Groun d band] extended ” their hunting to any notable extent west of Indian House Lake

( p . “ The Naskau ee k p of Olden days have gone , li e the caribou they - o hunted , and the hunters wander about to day in the wo ds near the and Atlantic coast . Rotting tent poles on the George River Barren Ground Lake [Indian House Lake] tell a sad tale of life in these now deserted p art s an d Speak as if from the grave of a race that has passed

N askau ee away . The descendants of the Barren Ground p are no longer a tundra people; in the forests they are in their element to u r one day; the t nd a is the despised land, without wood, without fuel,

l of Of r can freeze to death there . Yet the ca l the life f eedom seems still strong; they prefer to live in the forest wilds and seem to have little or no intercourse with the whites or the Eskimoes and they even ” seem to be outside the limits of the Catholic Mission . ( P . In 1947 Rousseau ( 1949 ) passed down the entire length of the

not n George River, meeting with only a few caribou and a si gle

to Naskapi . The river is said have been entirely deserted by the

’ natives in 1944. Rousseau s voyage was apparently the first one Of 1 that sort on the George since 905. “ Seventy Naskapi were transport ed to Nutak by schoo ner from Davis Inlet in 1948 and early in March [ 1950] left Nutak to go south ” tw 2 again . On o inland trips from Nutak they killed 27 and caribou . “ ” a t r r This band have ce sed o be ba ren g oun d hunters . ( Fra zer, “ Chimo serves as a trading post for the small Indian popul ation which formerly traded at Fort M cKenz ie before that post was closed 194 in 8 . “ o i u Carib u are becom ng increasingly scarce , by all acco nts , and

to f i according report su fered a major, and unexpla ned , setback about

1918 t i K ks ak , when the migra ing herd wh ch usually crossed the o o Ri to Dun ver each year, failed appear . It has not appeared since . (

1952 z7 bar, Pere Laviolette ( 1955 z204 )writes of the population of the Koksoak

Basm 40 UN I E I OF A PUB L S . M Us . NAT . I . V RS TY K NSAS , H ST

“ Fort Chimo : This group of 191 Naskapi lives in the Winter months at Fort Mackenz ie During the summer they camp at m f n . all o Fort Chi o They are nomadic, living by] fishi g, trapping

and hunting . “ In 1953 the Federal Govemment moved the Indians [Naskapi at Fort Chimo] back to their former habitation in the neighbourhoo d ” McKenz ie on Kania iskau Ri l Of Fort the p ver ( Michie and Nei , 19 33 55 z ). “ Increas in g contact with the [white] newcomers in both Ungava and Keewatin t hreatens these people [Naskapi and Eskimo] with ” the complete loss of their cul t ure if not with virtual extermination 1 955 z38 . ( Michie and Neil, ) Humphrys ( 1958 )des cribes a rec ent dr astic change in the way of life of these Naskapi In the summer of 1956 the entire Fort Chimo band of the Naskaupi trekked 200 miles south to settle at the base of a ridge [near Knob

Lake] on which the Montagnais were already living . When they

s i to first arrived, the e people lived in tents , but later they bu lt huts

f r r withstand the rigors o winter . In ma ked contrast with the mode n i no town and its fac lities , the Indian settlement has piped water sup it Naskau i no t no o a i n . ply, elec ricity, pr per s n tatio In add ion , the p have found their section to be ill-drained and therefore infested with ” i mosqu toes in summer . ( P . “ di di i in w The Cana an In an Affa rs Branch, cooperation ith the n s to i 25 t for o Iron Ore Compa y, plan bu ld houses , wi h provision pr per t on ea hygiene , elec ric power, and adequate water supply, a site n r 164 that at present occupied by the Indians ( p .

The Montagna is -Nas kapi ( mixed bands )

Davis Inlet Band — The in termix ture of Naskapi and Montagnais at this post seems to have come about through abandonment by the Naskapi of their former territory between Davis Inlet and Hopedale

on s Michikama r the coa t and u Lake in the interior . Thei movement was occasioned by great forest fires (about the end of the last century) f a and the resultin g scarcity o c ribou . After the caribou lichen had al tu slowly regenerated and the anim s had re rned , the Montagnais moved in from Northwest River and gradually took possession of the di strict . Presently they established relations with the Davis Inlet i 194 tr . 7 post, where both ibes now interm ngle ( Tanner, , t Before the amalgama ion took place , Mrs . Hubbard 161 )came in 1905 to a camp of Montagnais women and children at

42 I E ITY OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS KANSAS , H ST of of t t want are frequent occurrence in Labrador, and the mor ali y from starvation among the Indians who live in the peninsula is still no t quite high . Formerly , when there were rading stations and the t to uf hos ile Eskimo prevented access the coast , their s ferings at such ” times were even more extreme . The names employed by this mixed band for the various species of mammals differ in at least some Slight degree from those in use by the

Seven Islands band . The Davis Inlet Naskapi often camp at a large unnamed lake about ’ 40 of to for 193ob miles west Jack Lane s Bay watch caribou ( Strong ,

“ no Esld mo v t There are here [Da is Inlet] , but about eigh y Indians of Nascau ee ri of t the p t be , a branch the Cree na ion , were camped al l m to ong the main and shore , making their su mer Visit trade and ri f meet their p est . They are indescribably filthy and clad in rags o deerskin and store clothing ; their canoes are of the usual Canadian ‘ ’ pattern their dwellings are both of the ridge-tent and the tepee

i old ir type, covered w th canvas and skins ; they are ent ely nomad and

o to . wander up and down the c untry from Ungava the St Lawrence , tr avellin g the lakes and rivers by canoe and living by hunting; they ”

to t . 1934z50. are said be inferior rappers ( Wyatt, ) n 1947 — 222 253 583 585 . a Tan er ( , , figs , )extends the bound ry between the Naskapi and the Montagnais westward from Davis Inlet to Resolution Lake and across the lower course of the Riviere de Pas ; of Petitsika au K ania iskau a thence it continues , north p and p l kes , till of old f r it meets the domain the Eastern Cree . This boundary lies o ° the most part between latitudes 55 and It has been rendered somewhat Obsolete by the mixture of the two tribes in the Davis Inlet area , and recently by another mixture in the mining area about Knob

Lake ( see Ross , 1947 —657 m f Tanner ( , ) provides an illu inating discussion o i of the Davis Inlet band, including his personal mpressions the people . of the aska i 9 . 6 1 In treating N p in general , he makes ( p )some further remarks that seem t o be applied more or less particularly to this mixed band at Davis Inlet “ I have no knowledge that a single Indian of N ewfound land -Lab

to to r . rador has been given an Opportunity learn read , w ite and count In social and religious aspects the Indians have been but little raised above their state Of development at the time when the Catholic Mis t r sion first discovered them . Animism is still said o cont ol their view

so t of life . But when their world is poor as the deser ed woods and HARPER : THE FRE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UN GAVA

barren grounds of Labrador it is only natural that they should seek to reinsure themselves where they may find sympathy and proteo

so the to tion , they do not despise what priest may be able give them and their families by reading the Latin mass and giving them alrns at - l ll the tr ading post of Davis Inlet . Though real y their mental life sti r belongs to the Stone age . ( This condition is in very marked cont ast to that of the Montagnais of the Moisie band , where practically the

entire community seems to be literate . ) “Recent reports [of the Davis Inlet band] are of a band about four m ti es the [former] size , which has become more and more depen dent On trade goods and which regularly spends the summer months

at Davis Inlet and Nain . With the depletion of fur in the area , the ” Indians have become in creasingly dependent on relief . ( Miss Lea

1954 z22 . cock , ) Pere Laviolette ( 1955z204 )writes of the two mixed bands Of the Labrador coast : “ two There are Indian settlements on the Labrador coast , the one 135 t located at North West River , with a population of ; the o her is at l 117. Davis In et, with a population of “

an d . These Indians live of by] trapping , hunting fishing They d o not fall under the jurisdiction of the Indian Act an d they are con

i r -fl s d e ed full ed ged citizens of Canada . Northwest River Band — Cartwright ( 1792 ) distingu ished none “ too clearly between Montagnais Naskapi ( Nes and Eskimos along the coast between Lake Melville and l 1778 1792 of . the Strait Be le Isle In he wrote ( , of seven fam “ “ ” ilies of Mountaineers having been in winter at Ivuktoke Bay

( apparen tly Lake Melville ). “ Th e Nascaupees inhabit the interior country north of a line ” the tw from bottom of James Bay eas ard to Hamilton Inlet ( Low , d i 1896 z44 . i ) They then trade at R golet and Northwest R ver, and their hunting grounds extended to the north and the northwest as far k as the Ko soak and Larch Rivers . “ Formerly some of the southern Indians came up Northwest River [ Naskaupi River] and hunted on its upper waters and those of rivers

i . flowing eastward into the Atlant c Their country , poor at best , suf

fered l by fire; fish were sma l , the caribou more and more uncertain . Finding that the deer summered in the unoccupied lake country

of Nascau ees south the p and west of Hopedale , they adopted that

region and gave up the difficult Northwest River route . Having

i n - s changed the r tradi g point to Seven Islands , the ea ier route by the 44 I E I OF A PUBLS . M US . NAT . HI . UN V RS TY K NSAS , ST

upper Hamilton and Lake Michikamau was very direct . The num ber of these families varies from half a dozen to as many as fifteen or r l a more . Thei summer route fina ly reaches the e st coast by the ’ Nota uanon to q River . ( Cabot, ( It is difficult decide ’ whether these notes of Cabot s apply to the Davis Inlet band or to

to . the Northwest River band; perhaps they refer, in part, both ) The blood of these [ Montagnais] Indians [at Northwest River ] ” t l is s i l practically pure ( Leslie , “ “ of Speck refers to this as an unstudied band . Part tri out to the be, coming the Northwest river post, hunt between

r . Hamilton inlet and the gulf of St . Law ence “ Ri South again [from Davis Inlet] were the North West ver band , of who whose lands were north Hamilton Inlet , and hunted west i ik to of M ch amau . almost the height land, by the huge Lake These f traded at North West River post . West o these and high up among ‘ what Turner called the festoonery of lakes looped through the high ’ lands lived the small Lake Michikamau band : between that lake Petit ik u to r and Lake s apa . These used t ade at North West River but now u o o t to e on of . . g Sev n Islands the Gulf St Lawrence ( Elton,

“ 9 uri The Montagnais were living at Hamilton Inlet until 177 . D ng “ the next century they gradually spread out over all parts of the

extensive Lake Melville drainage system . Parallel with the displacement Of the Naskaupee people in contrary directions indi vid uals and families belonging to both tribes have ceaselessly been ” n intermingled . The esse tial reason why Speck combined them into one r of non- u Mon group was the simila ity their material cult re . The tagnais in our day are continually crossing the boundary zone be 194 the . 7 583 586 tween themselves and Naskapi ( Tanner, , , ,

35 to 40 n li The Northwest River group comprises Montag ais fami es . For out to hunting and trapping they spread the Mealy Mountains ,

the lower Hamilton River, the Goose , Beaver, and Susan rivers ,

Michikamau a Sne amook Lake , and from L ke g toward Hopedale . Recruits to this group include some Naskapi from Ungava and some 1947 Montagnais from the Gulf coast . ( Tanner , By 1951 the Indians of this band did not seem to regard themselves ” “ as much of a unit . Some families have apparently left the band and ”

t to . become at ached the Seven Islands post ( Miss Leacock, It will be seen from the above account that the history of the North

west River band is somewhat vague and incompletely documented . HARPER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 45

l o i We have on y a meager knowledge of its origin , c mposit on , wan

d erin s . g , and shifting territory The M ontagnais The Mountain eers [ Montagnais] are esteemed an industrious

ri to the t be; and , for many years , had been known French traders [ along the North Shore of the Their chief employment is

to the f . t catch fur, and procure necessaries of li e They are ex remely ll - r to i iterate , but generally good natu ed; and are reckoned be less of ferocious than any other of the Indians . This softness their man ners is owing to their long intercourse with Eur ope ans ; and the other natives will doubtless lose their savage disposition , in proportion as 4 177 z380. they imbibe our customs . ( R . Curtis , ) Au Among the earlier accounts is that of J . J . Audubon ( in M . R . 1897 atash uan 1833 dubon , , who met the Montagnais at N q in “ - The men were stout and good looking , spoke tolerable French , n clea the Skin redder than any India s I have ever seen , and more r; i n the women appeared cleaner than usual , their ha r braided and ha g ing down , jet black , but short . All were dressed in European costume the i Of in except feet , on which coarse moccas ns sealsk took the place ” of shoes . When Audubon had passed a little eastward of Little Mecatin a on to Brad ore the way Bay , he had a conversation with some seafaring 406—407 men ( pp . ) “We talked of the aborigines themselves melting away before of the the encroachments white man , who looks without pity upon of the decrease the devoted Indian , from whom he rifles home , food ,

i . clothing , and l fe For as the Deer, the Caribou , and all other game is killed for the dollar which its skin brings in , the Indian must search in vain over the devastated count y for that on which he is accus tomed to r out feed , till , wo n by sorrow , despair, and want , he either i il goes far from his early haunts to others , wh ch in time w l be similarly or invaded , he lies on the rocky seashore and dies . We are often told l rum ki ls the Indian; I think not; it is oftener the want of food, the of loss hope as he loses sight of all that was once abundant , before the white man intruded on his land and killed off the wild quad rupeds and birds with which he has fed and clothed himself Since his crea

s . tion . Nature herself seem perishing Labrador must shortly be de not of peopled , only aboriginal man , but of all else having life , owing ’ to di . no no m man s cupi ty When more fish , more ga e, no more birds

on Sh exist her hills , along her coasts , and in her rivers , then e will be

om -ou abandoned and deserted like a w t field . 46 I E I OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

’ Robertson ( 1843 z37 )writes of the Moun taineers at the six King s Posts ( Tadousac to Moisie ) “ not They are a very timid and inoffensive people , but that they of t intox Show occasionally some outbursts feroci y, particularly when icated — their long subjection has debased them and given them all he v f t o r . 200 a o ices slaves , liars , cheats , and d unkards About years g t on hi hey were, at least as warlike and enterprising as any tribe t s ” continent . 1861 w 150 Encamped at Seven Islands , in , ere about [Montagnais] ” di s Nas u a ees i 1863 In an ; among them were a dozen q p ( H nd , ,

Here, at the chapel mass , “ The Indian women wore the picturesque Montagnais cap of

or in scarlet, and black green cloth alternate stripes , with , in some

to t . instances , a gold lace tassel attached the drooping ex remity

Most of them. were enveloped in gaudy coloured shawls ; their petti of or t t coats were blue cloth calico , wi h bright pat erns , their mis tassins or e of i of l ggings blue cloth , and the r moccasins seal Skin , l t or r neat y ornamented wi h silk porcupine quills , worked into a patte n i of of flowers . The men had all discarded the r Indian dress caribou r of skin , and wore cloth coats and trousers ; the only a ticle Indian manufactur e which formed part of their clothing was the seal-skin

moccasin . I was very much struck with the general aspect of the Monta

: i gnais women their eyes are inclined , their noses aqu line , and their jaws square; the last featur e is also the distinguishing character of

Nas ua ee t in the men, but is still more developed in the q p han the

. 1863 Montagnais race ( Hind , ,

le s When Paul Jeune, a Je uit missionary , first saw some Of the 1 32 “ n . 6 Montagnais o the lower St Lawrence in , their faces were ’ a to painted with red , blue, and black stripes , ccording each man s a o i of or fox fancy and t ste; their cl th ng was made the beaver, bear ,

no on skins ; they wore covering the head, and their long black and greasy hair hung low over their shoulders ; they were armed with ” 18 3 how . 6 and arrows , a shield , and a lance ( Hind , , 1867 The following passage , dealing with the Indians at Mingan in , - is worth quoting from a little known work by Couper ( 1868 z9 ) “ Th e Labrador Indians are a peaceable people, having great regard for of own religion and morality . Several both sexes can read their

u o to w language, and when at the mission , they reg larly g church t ice n n a day o Su day . They have evidently abandoned the savage modes HARP ER : T HE FRIENDLY MONTAGN AI S OF UNGAVA 47

i . of life attributed to the r predecessors Yet, a stranger can discern f i i e a love o fellowship ex sting among them , wh ch is probably caus d by the ties of relationship . Like all other tribes of North American i i . Ind ans , they are happy when together in camp Each fam ly hunt and work for themselves— jealousy does not exist— no quarrels arise — e among the weaker sex inde d , the utmost harmony and good the r will prevails even when wigwams stand close together , and thei

Occupants number over five hundred soul s . I have seen more real affection exhibited at the parting Of two families of these semi civilized people than could be evinced from the breasts of nations long advanced in civilization . “

Being poor fishermen , they do not care to capture fish by any other mode but with the spear— an instrument which they handl e with great dexterity . “ The men generally resemble the Eur opean in stature; evidently

l tl r strong, but having it e confidence in their st ength , they succumb to l the power of the settler, and wil run away sooner than receive a

. Of n a n blow They are fond music, singi g and d nci g Old and youn g wear a conical cap on their heads ; it is made of alternate of pieces red and blue cloth . The latter colors are those adopted by the tribe , and the men sometimes wear leggings and gauntlets of these combined colors . John Bignell writes concerning the inhabita nts about the Manicou a an o t and g , Pentec te, Trini y, Godbout rivers : “ The interior of this part of the co untry is hunted over by a portion of the Montagnais tribe of Indians who are a docile, inof fensive, and hospitable people “ o t i u Amongst these pe ple hospitali y is pract ced to the f llest extent , h n quarreling is never heard , and t eft is unk own , and almost every man amongst them can read and write , and our own boasted civ iliz ed communities would in a great many respects , compare very ” unfavorably with them .

’ ’ Corroboration of Couper s and Bignell s laudatory words may be 1947 found in Tanner ( , the l They [ Montagnais ] are a very peacefu people . As one learns to know them bett er one soon finds something attractive in their l calmness . I myse f can fully confirm the opinion of one of my white trapper friends : that they really radiate friendliness and goodwill when they see a person for a second time . Turner writes of Montagnais distri bution and traits ’ in the 1880 s : E . M US . NAT . I . 48 UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS FU LS , H ST

The Mountaineers roam over the areas south of the Hamilton

inlet and as far as the Gulf of St . Lawrence . They trade at all of the stations along the accessible coast . Many them barter at

Rigolet and Northwest river . “ In customs they differ little from the Indians [Naskapi] to the

of of north of them . Their means subsistence are the flesh reindeer ,

porcupines , and various birds , such as geese , ducks , ptarmigan , and

grouse . of . The scarcity the reindeer renders the food supply quite

precarious . “ Their clothing 1s of the tann ed skin of the [woodland] deer when the they are able to procure it . As nearly all the skins Of reindeer are for r for u the used ga ments , few are prepared other p rposes ; hence northern stations ( Fort Chimo )furnish great numbers of these [Bar ren Groun d caribou] Skins in the parchment condition to be pur who o for chased by the Mountaineers , cut them int fine lines snow

r shoe netting and other pu poses . “ of a e k They procure the furs m rt n , mink, fur beaver, mus rats , f . o lynxes , wolverines , wolves , and foxes A considerable number

black bears are also obtained by thes e Indians . By the barter of these furs they procure the articles made necessary by the advent of

. Th an d n the white people among them ey are quiet peaceable . Ma y

of for e i of them profess a regard the t ach ngs the Roman missionaries , who have visited them more or less frequently for over a hundred and

fifty years . “ It was impossible to obtain a satisfactory estimate of the numbers of the Mountaineers . My stay in their vicinity [ Rigolet] was too

to r short learn as much about them as was desi ed .

After long acquaintance with the Montagnais of the Lake St . John “ 1896 to tri area , Chambers ) refers this be as the most interesting ” of r on Canadian Indians ( p . and he comments fu ther the

of peculiarities this interesting people, and Of the strange beliefs ,

of who superstitions , and manners the men paddle and pole [ the

’ a sportsman s] canoe in the water, c rry it over the portages , pitch and

his his i his take down tent , make his bed and f re , cook and serve

him to k for b or meals , and conduct the li eliest spot a shot at a ear a

or to for or r . caribou , the most promising grounds ouananiche t out

( P . 302—306 on He also remarks ( pp . ) the occurrence among them , of r especially in bygone years , sorcery , immorality , murder, anth o

50 I E I OF PUB LS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

have been mine in the company of Montagnais guides in camp and ” a c noe ( p . Low ( 1896 z45)writes on the Montagnars “ or of x o The Montagnais are more less mi ed bl od , having inter married with the Old coureurs d es bois and the French and English Thi f hi in traders . s admixture o w te blood is seen the better phy

of the r e ul r sique t ib , the men being more musc a and broader than f r r f u r o . a e o the pu e Indian the inte ior As a rule, the men medi m t o as are . n o height, but a few tall The wome are inclined besity they

r l of . advance in yea s , ike their sisters the northern tribes “ S and girt Lake is an important gathering place for the Indians of f f n on n o o . the i terior, accou t the number routes that centre here Th e main route from the Hamilton River to Lake Michikamau also h w o on . ends here . The Indians trade the lower St Lawrence and w i i hunt any here in this Vic n ty , always congregate here in the spring, and to in or o descend the coast company, either by the Romaine M isie Low River . ( , I was informed by Ben McKenz ie that durin g rec ent years a radar o Sand i ns stati n at g rt Lake had served to attract the India there . All

not . were Montagnais , Naskapi 1905 l 135 136 208 287 Mon In Wa lace , , , )met with some tagn ais from Davis Inlet who were hunting caribou on the head f waters O the George River ( about lat . In olden times ” a par t of this tri be had huntin g grounds between Hamilton Inlet l o 1907 for [Lake Melvi le] and the upper Ge rge River . But by , the n of t most part , they hu ted south Hamilton Inlet and raded at posts f f f . . o the on the Gul o St Lawrence At that period most St . Lawrence

n or s i l Montag ais had more le s wh te blood, whi e those inhabiting

l to of Lake Melvi le, the St . Augustin River, and the area the eastward “ ” I r r di . n 1906 that river were pu e , uncontaminated In ans Ap il , , some members of the tribe had been dr iven to Sealnet Cove on the Gulf i n i through fa lure to find caribou in the i terior . The r food was almost

l e bow ar who ly flesh , fish , and berri s . They still used the and row f f or partridges and other small game . Some o the younger people had never seen a priest . f c i i o . In referr ng to the Montagna s the Lake St John area, Spe k writes “ i At heart the Indians have lost their ndependence Of life . The white man supplies all their physical needs— food and clothing

f i of while the priest takes care o their sp rit ual needs . From this state

for him to dependence the native is unable to rise . It is impossible HARPER : TI-HB FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 51 revert to his primitive state of simplicity and it is just as impossible for him to master or catch up with the intri cate ways of modern u economy . In his nat ral state he labored less and had more; now he The labors more and has less . difference flows into the coffers of the ” Compan y . Bryant ( 1913 z5 )writes of some 25 Montagnais families who were 1912 a i r gathered at St . Augustin in July, , on their annu l m g ation from th e interior The summer rendezvous on the gulf is the great event of the yea r n to this wanderi g people . The men have adopted the prosaic gar ments of their white brothers ; but the women affect the most gaudy colors in their skirts and bodices . Perhaps the most charac ’ teristic detail of the women s dr ess is the Phrygian cap made of Th n e alternate sections of red and blue cloth . ese Mou taine rs of the [southeastern] Labrador interior are a pure-blooded people who stil l ad here to the hunting life Of their ancestors and have compar ” 6 atively litt le intercourse with the whites . He writes further ( p . ) “ on their unwillin gness to have white men spy into the secrets of ” their country . 80 i a 1912 After a trip about m les up the Nat shquan River in , Townsend writes 1913 : 171— 172 ) “ i is 1908 the Accord ng to the government census publ hed in , Mon

694 in d is tri b tagnais Indians along this part of the coast number all , uted o : 76 24 1 377 as foll ws at Natashquan , at Mingan and at Seven

Islands . “ Of the ai al t Although some Montagn s are t l , the majori y are

it ir rather short in stature, but l he and w y , with small hands and feet , and i a the i ad delicate , attract ve features M ny of Ind ans Show a f is mixture with white blood . The straight black h ir o the men i in cropped below the ears , while the women tie the rs up round black Th knots on either side . e men wear stockings of many colors pulled

an d o up to the knee over the trowsers , moccasins w ol or canvas k i jackets ; the women , short plaid s irts , bright handkerch efs about the shoul ders and red and black liberty caps with embroidered ” bands . Hind in 1861 pictured the same fashions . Towns end also presents a brief picture of the appear ance and costumes of the Montagnais at Grand Romaine in 1915. He

144 to Shekatica refers ( p . ) a portage path at Inlet that had been polis hed for generations by the moccasin ed feet of the Montagnais

’ on their way to the upper St . Paul s River . In a later work 302 he says that the Montagnais 2 L AT I . 5 I E I OF PUB S . M US . N . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

l to the usual y spend the whole winter ( August May )in interior, and i a n on that dur ng the summer they cruise along the co st, feasti g eider

eggs and flesh . A few comments by Cabot ( 1922 ) on the distribution of various groups of Montagnais may be ins erted here : “ u n - s Bersirrris Along the G lf the pri cipal trading station are , Seven ”

n n . Islands , Mi gan , and St . Augusti e ( p “

From the Gulf near Mingan , the hunters ascend the St . John , pass i to the i o a d fficult high portage Roma ne, and proceed t ward the f Gran d Falls region o the Hamilton ( p . “

r tr . Eastwa d from Mingan the people avel the Natashquan , St

in . h w August e , and Eskimo Rivers T eir lands are chiefly bet een the ” Hamilton and the St . Lawrence . ( P . “ The people who descend the Moisie in the summer gather at S and irt k on il o for of g La e the Ham t n, apparently the mere sake i a ti eir n see ng e ch other, and they keep together as may be un l th fi al ” f r 207 separation in the fall o their individual lands ( p . Comeau ( 1923 ) gives some very interesting glimps es of Monta a gnais tr its , especially in the Godbout area . ’ — Speck s several works ( 1909 1942; see bibliography ) are too ex to to e o tensive lend themselves ad quate and yet concise qu tation . At the same time they are SO authoritative and essential that any serious student of the Ind ians of the Ungava Peninsula will gain access to i . n : the originals I cannot refrai , however, from quot ng a few passages It becomes imperative as a prelude to ethnological investigation the of in any region that distribution its population be ascertained ,

the i and un ts , should they exist, assigned a location under their proper

so names . In large an area as the Labrador peninsula the need of knowing the contemp orary distri bution of its population

f in acces . i o is obvious Considering aga n the extent country, its sibilit m of y in all ti es , the sparseness people , and the mysterious

of in n seclusion its rov g tribes , it is small wonder that such a prelimi ary

sur vey has never as yet been made . “ It will be noticed that the populations forming the band groups are localized within the dr ainage areas Of the rivers and lakes ( 1931

“ Comment seems to be in place at this point concerning the part played by the game animals of several categories as an influencin g factor upon the type of land tenure and up on the distr ibution of the differing b ands of the well-forested southern portion of the peninsula ” and those of the barrens of the north HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 53

i a to i own Concern ng the Moisie ( or Seven Islands )b nd, wh ch my 1953 the acquaintance was limited in , Speck makes fol lowing comments “ The Moisie people seem to be of mixed extraction so far as original h e who s units are concerned . T e famili s Operate nearer the coa t may be the residue of a popul ation of former times which belonged i e be south of the Height of Land , and the northern fam lies of thos i The a i l longing n the interior . f m lies fa ling under this band clas sification the number ten, and hunt and trap territory up Moisie a i Attikonak e to River and e st of it to M ngan and lak s , from the co ast ” the headwaters Of Hamilton river beyond the Height of Land . Speck ’s later and probably most important work ( 1935 ) on the i Montagna s deals primarily with their spiritual culture , and thus lies for the most part beyond the scope of the present slight effort . f 4 a Mention may be made o his plate 3 ( facing p . 8 )showing a N skapi woman of the Moisie band and thus indicating a diversity of elements i 1947 in that band . Corroborat on is supplied by Tanner ( , “ Descendants of the semi-sett led Nas caupee are to be found ” n among the Montagnais o [ at] Seven Islands . Speck writes also “ of the Musquar o band on the North Shore : Specimens

o ” f - k o their language Show them to be a branch of the so called Nas apr. For a comprehensive ethnographic des cription of early Montagnais tu 1600 e u cul re ( as reconstructed from cont mporary so rces , 2 Lane ( 195 )may be consulted . Speck ( 1936 )discusses the natives in the extreme southeas t of the peninsula “ Th e Indians of the Montagnais -Naskapi group coverin g the entire interior of the Labrador penin sula are represented on their farthes t

r n of easte n frontier by the small band hu ting the headwaters the St . n Augusti , Paradise and Eskimo rivers to and beyond the Height of Land dividing the waters flowing into the Straits of

Th . i Belle Isle from those going to Hamil ton Inlet . e St August n Indian s emerge from their hunting grounds in the interior annually k-u in spring, when the brea p of ice in the rivers permits them to ’

CO. the descend by canoe , coming out to the Hudson s Bay post at fur t w . mouth of the St . Augustin river to trade heir inter catch of 4 i They number at present only 9 persons . There is pract cally no 143 mixtur e of blood . ( Pp . “ al l Of a This band, like those on the e sterly coast depended r primarily on the caribou in former times . The tighter pressu e of famin e each win ter [not to mention have radically changed 4 I E I OF PUB LS . M US . N AT . I . 5 UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

f i or . now economy them . ( P ( They live largely upon wh te

flour and lard . ) “ Th e hunting territories of the band are the traditional birth ” Of right the natives ( p . “ n i for n Ski cloth ng has disappeared from use, except moccasi s t w l has and mit ens . Contact ith civi ization indeed routed the warm and adequate native materials of protective clothin g from the Vitals Of their poor bodies to the shivering extremities#What an exemplified

symbol Of native fate# ( P . “ t Twen y or thirty years ago the caribou were abun dant . The di i on In ans were practically liv ng them . Then they decreased

and were only found thirty or forty miles in the country ( above St . ’ Paul s river ). In the last few years they have been more abundant . 1 ( Pp . 54 “

There are certain measures which if adopted, even at some tech nical t di to the a cost, would result in ex raor nary benefit Indi ns Of the of t al s eastern interior Of the peninsula . The seat heir m adie lies in of s of ni the evil permanent malnutrition . Consen us Opi on Of sev eral experienced authorities who have intimate dealin gs with the di t n In ans from Romaine o St . Augusti expresses a similar view Of the cause of endemic t uberculosis att ended with scrofula in malignant m li i form . The remedial measures would see to e pr marily and r i of tu the i di ectly in the stabil zation the na ral, I mean w ld, food t f t d supply . Incidentally, then, the other condi ions Of li e affec e by d i of li u of a health con itions , the ma ntenance social equi bri m, mor l ”

r . control are secondary o become secondary circumstances ( P . “ ‘ ’ What is meant by a po or winter hun t will appear in the following list Of the gross net kill made by the band the previous seas on; car

15 1 114 12 10 fox 24 100 ibou , seal , muskrat , beaver , otter , , weasel ,

total value ( P . “ Now for f o t s the climax o my memorandum . If a s lu ion be de ired for the tragic condition of life t o which the innocent have been brought by the apparently inexorable fate of collapse in the path of

of one advance a vicious Caucasian migration , move is logically pre

f o . to est o o scribable It is , in short, r rict the operati n invaders int the in n hunt g grou ds Of the aborigines , thus barring the whites from free-land hunting and tr apping beyond certain distances from the

am t f coast . G e in the interior is oo uncertain a quantity to support li e

for l nfl u of more than a limited number Of sou s . The annual i x whites who leave their homes in the coast settlement to invade thos e of the Indians in the barren hinterland for winter hunting and HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

’ l n n tr . a trappi g is an overtax of the cou y s resources For this the he th , t di no the morale , the vitali y of the In ans pay the price with indem ” i — n ty sacrifice entire# ( P . ’ The following are excerpts from Speck and Eis eley s account (1942) of the ban ds that are based upon Seven Islands as a trading center :

215 . . u They refer ( p )to the Ste Marg erite, the Moisie , the Shelter Michikamau ku a Bay, the , the Nichi n , and several other b nds as “ now almost disintegrated groups .

t to r i In con rast the northern and easte n bands , matters are qu te different in the economic circumstances of the bands of the southern

Monta ais - and western portions of the g Naskapi habitat, where the

m Of e the hunting environ ent is that the for st, where game is more f diversi ied and more abundant though smaller in size , and scattered i through the forests . And here furthermore the moose enters nto the economic system while the caribou is of the woodland race which runs in smaller numbers . ( P . “

It is now evident that the two bands , Ste . Marguerite and Moisie , ”

have become amalgamated ( p . It Seems that the Petisikapau horde has suffered a fate simil ar to Kania iskau ichikun e h that of the p and N p ople recently, and w ich is

Michikamau r n overtaking the group at the time Of w iti g . The dis integration of the band has thrown its members into the population to a complex the southward, ne rer the Shore folk who make rendez vous at the Seven Islands post . Since the hunters from the Petisikapau endroits descend by way of Moise River and associate with the i t people deriving the r identity from the Moisie , hey have become ” r considerably fused and interma ried with this group . ( P . l the ar e r i e Fami y names in Moisie band Pica d , Moise , P n tte , Regis ,

l m o . Vo la t, Rock, and Pil ( p “ i The scarcity of edible large game an mals , the devastation of the

a not i region by nnual bush fires , to mention the grow ng encroach ment Of Can adian-French trappers in th e European drift northward

sic to exploit new areas , is [ ] having a destructive effect upon their

h a s wh so . t e o game resources Reactions upon human inhabit nt , for - long have lived in relative equi balance in these deserts , have been ”

i . noteworth ly destructive in the long run ( P . “ It seems that the absorption of the interior bands into the coastal populations began with the movement Of the Ashwan ipi horde in 19th t the cen ury , joining with others to form the Moisie Band of

i Petisika au an d K ania is later times , followed by the merg ng of the p p

r kau families with these of the Ste . Margue ite Band, and lastly the 56 I E I OF PUB LS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST dispersion of the Nichikun people to join temporar ily with the gen f ” 226 eral populations o the coas t at Seven Islands . ( Pp . “ A very close connection exists between the Ste . Marguerite Indians ” K ania isk u 227 and the p a families ( p . “ Th e Nichikun band has been dissolved as a social unit since the ’ abandonment of the Hudson Bay s [ sic ] Company at Lake Nichikrm 1919” 232 circa ( pp. “ Some took up their residence with the Moisie Indians while others ” joined the bands west of them ( p . Questionin g disclosed the fact that the Nichikun families did not or on n r d o separate and hunt trap alone inherited hu ting g ounds , as the Montagnais south of them . The Michikamau horde is apparently the most integrated of the o groups living in the central interior of the peninsula . The is lation Of their habitat and the recency of their emergence from solitude ’ ’ into the confusing milieu of life at the Huds on s Bay Company s po st at Seven Islands have tended to preserve their social independence and fend off the disintegration thr ough mixed marriages and adop ” - tion Of French Canadian ideals and manners . ( P . The Michikamau band leaves Seven Islands for the interior on 1 “ k Menihe a 5th. August , and reaches L ke by about October Thence they move along byeasy stages reaching Michikamau f o of by the end o October . From N vember until toward the end as e n i January they travel a band, d pendi g upon and follow ng the “ f r r caribou o food . Then they separate again by families to pu sue i t trapping in the r habi ually frequented tracts . About the end of ” “ March they come together again at the customary rendezvous on Menihek Lake . Early in May the flotilla gets under way moving o of southward ver the Height Land and down the Moisie River, ar ” on 25th of riving at the Moisie post almost punctually the June . A “ i i f o for few fam l es may re rain from the c ast migration many years , 234 some never going down . ( Pp . It will be noted that there is considerable discrepancy as to details tw of Michikamau as be een the annual cycle the band, related here R of by Speck and iseley, and that Pierre Gabriel, presumably a of the bo n Petitsika au representative neigh ri g p band , as related in s 1947 the next few page by Tanner ( , Among other

Michikamau in things , it may be mentioned that if the band waited on the the spring for open water lakes , it could scarcely start south t n ward before June . The downs ream journey o the Moisie River at this season is so much easier than the upstream journey in the fall that it could no doubt be accomplished readily in less than a month .

58 IVE I OF PUB LS . M US . N AT . I . UN RS TY KANSAS , H ST

Nor d o the Montagnais systematically lay in a store of food; they build no caches like other hunters “ ’ t Petitsika au r In the au umn, from p Lake Pie re s company bends ” “ -e to Sand ir t out f e south ast g Lake , whence they spread in di fer nt directions : away to Mishikamau Lake and even to the Notaqu anon for t o River or the Hamilton River . While waiting winter set in Pierre himself generally paddles away to the mysterious hunting grounds around the sources of the George River which he still con ’ siders his family s hered itary possession But he tri es to get S and irt back to g Lake before it freezes . “ In early October the caribou collect round the sources of the George and Kipekak [Kaipokok] Rivers ; the hunters therefore go there and kill m any animals Especially Mishikamau Lake has been a regu lar autumnal rendez vous of Indians since very old

In early November the winter gear must be examined and The r mended, the traps set, the canoes laid up squaws d ess the 617 caribou Skins . ( Pp . “ In winter the long journeys on foot begin . The family must take to snowshoes and drag all their baggage on k a a . the t b nas s [tobo ggans] ( P . di to t The In ans travel from morning night wi hout stopping, day after day “ The fur-animal tr aps are set around the lakes in a line which may be thirty miles long The family first lives chiefly on the flesh of i these an mals , and on hare , porcupine and birds caught in the snares

- i r and on ice fish . Somet mes there are feasts when ca ibou are killed “ The result of the hunt [for caribou] is the property of the whole band In respect of other game the rule seems to be that those present at the death Share in the booty, while all that is taken in snares or traps belongs entirely to their owner “ Fur-trapping is carried on between the end of October and f the end o March . It has finally become at least as important as - i - an d caribou hunt ng; the Skins are in demand at the trading store, in n for n excha ge them the Indian can get ammu ition , clothes and 620 food . ( Pp .

When game is scanty the Indian must fall back upon fish . ’ It is the women s task to set out a net or bait s ome primitive hooks . ( P . “ Towards the end of March the Indian goes on to hunt other HARPER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

game, chiefly the caribou and the porcupine , always supplementing ” them with fish when necess ary ( p . “ Generally in May a move is started towards the places where the canoes are laid up . “

Arrived at the canoes the families prepar e for the spring move . h to Some of them go to Seven Islands , ot ers to North West River

r s in r l meet their p ie ts the ea ly summer . Norma ly Pierre Gabriel can begin his canoe journey to the coast in the be ginning of June . i w He then goes via Astray and Ashu an pi Lakes . The journey do n the River Moisie is made quickly . On their arrival at the coast the annual cycle of Pierre Gabriel is at an end . ( P . There may be some Slight confusion in Tanner’s statement of ’ Pierre Gabriel s ann ual cycle ( po ssibly owing to lan guage d iffi cul ties ? ) If the latter reached Ashu anipi Lake a month and a half a 10 fter leaving Seven Islands on August , his date of arrival would be 22—2 P ti ik an i t 5. e ts a au S d r about September Traveling thence to p , g , Michikamau i to Of e and lakes , and st ll farther the sources the G orge

t to S and ir t e -u Oetebe—F Na t/ PM River, with a re urn g Lake before fre ze p ( say 4 l would involve a canoe journey of at lea st 00 miles . If allowance is made for being windbound on the larger lakes and for hunting caribou and curing their flesh and hides , such a schedule could ix r n s . n sca cely be compressed i to five or weeks In other accou ts , S and irt to i to g Lake is referred as a spr ng rendezvous , preparatory

i i a to . the journey Seven Islands In addit on to us ng c nvas tents , the

i r Montagnais now build log cabins on the r trapping g ounds . This story of Pierre Gabriel ’s annual cycle points up a problem in the classification of the Indian bands of the Ungava Peninsula . Since ’ Pierre s huntin g territory comprises Petits ikapau Lake and a con id r l — s 194 5 . e ab e rr i ar c . 7 85 su ound ng ea ( f Tanner, , , fig

Petitsika au 2 his group must be the p band of Speck map , 193 l 4 5z . and , fig Yet, since his summer residence and his trading

Of the post are at Seven Islands , is he not also a member Seven Islands or Moisie band? 1953 é Let us examine another case . In Mathieu Andr was the chief f u to O the latter band . D ring the previous winter he was reported have secured a number of wolves somewhere east of Menihek Lake . This identifies him as the Matthieu Andr é whose trapping groun ds — th 1947 585 . 253 e are Shown by Tanner ( , , fig )to include north end of Michikamau Lake and some of the headwaters of the George

. o o Michikamau River Als , it bviously identifies his group as the band 60 I E S I OF K N S PUBLS . M US . NAT . I . UN V R TY A SA , H ST

f o loc . o e t to Speck ( His case w uld s em , herefore , be another one of r dual membership in band s . Under these ci cumstances would it not be logical to regard the Petitsikapau and Michikamau bands as merely subdivisions of the Seven Islands band? AS a matter of “ t no . fact, Speck remarks I would insist upon separate f i f P i ika au classification as a band or these famil es o et ts p people . ’ ’ Reading Tanner s account of Pierre Gabriel s activities puts me in f 1 o 1953 to lo . mind a visit made in July, , an unoccupied g camp ( pl , 2 nn f At ikam en in on A o t a . a fig . ) a clearing the Iron g Lake A l rger ar one e cabin provided living qu ters , while a smaller may have b en f f or . sca used storage The unpeeled logs were apparently spruce . A i - for fold, supported by posts , probably served as a dry ng stage fish

and . game There was also a sawhorse in the yard . A name, some n o where withi the larger cabin , indicated that the pr prietor was — of Attikama en Joseph Gabriel presumably a kinsman Pierre , since g P sik au n n of n in and etit ap are adjoi i g lakes . The contents the cabi 22 fl f o . two e o cluded a radi , a ri e, pictur postcards a sanitarium at

on . a Mont Joli ( the south shore Of the St L wrence ), and a Bible f printed in Montagnais . On the roof o the smaller cabin were the Skeleton of an otter ( Lutra cana d ensis )and the antlers of a subadult woodland caribou ( Rangifer caribou )— probably set up there in some sort of a propitiatory rite that is in general vogue among north o i ern Indians . On the ground was a r tt ng skin Of a caribou . Fireweed i m Ribes ( Ep lobiu ) and wild currant ( ) grew in the clearin g . McKenz ie Several weeks later , while my friend Ben was relating some of the trappin g experiences of him self and two brothers in the Menihek-Waku ach-Brin ad in hr n v g Lakes area t ee wi ters pre iously,

lo he remarked that they made g camps and had little stoves in them , i r t of com l ke tent stoves . Possibly the const uc ion such camps is a “ arativel for 1947 p y recent innovation , Tanner writes ( , As far as my information goes no Montagnais in Newfoundland-Lab - x n of or i . rador has erected a fi ed dwelli g place , wood anyth ng else “ The Indians [ Naskapi an d Montagnais] managed well enough before the traders came and were better off in most res pects than

’ they are now The Hudson s Bay Company traders gr adually persuaded the Indians to leave off hunting for meat to hunt and trap

ns to i tead the animals whose fur they were anxious buy, notably

fox . a beaver, marten and As the caribou became more sc rce , the

r to o natives were d iven cooperate m re closely with the traders , and finally became entirely dependent upon the fur trade for their liveli

for a - hood . In return pelts , the n tives were given fire arms , flour, HA RPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

r . sugar, tea and other g oceries , tobacco and woven goods The for Petitsika au need such interior posts [ as those formerly located at p , Michikamau K ania iskau , and p Lakes ] has now passed , for the native peoples have both d ecreas eed in numbers and have centralized in - 1 7 o 958 z . quasi stable communities along the coasts . ( Co ke, ) i in 195 f 8: . a 4 O . . . The completion the Q N S L R lway to Knob Lake , and the subsequent development of the vast iron-ore industry in the i interior of the pen nsula , have fairly uprooted the ancient way Of life for the Montagnais of Seven Islands and even the Naskapi and the f i n to 300 Cree o Fort Ch mo . Accordi g Ross some of these people had been relocated in the Knob Lake area for employment i v i in the min ng Operations there . This ine itably means the v rtual end of as il all ictur their tribal life primitive w derness hunters , with its p t t r if esque features . It remains o be seen whe her thei l e as free

n r h satisfac nomads , i cluding starvation and lesser ha ds ips , can be toril n n a x h its y excha ged for an i dustrialized , sedent ry e istence wit security and creature comforts . In such a transition , they are under takin g a single mighty leap across the pastoral and tillage stages of u i the h man development . Th s is the end of an era for many of s Ungava natives , and the negation of the prayerful wi h quoted from

Elton at the beginning of this report . It is verily a sad day for the f t . NO f ol e hnologist delight ul , scholarly volume by some worthy or n lower of Turner, Cabot, Skinner, Speck, Tan er can be brought now i i forth , or later, on the modern zed native folk liv ng amidst the

of r a . roar the mining machine y at Knob L ke For them , the spiritual

i of e e . exh laration the sil nt, lonely wildern ss has departed A recent visitor to the above-mentioned native settlement at John Lake ( near Knob Lake )has remarked “ ‘ ’ Life for the Montagnais is not very pleasant on their new reserve of - t the unpainted , squalid, mud splattered shacks Al hough men

Otrrem have more work than at Seven Islands , the houses at Marie Reserve [ Moisie] appeared to be a lot healthier— being government i ” bu lt . Under these circumstances the scanty notes that I was able to tu to gather concerning my Montagnais friends , and that I ven re a n present in the following pages , may have a mel ncholy i terest that to be would scarcely have attached them , had these good people en t o in h of able cont ue indefinitely in their old ways , wit a minimum - contamination from high powered modern machinery .

MONTAGNAI S FRI ENDS

t u for i 1 53 9 . n Before my depar re the Ungava Pen nsula in , Mrs Fra k 62 N I E I OF AN F E . M US . NAT . I . U V RS TY K SAS U LS , H ST

r on a G . Speck ve y kindly offered me some excellent suggestions p proachin g and dealing with the Montagnais ; these were b as ed upon the experiences of Professor Speck and herself a quarter of a century or n r more previously . I rec all especially her remarks o the un eceptive f “ ” attitude o these people toward jabbering Americans . In other “ ” not to of t e words , I was advised rush the conversation with any h m to t to I might meet, but wait quietly and give hem a chance say some

thing . When I fir st saw a few Montagnais passing along the streets of i of o Seven Islands in May, I rather despa red making any c ntact with b u t f all . o o o them at It was O viously the question , in such surr und “ to to - of of ings , attempt button hole any them as the start a i conversation . Langu age difficult es alone appeared insuperable; few of them know any language but French in addition to their native o u e t to t ng e, and my slight French b ars lit le enough resemblance the ’ quebecois e of the North Shore#

Francis McKenz ie

o tu t u t e But opp r nities came even ally, as deligh ful as they w re For o unexpected . example , so n after my arrival at Knob Lake in of Air n June, a contingent the Royal Canadian Force began maki g f a i e ns temporary use o the local seaplane b se . When it requ r d tra portation of some heavy equipment from a certain lake to a mountain top more than a thousand feet higher and s ome 4 miles distant over in of n a rough terra , a group about ten young Montag ais from the

r o of the o of rese ve near the m uth M isie River, a few miles east Seven b f o o . e o Islands , were recruited for the p rtaging j Though som them ’ not of ul i n on were partic arly robust bu ld, the group s performa ce the portage trail called for th the hearty commen dation of the RCAF

of resum crew . [Gilbert Simard told having once seen an Indian ( p

f 1 - of ably a Montagnais ) carry a load o seven 00 lb. bags flour up some steps to a second floor at a settlement on the Manicou agan d . o ot River The man had wagered that he could so , and g the seven

for n bags win ing ] Their countenances , in general , were pleasant

n of and open . Duri g their few intervals leisure at Knob Lake, my

of in friend Jean P . Labrecque, the RCAF, k dly offered his services as

to o con interpreter, thereby enabling me have s me very interesting to versations with these Montagnais . They quite readily agreed n i o posi g for the r photographs ( see front c ver ), besides furnishing 83 the Montagnais names Of many birds and other animals ( see pp .

86 ) and giving information about caribou and other game . Their HA RPER : THE FRE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 63

McKenz ie leader and principal spokesman was Francis , one of the M cKenzie sons of Sebastien , whose acquaintance I enjoyed later in the season . all i i was - Practically of the cloth ng worn by th s group store bought, of h i n although one t em had a pair of sealsk n boots , which I u derstood f to have been secured by trade with Eskimos somewhere . Most o “ ”

i . them wore blu sh berets , adorned with a pigtail in the center

There were sport shirts ( with red as a prominent color ), ordinary t - o d outing shirts and trousers , Sport coats , a sweater , lea her t ppe “ ”

o . rubber bo ts , and sneakers Some Of them had been in the habit of resorting to this part of the interior in the fall for a few months of hunting and trappin g; and in a i perhaps again Janu ry, after spend ng the Christmas season at Th r n their homes near Seven Islan ds . e long and a duous jour ey in the fall by canoe up the turbulent Moisie River to the Menihek Lake

i an d area would require about 20 days . They brought the r wives

r l to child en , and some were chiva rous enough carry wives over rough portages # They would start on the journey into the interior d 100 . an with about lb Of flour tea , but otherwise live on such food

: t ris tivomer na ma cus h as the country affords for example, rout ( C y alvelinus ontinalis Esox lucius Le us amer and S f ), pike ( ), rabbits ( p icanus E ethiz on d orsatum e ), and porcupines ( r Some of their p ople have starved to death in hard winters . The principal fur animals they u Cas tor cana d ens is n Mus tela vis on capt re are beaver ( ), mi k ), and m na marten ( Martes a erica ). In olden days a family would s ecure in i an d i k about 70 beavers a w nter sell the r s ins for $70 apiece . Ap

an i r ri parently bo th species of caribou ( R g fe cabot i and R . ca bou ) to in i anis were be had th s area , and there were some wolves ( C lupus ) and a few arctic foxes ( Alopex lagopus ). On journeys in n wi ter they used sleds , hauled by themselves , but occasionally with

a r Of the help of a dog or two . App rently the food resou ces the coun f try d o not suffice for the keeping of a lar ger number O dogs .

the i In securing Montagnais names of b rds , I would point out the

’ colored plates and line dr awings in Peters and Burleigh s Birds of Newfound land and Francis McKenz ie would set down the correspondin g names in beautiful printed script . The general literacy of the group is evidently due to the faithful teaching of the Oblate Fathers at the Pensionnat ind ien at the Marie Otenam Re

Th e to serve , Moisie . Spelling is obviously phonetic, and it is apt

to vary Slightly with the individual . The names seem be largely

t 1922 z222 c Of descrip ive ( see Cabot , ), and I suspe t that some them 64 I E I OF A PUBLS . M US . NAT . I . UN V RS TY K NSAS , H ST

o . the are on matopoetic One Of the Oblate Fathers at reserve, Pere 11 i J . E . Beaudet ( pl . , fig . most k ndly checked the bird names for a l me some months later, and also added names Of a few m mma s

that I had missed . I was actually able to comprehend the French spoken by Fran cis McKenz ie ( and by some of his fellow Montagnais later in the season ) better than that I had heard from some of the French people in Seven

. for Islands The difference may have been accounted , at least in of n Mon part, by the more deliberate manner speaki g among the o to tagnais . Among the group at Knob Lake , a c uple were said speak or two English . One had been engaged in carpentry work at Seven o to Islands . I was exceedingly pleased by a c rdial invitation visit their homes at Moisie during my return journey homeward in the fall . Part of their leisure time at Knob Lake in Jun e was spent in play ” “ l - ing catch , with a basebal and mitt . In their commodious bunk tent they engaged in group singing— not merely Indian songs but also “ ” to a hit ( sad rel te )the latest popular , which they had learned over 1960 f t Andr e . o the radio By the Old chief the Moisie band , Ma hieu , had moved to the Knob Lake area to take part in the minin g opera McKenz ie a e of 26 tions there , and Francis , at the g , had become the new chief ( information supplied by Sebastien McKenz ie to Fred

Farah ).

S ebastien McKenz ie

In late July I arrived at Lac Auln eau for an l l -day stay at a geo

of Hol nn ah o 80 logical camp a Mines Limited . The l cality is about miles south of Fort Chimo and 18 miles northeast of Fort McKenz ie; it thus lies within territory Oc cupied at least in past years by i the N askapi group based upon Fort Chimo and Fort McKenz e . A ’ ’ former Hudson s Bay Company s post at the latter poin t (abandoned i in 1948 ) was managed from 1916 to 1936 by Sebastien McKenz e . He was now actin g as a sort of general factotum at the camp of eight

or Aulneau tu of nine men at Lac . A distinctly pleasant fea re my stay a l there was making his acquaintance . Sebastien almost cert in y is “ the person to whom Michelson ( 1939z89 ) refers as Bastian Mac ” kenzie at Seven Islands who has been at Fort Mackenz ie . He ex “

i i . presses the opinion that Bastian came from Bers mis . Aga n ( p “ who Bastian Mackenzie , has met Great Whale River Indians , f h In o o . W Chim Indians , those Mingan , etc , says the Great ale River di ans are Crees .

66 N I E ITY OF N E . M US . NAT . I . U V RS KA SAS FU LS , H ST

m nu bers are a mere shadow of the former hordes . At one time he n to the o had gone hunti g Indian House Lake, where Naskapi in lden f days had slaughtered their thousands o caribou . “ One of the Montagnais names he supplied was that of Atsensket ” f r Lani bitor borealis n san o the Northern Shrike ( us excu ). Its mea “ ” “ ai i i so ing , he s d , was someth ng like dev l , but not strong; bad ” l bugger would serve approximately . Perhaps it was a simi ar ( Nas kapi? ) name that Cabot had in mind when he wrote ( 1912 zl 43 ) “ a of to for Indians give the unpleas nt name Torturer the Shrike , it ”

k l . ec plays with its victims like a cat, pic ing them gradual y away Sp k “ ” “ ” 1935 z237 the ni of for Atcen ( )gives defi tion cannibal demon , as used by the Moisie band . As for the contin ent-wide native belief in bad luck resulting from

’ the discovery of a Canada Jay s nest or from killing one of the birds

Peris oreus canad ens is bo ( ), Sebastien granted that when he was a y ,

‘ his father admonished him not to kill the Whisky Jacks Oiskit ”

in o did so i . shan M ntagnais He nevertheless , when away by h mself Perhaps his father also told him not to keep any Whisky Jack found

to o . in a trap , but thr w it away Some years previously an ethnologist ( whose name was not re called; possibly Michelson? )had employed Sebastien by the day to - f to . o the to relate him Indian folk tales One tales , said deal with a

on black bear and a brown bear , aroused my interest the possible chance that the latter might be identical with the mysterious Ungava grizzly ( Ursus But Sebastien said the brown bear existed only

— not in the story not in real nature . I was disappointed in that I did him i learn from anything about the gr zzly, which I feel confident

n now i . o ce existed in Ungava , though probably ext nct

of A tale he told me presumably belongs in the realm mythology ,

o t u to of alth ugh he gave it a fac al air . It pertains some sort aquatic

K ania isk u animal said to be found in a lake on the upper p a River . A drawing he made shows a creature with a sort of tadpole-like outlin e : i w an und fferentiated head and body, ithout legs but with a broad

l im r in cauda appendage . Yet it is a furred an al, perhaps th ee feet

t . t o 2 i of to leng h It was said have been seen beneath nches ice, and

o k i n of have made a n ise li e a squ rrel scoldi g . A couple months later er m of m i J O e St . Onge gave me an account a somewhat si ilar an mal in the same general area . Sebastien made a little contri bution to the native phar macopeia

o n s Larix laricina in sh wi g me some section of a young tamarack ( ), HARP ER : THE FRIE NDLY M ON T AGN AI S OF UNGAVA

saying that he boils up the inner bark and uses the concoction for

dressing wounds .

1 n . He had a clear recollection of the time in 19 7 whe W . E Clyde Todd and his party from the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh passed

Fort McKenz ie on their long canoe journey from the Gulf of St .

Chirn Lawrence to Fort o . The geologist in charge of the camp at Lac Auln eau spoke in glow ’

ing terms of Sebastien s responsibility and his upstanding qualities .

For the to i example, earlier in the season latter had threatened qu t the camp unless the cook were restrained in his singing of ribald

songs . When I mildly expressed a wish for some whitefish ( C or e onus clu ea ormis m g p f ) specimens , Sebastien took it upon hi self,

without a word , to set a gill net in the lake , and he was thus able

very shortly to present me with a couple of fine Specimens . He also p osed most accomod atingly for a variety of photographs i k in sealsk n coat, boots , and leggings and a nitted woolen tam ’ O shanter ( the latter presumably remin iscent of the Scottish side of 1 ’ . 6 . his ancestry )( pl , fig ) in store clothes decorated with Hudson s on Bay Company medals , which had been issued the occasion of its 250th anniversary in 1920; cleaning a Lake Trout on the sandy Shore of 2 l m n the 196 : . lake ( Harper, p and co ing i to camp with a log on

the . 6 . one shoulder and an axe on other ( pl , fig In the back of l ground this last photograph was his smal , very neatly kept canvas

tent, where I enjoyed an occasional visit with him .

r r in He had arrived at this camp ve y ea ly the season ( in April ), in order to construct some of the wooden buildings for the accommo

dation of personnel and supplies . The plywood materials had been transported by air from Seven Islands ; the other lumber perhaps

came from no farther away than Knob Lake . He corroborated the account given by his son Francis about car in i h h ry g his wife over d fficult portages . He does so imself . But t is

happens only when his wife is sick . He and his son sometim es have a single dog to help in transporting their camp gear in winter; but f for the most part they haul it themselves on Sleds . He spoke O 60 portages between Seven Islands and Lao Aulneau ; some of them — - are very bad knee deep in mud . A couple of days after I had retu rned from Lac Auln eau to Knob i in Lake , I received from Sebast en , by air , a thoughtful present the form of a nestling Rough-legged Hawk ( Buteo lagopus sanctijohan

of r During a stay several days in ea ly October at Seven Islands , 68 I E I OF AN P UB LS . M US . NAT . I . UN V RS TY K SAS , H ST

l one af r to s of whi e on my way homeward , I set out te noon vi it some f my friends o the summer at the Moisie res erve . As luck would have in i to it, Sebastien was Seven Islands at the moment, just return ng his f home in a taxi driven by one o his Montagn ais neighbors . I gladly his him The accepted invitation to accompany . road extends some 9 miles eastward at a little distance back from the edge of the lofty f o d o k . c so w ode bluff verloo ing the Gul I had be ome accustomed , n of to in conversi g with others the Montagnais , using such French as n us to d o so on i I could muster, that I continued , unco scio ly, th s ride “ #” with Sebastien , until he sang out, Talk English At the reserve I found some 30 to 40 fairly new frame houses laid out in o on f h several straight r ws the level top o the bluff . T ey were i of said to have been bu lt by the government . All are about the to same size , and they Show little variation in design . They seem n i - l n - consist of a combi ation kitchen and d ning room and ivi g room ,

two . or o bedrooms , and a bathroom A wooden platform , r ofless f f o . o o p rch , stands at the entrance Perhaps because the newness the r e of or in const uction , there was a gen ral absence grass shrubbery old l — f the yards . A couple Of og cabins forerunners o the frame — h of . t e houses remained, but without occupants At west end the of ens ionnat ind ien village are the school and other buildings the P , ’ an d on t of n the nor h side a store the Hudso s Bay Company . The immediate surroundings of the dwelling area are pretty generally l tu no n n . wooded . I noticed i dicatio Of agricu re “ The act ual reserve at Seven-Islands measures 261 acres The Seven-Islands M ontagnais are generally being settled in a vill age

Malietonam r of no ( P . O . A la ge number them are still 2 4 1955 0 . madic . ( Laviolette, ’ in i - On arrival at Sebastien s home , we sat for a time the l ving room ,

his h was where I was introduced to wife . W ile the latter preparing for t of l out to a por rait herse f and Sebastien , I went photograph a

of o who o group neighb rhood boys , had appeared at the p rch, with f - lot of an inevitable couple o dogs . They were a bright looking

2 o d o the o 1 . rr on youngsters ( pl . , fig ca ying much as b ys w rld over . For his portrait Sebastien appeared in what may have been a

s s ho beaverskin cap. When it was pre ently sugge ted that I might p ’ to ra h his 84- - o dr e g p year old br ther Alexan and the latter s wife, living i s o t . o next d or, I was delighted at the opportuni y Both wore m ccas n , perhaps Of sealskin and caribou skin , respectively . The wife was one of not more than an excee dingly few M ontagnais women whom HARPER : TII E FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 69

I noticed still preserving the ancient style of wearing the hair in knots 2 1 . b . r suspended elow the ears ( pl , fig She also had the t aditional - - dr McK nz i parti colored peaked cap . The present Alexan e e e is prob “ ” ably identical with the Alexandre Mackenzie of Sp eck and Eiseley 2 wh him Michikamau 36 . o , fig include in the band, with summer quarters at Seven Islands ( or Moisie ). I was advis ed that his memory had so far failed that it would be useless to question him as to old acquaintance with Profes sor Speck . i in 1960 to n in On a brief v sit the K ob Lake area , Fred Farah ( 1 litt . 5 960 , August , )found Sebastien operating a provision store at

- b h . t the reserve on near y Jo n Lake The lat er kindly passed on ,

h a t o n t rough Fred , v rious items of information of interest me , i clud aska i ing the numbers of Montagnais , N p , and Cree now congregated o in that area, among a total p pulation Of Sebastien had pre l n vious y made for Fred a Montag ais bow and several arrows . The l arrows have a blunt wooden tip for hitting sma l game , such as par i tr d es . g , and the shaft has no feathering The bowstring had been ’ made of caribou hide by Sebastien s wife . Ben McKenz ie and Georges Michel ’ A sojourn Of twelve days in August with Gilbert Simard s surveying t 4 2 par y ( pl . , fig . ) at Mollie T . and Leroy lakes was particularly to di l enjoyable . This was due not only the extraordinary cor a ity and r - i hospitality of Mr . Sima d and his two French Canad an associates Vé ronneau COté the - r ( J . Laurent and Pierre )from Quebec Mont eal area , but also to the presence of four Montagnais axemen , not to ’ t i r men ion the f ne services of the party s very agreeable chef, Hen y

Larouche . The nature of my work and the knowledge and experience of the Montagnais in respect to the fish and game of the region quickly

w i our brought a fine rapprochement bet een us . Wh le conversation was limited by language difficulties , the other half Of the camp was in n always ready to oblige interpreti g . “ Ben McKenz ie ( an identification card indicated that his real first l m name is Bert e e y )was particularly friendly . I learned that he was

McK enz ie e a son Of Alexandre , whom I was to m et later at Moisie . ’ his al After the day s work of the camp was over, Ben and Speci buddy , t Georges Michel , would come now and hen into my tent, and they would thus provide me with Opportunities for secur ing information regard in g the local fauna . Three winters previously Ben and two brothers had trapped in this

Menihek general area . He had stayed at Lake , while the others went 70 N I E I OF N S PUBLS . M US . NAT . I . U V RS TY KA SA , H ST

elsewhere . Since the railway had not then been constructed , they

the had Obviously made journey from Moisie by canoe . They had no o dogs for hauling Sleds . Their perations apparently extended up Petitsika au to Waku ach to through p Lake , north Lake , and west Lac Brin d in a . d g For quarters , they made small log camps and provide r them with small stoves , like a tent stove . Thei catch consisted largely of r fox o not mink, otter, marten , weasel, musk at, and , with s me ( but o of i r of many )lynx and beaver . He sp ke the w nter occu rence per - to haps a hundred long horned caribou ( that is say , the Barren Ground caribou ) on a treeless mountain about 10 miles east Of l Mol ie T . Lake . One evening I was askin g Ben about the food of Lake Trout r i m ma h f u t C is t vo er na cus . o o ( y ) By way answer, he went and pres - - ently returned with the six day Old remains of a big specimen . When o its stomach was opened, there was exposed the badly decomp sed of an 8- a of r body inch coregonid fish , with number Obscure da k n i Pro spots on its sides . These proclaimed it a Rou d Wh tefish ( s 0 pium cylind raceum quad rilaterale )— one of extremely few speci r n m mens that I met with du i g the season . He gave e the further very interesting news that these fish occur by the “thousands obviously a spawning aggr egation— in late September or early Oc e tober in a brook by the old airstrip near Knob Lake . There th y may o to for be caught by hand in the shall w water, serve later use as bait - in the traps set for fur bearers .

’ For o of i an evening s diversi n , the Montagnais were fond canoe ng down to the outlet Of Mollie T . Lake for a try at Brook Trout . When

or so to o a bucketful would be brought back , I would be invited l ok over the catch and to select whatever specimens I might wish for

o in preservati n . Or they would set a gill net the lake and bring me some Common Whitefish from it . When I trapped my first Specimen of a Labrador varying lem “ min g ( Dicrostonyx hud sonius ) at the alpine garden on near-by

and to the n i for Sunny Mountain , sought learn Montag a s name the

to t — Species , I was astonished find that hey had none they were “ totally unfamiliar with the animal# Jokingly I remarked : Shame on

ou to to y , Ben , let me come from a place miles away show you ’ ” an animal in you r own country that y ou didn t even know about#

That evidently put Ben on his mettle . The next free day he and

’ out to Geren s Georges Michel set over the alpine Barrens Mountain , 4 t some miles o the northwest . There they s omehow flushed a lem ming, which had the misfortune to seek refuge in a shallow hole, HARPER : TH E FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 71

where it was captured alive . And so they bore it back to camp in ri u e t mph ; they had evened the score . Evid ntly this species occurs n only in the northern part of the Montag ais territory , and chiefly in ll above timberl e, where it had been easy for such a sma , secretive animal to escape their notice . On the same excursion Georges had secur ed for me a Rock Ptar m a s ig n , which had pre umably been summering and breeding on the ’ - r n wonderful Arctic Al pine heights of Ge e s Mountain . It was quite u h r of nexpected t ere, at such a distance from the nearest pa t its prin i r lie c pal breeding haunts on the main Ba ren Grounds . These either 150 so 200 miles or to the eastward , beyond the George River, or some A Koks oak the . miles to the northward, beyond the and Larch lto was one i gether it of the most prized specimens of the ent re season , and it afforded a fine illustr ation of the valuable help that a naturalist may derive from his Montagnais friends . f n It was Georges who had made the actual capture o the lemmi g . He displayed his agility again on the day when we were m akin g a new camp in a very attractive lichen woodl and at Leroy Lake . A s m spruce mouse, when disturbed from a hole at the ba e Of a stu p , scun i ed Off over the surface of the ground , but Georges overtook it Thi v within a few rods and once more made a capture . s pro ided my fir st Opportunity to study and photogr aph a live individual of the - n ik littl e known Phenacomys u gava cras su s. (It had been l ewise with

r u i the lemming . ) A few days later the sp uce mo se had the distinct on of being shipped off by air to the Army Medical Center in Wash ington .

On e i a o o even ng at Leroy L ke , Ge rges Michel and J seph Georges l St . Onge made a ittle canoe excursion , without my prior knowledge though for the special purpose of being able to present me with a muskrat the only complete specimen of the species that I brought back from Ungava . It now reposes in the study collection of the

i McKenz ie Un ted States National Museum . The next day Ben made me the beneficiary of a red squirrel ’s injudicious approach within reach of his canoe paddle .

m a . n At about this time Mr Si rd asked , with something of a twi kle , “ if I knew the nickname that the Montagnais had for me —le bon m . i h l ho e In French idiom , he expla ned, t is means something ike “ ” k i u t . the old boy, but is scarcely meant n indly or d srespec fully On

’ to -m the way back camp fro a day s work in the bush, he had over heard one asking another what sort of a specimen they might get “ l pour e bonhomme . I was as pleas ed with the title as with the 2 F 7 I E I A P L . M AT HI O UB S US . N . . UN V RS TY K NSAS , ST

m s i s speci en , which comprised not only mammals , b rds , and fishe , o -off Ashu ani i but even flowering plants . The next m nth , at far p to n Lake , I was referred again, but by an entirely different Montag ais , “ ” “ le m l mot . ai e as bonhom e [ Chez les Montagnais parlant franc s , ‘ ’ ’ ’ n irn li ue u une Il é bonhomme p q q acception respectueuse . d signe un n i li r e person e agee et plus part cu e ement le doyen d u groupe . 1 21 955z 5. ( Rousseau , It is worthy Of remark that throughout the season I could not a who e e the induce any Of the Montagn is , w r connected with various to n s for field parties that I visited , accept fina cial compen ation the e one a t to lk sp cimens they brought me . When pressed , would be p wa H i north es em In away . ow d fferent their attitude from that of w t dians # Here they seemed to be motivated merely by a Spiri t of i d in t genu ne helpfulness . I could o little more re urn than present w r of such friends ith a few leftove supplies at the end the season , and send them prints of the photographs for which they had so freely and obligin gly served as subjects . ’ i Simar d s of a One even ng, in Mr . tent, we held something sym i ’ os um on n of an d . . p Ben s k owledge fishes , birds , mammals Mr Simard and his associates took the part of interpreters while I plied in o . Ben with questi ns His answers are recorded separate reports , but there may be room here for his account of muskrat hunting : ob o two i In Oct er, ab ut ten years previously, he and compan ons “ ” 3 f h i on Oskoas o 15 l secured 00 o t e an mals Lake in ab ut days , whi e

-u r i waiting for the freeze p. The th ee would operate by n ght in a canoe : one in the stem to paddle ; one in the bow to str ike the musk rats with another paddle; and one in the middl e to finish them with a to - en stick . Another method was put a bag over the under water

r to o to ri b to t ance a burr w, and then st ke the ground a ove drive the muskrat in to the bag . He also reported the following method of capturing a marten ou one u r ou When y see , yell at it, and it goes p a t ee , where y can shoot it . He had never seen a wolf . An interesting bit of M ontagnais folklore came to light on the r of 15 n o o avia immer mo ning August , whe a Comm n Lo n ( G )passed

il re high over Mollie T . Lake , giving its w d cry . Ben thereupon

be c 1935zl 26 . marked that the day would windy ( see Spe k, ) Sure

on u n af o . enough, there was a brisk wind S nny Mountai that terno n

a o 1863 of of o Hind wrote long g ( , the wild cries l ons being followed by wind and rain . When a woodland caribou was secured and eaten at Harris Lake

4 I E I F K L A 7 O S PUB S . M US . N T . I . UN V RS TY ANSA , H ST

i i his dogs , wh ch help in draw ng a sleigh . He is accompanied by wife and h r lo . w five c ild en They live in a g cabin , ith glass windows . The i dr not l - NO ch l en had become o d enough to help in the tr apping . n 1953 to other family wi ters nearby . From onward his travels the i nterior have doubtless been by rail . ’ i d or fur - im 1952-53 His w nter s catch of game , foo , bearing an als in included the following

Le us americanus Snowshoe rabbit ( p ), many i Tamiasciurus hud sonicus not Red squ rrel ( ), numbers indicated Cas tor cana d ens is 18 Beaver ( ), fox ul es ulva 8 Red ( V p f ), Martes americana 25 Marten ( ), Must ela erminea 45 Weasel ( ), Mustela vis on 50 Mink ( ), t Lutra cana d ens is 10 O ter ( ), dl a r Ran i er caribou 3 Woo nd ca ibou ( g f ), s Cana chites cana d ens is Spruce Grou e ( ), many a Ptarmigan ( L gopus spp . many

u to The ret rns from such a catch, in addition his summer earn

i f r o . ngs , should provide him with a very com o table liveliho d In some former years he had secured as many as 10 of the caribou . Twenty years previously he had taken a Single fisher ( Martes pannanti);

the n Erethiz on d orsatum r a but meanwhile porcupi e ( ), a p im ry prey h e wol of the t . T fisher, had disappeared, and wi h it the predator

ulo lus cus did not . verine ( G ), even in years past, occur Likewise i m t The b Euarctos there ar e no skunks ( Meph tis ephi is ). black ear ( americanus Ond atra z ibethicus )and the muskrat ( )must be present, ll not to . Wi é are but they did happen be enumerated said there a few

' Cams lu us Ashuani i o wolves ( p ) about p Lake, but he rep rted none about Eric Lake . In the fall he puts up apparently several thousand fish for winter

. Core onus clu ea ormis use They include Lake Trout, Whitefish ( g p f ), Catostomus catostomus Catostomus Red Suckers ( ), Gray Suckers ( commersonii Esox lucius k ), and Pike ( ). Presumably they are ta en in gill nets .

’ This was by far the best account I secured of a M ontagn ais family s i i on i t n o of w nter l fe the r rappi g gr unds . NO doubt many others the Moisie band who are scattered over the interior dur ing the colder t i months lead essen ially s milar lives . It may be of interes t to compare Wille 5 winter catch of 1952—53

one r Domeni ue Mon with made nearly a centu y previously by q , a HARPER THE FRI ENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

of 40 es tagnais chief Seven Islands , in an area about miles northw t of Eric Lake and perhaps half that distance south of Ashu anipi Lake .

Domeni ue i 1863 —8 1 30 4 q reported ( in H nd , , ) caribou , bears , 12 i 8 1 3 t . martens , foxes ( includ ng black ), and o ters Thus the latter o apparently made a better record in fo d values , but a poorer one in fur values . e 10 r When I visited the Moisie village on Octob r , I had the pleasu e ill é h e W. of seeing Pinette and his family at their home I had op d to i secure the r portraits , but after I had called upon several other friends , the waning daylight prevented me from realizing this wish . Fortu

m Willé s . 7 . 1 ately, had previou ly sat for his portrait ( pl , fig ) at f . s O Knob Lake It represent a man dependable, agreeable , and l decidedly friendly character . What a privilege it wou d be for a naturalist to share his adventures on his wintering-grounds #

Kom Pinett e

his if i i the l i Kom , w e, and f ve ch ldren were on y native fam ly that m I et with in the interior . In former years the entire Moisie band was accustomed to spending the summer on the North Shore of the Gulf and making hunting and trapping excursions into the interior l u 1953 n on y d ring the other seasons . In , however , opportu ities for work at good pay in the construction camps at such places as Mile 224 i i A rstrip and Knob Lake, or with various surveying and prospect ng

s o the u . partie , induced s me of men to return at an nusual season ’ r u In Kom s case , he was apparently on ancestral hunting g o nds

Ashu ani i Ashu ani i along the p River just below p Lake . For when n s i t the another Montag ai secured a m nk along his part of river , close to 224 Mile Airstrip , and disposed of it, Kom is said to have protested f the act as a trans gression o his territorial rights . He seems to have occupied part of his time in purveying game to - h - the near by camp . Ot erwise he was engaged in building a two room n i frame cabi , meanwh le securing the materials from piles of scrap lumber at the camp and lugging them on his back half a mil e or so to d i f the buil ng Site on a blu f by the river, just above the first rapids

i a below the lake . Pending the complet on of the cabin , the f mily had rather cramped quarters in a tent little more than 7 # 7 feet in ground coverage . ’ I made Kom s acquaintance in late August through our mutual

o n friend , Fred Farah , of the Ir n Ore Compa y of Canada , whose facility with French was a decided help on that and other occasions . The words “ Sept Iles on the front of Kom’ s sweater proclaimed his 76 U I E I OF E M U AT . S . N . I . N V RS TY KANSAS FU LS , H ST

t and f sta ion a filiations . He was ready enough to be photographed there at the big camp ; but when I learned that his family was down

by the river, I suggested adjournment to that more appropriate en ir nm v o ent . By the time Fred and I , laden with three cameras and a of supply oranges , reached the place, Kom was already there . Th e r one all family was evidently a ve y compatible , and were in l - good humor . Even the wife smi ed and laughed not at al l in the it o r i trad i n Of an unexpressive o stoical Ind an woman . [As Speck remarks ( 1926a z65) concerning his experiences with a Montagnais “ t u o f Th e rapper d ring a January j urney northwest o Lake St . John : tradition of taciturnity with whiflch the northern Indian is accredited is everlastingly shattered by the ow of conversation and exchange of jokes lasting through most of the She appeared with a pa — oose see nn 46 . p strapped in a baglike cradle ( Ski er , , fig two of The other children were Bastien and Michel , engaging boys b 12 i f two o one a f . a out and ten , and little g rls , about six and and a h l n The larger girl undertook to carry the papoose o her back . There

to two . W were said be Older boys , at work in some other area hen I of McKenz ies Kom spoke my acquaintance with several , said that his i ’ w fe was Sebastien s daughter . Several of the photogr aphs were taken at the front of the partly i o i built cabin . Bast en evidently underst od the nature Of mot on pic tur for o of es , while I was Operating my Bell and H well, he began to the to tt his own accord toss an orange into air , as if provide a li le t in action . Fur her photographs were taken at the tent the rear , where - the smoke pipe Of a little stove projected from the Open front . But first I suggested removing from View such appurten ances of civili

z i n of -tox at o as a couple lard buckets , and the little girl put aside a Fly “ ” un Two i of or hoca vitulina g . Sk ns the harbor seal Loup marin P concolor one in of )were produced , and was soaked a basin water , perhaps to in dicate a softening process preliminary to makin g it into i all of i u moccas ns . Practically the fam ly except the yo ngest ones assumed some cooperative share Of the work in hand— Bastien pour

n n for one of ing water i to the basi his mother, Michel hanging up the

on or Kom the skins by a spruce, and holding papoose while the wife f i o . 7 . was occupied with another the sealsk ns ( pl , fig The cheerful and accomod ating spirit of the Pinettes was further ’ — illustr ated by Kom s suggestion of a little movie scenario the family

ldr paddling ashore with a laden canoe, the wife and chi en taking

m n a s to Ko . variou loads carry up the bluff, and bri ging up the re r 5 Though little more than feet in height, he was enabled by his sturdy HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 77

a - build to pick up the large c noe single handed, swing it overhead,

i on lk l u the lower it t ll a thwart rested his shoulders , and wa easi y p f river bank with it . Meanwhile one o the children happened to d rop

n a r its load, causi g the mother to collapse to the ground and f i ly rock back and forth with merriment and laughter at the youngster’ s little - w t mishap . The scene would have been an eye opener to anyone i h f a preconceived notion as to the stoical nature O Indian women . It was assuredly a genial and friendly family .

That morning Kom had killed four Black Ducks , and we saw the ’ “ one wing of of them by the river s edge . He also reported a Ground ” Ho Marmota mona x g or woodchuck ( ) killed there recently, and in thrown into the river when it became smelly . If I had been there im ul to e to i of t e, it wo d have enabled me add a sp cies my collect on

Ungava mammals . on The next day, my way to the seaplane base at the foot of Ash u ani i to i p Lake, I stopped at the camp long enough d sburse a few

s : Kom d s i pre ents tobacco for , nee le for his w fe, candy and a squeaky e r rubber mouse for the youn gsters . After supp r Korn appea ed at my tent with a handful Of small gastropod mollus ks ( Lymna ea ) e of it the from the river, pr sumably as an expression grat ude for presents of the afternoon . We also secured from him a number of m Montagnais names of fishes and other natural Obj ects . Spec i ens m b brought from the river at other ti es , by either Kom or the oys , alvelinus ont na lis m Wi were a Brook Trout ( S f i ), a Com on h tefish

Core onus clu ea ormis roso um c lin ( g p f ), a Round Whitefish ( P pi y d raceum uad rila terale Cat ostomus cat ostomus q ), a Red Sucker ( -fl catost omus . ), and a stone y As I was preparing to devote the afternoon of September 4 to a

a Ashu ani i photographic excursion long the p River, Bastien and

m h to . Michel appeared at the ca p , and I invited t em accompany me

to r l i n We were able ca ry on a im ted conversation in French , and Sig i in language served where words failed . I had a fa r load of cameras Th e o f ri d . my packsack, and Bastien of ered to carry the t po b ys were tu n pleasantly simple and na ral in their conduct, exhibiti g neither

Shyness nor forward ness . It was very agreeable to have their com

and pany as we set off acros the airstrip down the Slope to the river . ’ n Bastien was wearing moccasi s Of sealskin , while Michel s were of i caribou skin ; both kinds were made by the r mother . The name for those of caribou skin is pis hakanesin . When we paused for a photograph of the dens e spruce forest by i 1 l 2 t 961 : . the riverside, luxuriant wi h mosses and l chens ( Harper, p , 78 I E I OF L M U AT I PUB S . S . N . . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

fig . the boys fitted gracefully in to an environm ent that was their

natural heritage . They always wanted to look at the ground glass Of my 4 # 5 Korona camera and amuse themselves with the upside n down image o it .

to As we passed upstream , the boys began pluck and eat some l - iburnum ule ripe ( and ha f ripe )mooseberries ( V ed ). Michel made such an enticin g picture as he sat on the bank and contemplated a berry in his fingers that I induced him to hold that natural pose long f 1 r f or o . 0 o i enough a phot graph ( pl , fig . In nea ly every case th s sort I merely secured a pictorial record of the activities that the boys i i were pursu ng with entire spontaneity . Presently Bast en was sit tin g in a pens ive attitu de on a boulder at the edge Of the river as he

t . ou 8 . looked over the rapids ( pl , fig Then Michel sprawled over the same boulder and reached far downward for a drink of the ’ A h ani i 8 . s u s a . p w ters ( pl , fig t for o of n t As I was get ing ready another ph tograph the river, I o iced “ l 9 t me mumb ed e e . that the boys were passing the i in playing p g ( pl , t d in a fig . just as I used o o Georgia ne rly threescore years previ l f ous . t am o y Doubtless his was a g e European derivation , rather than an aboriginal one . t o on resum As we neared the Pinet e camp , the b ys ran ahead, p if to i . ably announce my com ng On arriving there, I asked they ~ would bring their little sisters down to the river bank to be photo

9 . o one n . W graphed ( pl , fig hen the y unger was incli ed at first to whirn er of p in the presence the stranger, the boys diverted her

a attention by inducin g her to d o a little shuffling d nce . Possibly this represented an early training for s ome sort of Montagnais dance

or i to t r - of more less ak n the noc u nal tea dances the western Cree , such as I had witn essed and photogr aphed at Fort Chipewy an on 14 Lake Athabaska in 19 .

es n e Pr ently I plan ed a separat photograph Of the Older girl , but when I suggested to Michel that he first remove s omething like a

r o to . c umb fr m her cheek, she retreated the cabin and stayed there “ r of Elle a peur, Michel explained . I then suggested a po trait their

l the mother with the baby in its swadd ing clothes , but boys reported h “ i t at the latter was malade , as ndeed I had heard several days Th m l n previously . e mother ca e very ob igingly by herself and sat o a c n S o o . o ro k, where I had just secured a f cus Michel she was spared any embarrassment Of waiting during such a process , and she could har dl y believe it when I announced in a very few moments that the tu 10 . pic re had been taken ( pl . , fig HARP ER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 79

w to n In riting names , Kom seemed inclined use an where others f ni ilin o O I: i ne o . e the Moisie band would use an for example, vs ’ f r Michen Mi hel hi o c s . Spruce Partridge , and vs . for son s name This u n is a characteristic of the Naskapi lang age, as fou d from Seven 1 2 K m t 939 z7 . o Islands eas ward ( see Michelson , , fig , though raised at Moisie ( or Seven Islands ), may represent a Naskapi element l 1935 . c . : in that somewhat mixed group ( f Speck , and p opp. p . ’ t e 1949 After my re urn home, while reading Rouss au s account ( ) t 1947 ri u to of his rip down the George River in , I was int g ed learn “ ” that Comis Pinette and Remi Regis ( an other member Of the Moisie band with whom I became briefly acquain ted at Knob Lake ) had 105 of been members of his party . Rousseau refers ( p . )to Kom as

Naskapi origin .

Korn, however, was born at ( or near )Seven Islands , and was liv 1960 ing there in , not having joined those of his neighbors who had to i McKenz ie er moved the Knob Lake area ( Sebast en , p Fred Farah ,

in litt . 5 , August ,

’ m n J ero e St . O ge

o . Jer me St Onge , one of the Moisie band , had been , at various ’ e of l Simar d s times in previous years , a valued memb r Gi bert sur v i u ey ng parties in the hinterland of the North Shore . D ring the summer of 1953 he had been engaged in prospecting in the Leaf

Lake area of northern Ungava . On his return from the north in late

r September he paused for a few days at Knob Lake, where Mr . Sima d made me acquainted with him . Some weeks previously I had heard from our mutual friend about ’ o r n fur— Jer me s remarkable prowess in captu i g that valuable bearer, the marten ( Martes america na Ab out 1944 a fur trader had offered

i r er m a merchant a fantastic price for l ve ma tens . Thereupon J O e

to made arrangements for the merchant supply him with cash , pro

to to 50 visions , and a plane transport him a lake about miles north

. e t i northwest of Shelter Bay He camp d here with his w fe , a small

son . e n in , and a nephew The nephew, Joseph G orges St . O ge , was im d ’ 1 3 S ar s in 95 . Mr . party August , , at Mollie T Lake , and he sup l plied some of the detai s that I heard there . Jerome would track

two r down the martens , capturing of them by hand in thei holes in the snow and others in cages baited with beaver meat .

’ 1941 er m Simar O e . d s sur In early spring , , J had been with Mr ve in ri Of y g party on a t butary the Romaine River near Lac Allard . 80 I E I OF F E . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS U LS , H ST

’

m . 3 . and One day, about p , he detected a marten s track followed it i ni h for m les , when he treed the a mal and killed it with a t rown m . t m w o . stone He returned o ca p about 9 p . ith his bo ty At about the same period he secured two nestling owls somewhere to or in the interior and brought them back Seven Islands ( Moisie ), f hi ti where he kept them in the attic o s house . During the day me r il n they were loose and would follow him a ound the v lage , perchi g on telephone poles . One night he threw a cat into their quarters , and i the next morning there was nothing left Of it but the ta l . The ready way in which they disposed of the victim suggests that they were B b vir inia n Great H orned Owls ( u o g us ). One evening at Knob Lake Jerome dropped in for a chat with me - in the bunk tent where I was quartered . He at once gave the pression of being a person of marked intelligence and generally t u upstanding qualities . I was able o nderstand his leisurely and deliberate speech probably as well as that of any French resident of in e n Of the North Shore . He was evidently aware my interest s curi g a to l r of specimens Of Pt rmigan, and he came te l me particula ly seeing some of their tracks in the snow on a high ridge between Knob Lake for of and Burnt Creek . He wrote me the Montagnais names a Wil ’ son s Snipe ( Capella gallinago d elicate )and a Pine Grosbeak ( Pini t cola enucleator escha os us ) that I had secured that day . He also presented me with the cased skins of a muskr at ( Ond atra z ibethicus ) from Swampy Bay River and a Labrador varyin g lemmin g ( Dioro

of stonyx huds onius )from the Leaf Lake area . The latter is special interest in representing a rich brown color phase that apparently

f r had not been previously recorded o the Labrador species .

10 - t to o of On October , when I made a long an icipated visit s me my Montagnais friends at their homes in the Reserve ind ienne at ’ a é rOme s Moisie , a few miles east Of Seven Islands , I found th t J house - ’ contained the village post office, under his wife s charge . He kindly

to to the of offered accompany and guide me west end the village, where a large school was maintained un der the direction of the for Oblate Fathers . School being over the day, the children were f h m o . 13 2 t e . playing outdoors , where I fil ed a group girls ( pl , fig )

13 . one the o . or as well as Of b ys ( pl , fig The f mer were a little

o l of ri not r l shy, but giggly en ugh . The boys were ful spi ts , but un u y; they thronged for a time about a cage containing several red squirrels ( Tamias ciurus huds onicus )and a wheel that the little animals coul d f scarcely be induced to tur n . Here I als o met two o the Oblate

P r T of é es . o u Fathers , the Beaudet and Laurent the t telage such

I E I K R . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY OF ANSAS PU LS , H ST

é rOme of i J showed me an album of photographs , many wh ch had t evidently been taken by the Montagnais themselves . One hat par ticularl of or of y interested me showed a group four five the men , in the midst of the antlers and skulls of perhaps 25 or 30 Labrador an i a o Barren Ground caribou ( R g fer c b ti). It had been taken some of old where along the George River, and was reminiscent the days of abun dance when the Naskapi of the Indian House Lake area f r of piled up such relics o thei chase . One the men in the group was m H an d i . e e Re i Regis , whom I had met at Knob Lake Kom P nett had ’ been members of Rousseau s party that descended the George River

1947 e 1849 z89 in ( see Rouss au , , ). Evidently the photograph was a f memento o that trip .

to o one When I was ready leave, Jer me summoned Of his Monta who r x gnais neighbors , d ove me in his ta i as far as the airport, where

o -to-be I connected with a bus for Seven Islands . SO ended a l ng remembered afternoon among my good friends at Moisie . ’ There was further evidence of JerOme s cooperation in ad vanc in of of g our knowledge Of the mammals Ungava when , under date 29 1956 to of October , , he sent the National Museum Canada a der Ran i er caribou caribou moid cyst from a caribou ( probably g f ), with n h r an accompanyi g explanatory note ( see Banfield , T is ra e to abnormality, according Indian myth , develops into a caribou , f of two- -old which comes out o the host in the form a year animal .

’ er me s J O note was sent from the Indian reservation near Knob Lake ,

e r ns indicating that he , like many others Of the Moisi band , has t a ferred his residence from the old village site on the North Shore .

M ontagnais Names of Anima ls

i a The follow ng list includes such Montagnais n mes Of mammals , i am h a an d to . b rds , p ibi ns , fishes as I was able secure in the field In

For nearly every case , the spelling is that Of the natives themselves .

o . each species , the English and the technical names als are given so These Montagnais names , in far as they are represented at all in

’ Lemoine s Dictionna ire ran ais -Monta na is are not in F c g , Pé r t . e general , identical with the names in hat work The fact that

fid e . . Lemoine lived most of the time at Maniwaki Pere J E Beaudet, i 4 f in l tt . 1 500 o o , October , more than miles s uthwest Seven

for to Islands , may account the discrepancies . Maniwaki appears

r be in Algonkian te ritory, separated by the Tete de Boules from the

Montagnais area about Lake St . John .

i i o l in Since subspec fic determ nations , in general, can be made n y HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAIS OF UNGAVA

t i ur il to the laboratory , wi h pert nent literat e ava able, it is not be i be expected that the Montagnais would recognize, or d scriminate f o . t tween , the subspecies a given Species ( A single excep ion may of m i be noted in the case the Sal on and the Ouananiche, wh ch are rated by ichthyologists as no more than subspecifically d istinct— if — that muchl and yet bear dis tinctive names . ) This state of affair s has led to a certain degree of variation in presentin g the English and

n . in n the tech ical names If, the case of certai species , just a single sub

in an En species occurs Montagnais territory , I endeavor to employ glis h name that applies particularly to that subspecies and to make ri i the technical name a t nom nal ( for example , American Goldeneye, Buce ha la clan ula ameri ana h two c . t e p g ) On other hand , if or more Of t i subspecies the same animal Occur in h s region , each presumably bearing an identical name in the Montagnais language , I use the English and the technical names in a sens e covering the species as Onda tra z ibethicus a whole ( for example, muskrat, ); in such a case the technical name is restri cted to a binominal . This proc edure may not be applied stri ctly in every case ; for our n example , in the present state of zoogeographical k owledge of ul a not the Ungava Penins , it is always certain whether more than one subspecies of a given animal occurs in the territory of the Monta gnais . n to n s The principal i formants , whom I am greatly i debted for the e

M cKenz ie n t names , were Sebastien , Francis , and Ben , Kom Pi et e ,

m . . i and é rO e . . J St Onge Pere J E Beaudet, was k nd enough to our a check the names supplied by mutu l friends , and to add a few others from his own knowledge of the Montagnais tongue . “ Ahn ost all the names of fish and other creat ures are plainly de ” 2 i 1922 z22 . to scriptive ( Cabot, ) Some of the b rd names appear be i onomatopoet c .

MAM MALS

English Technic al Monta g na is

m ri lac Eua rctos ame ricanus as B ear , A e can b k M k americanus B eaver Cast or cana d ens is ari ou eastern woo Ran i er caribou cari C b , d g f land bou F x Vu l es ulva o , red p f Fox Un a a arctic Alo ex la o us u n ava , g v p g p g L nx ana a L nx canad ens is cana y , C d y d ensis

arten merican Martes amer icana M , A Mink Mus t ela vis on IT OF F E . M US . NAT . HI . 84 UNI VERS Y KANSAS U LS , ST

Alces alces americana Moose Moose, eastern u se mea ow ni s ioa k shish M o , d Microtus penns ylva A s po o cus Mouse nort ern w ite , h h Peromyscus maniculat us Mistapokoshish footed - Mouse red ac e Kaoa ikoshisha oko , b k d Clethrio no mys gapperi pp p shish Muskrat Ondatra z ibethicus Otshisk Otter ana a , C d Lutra canad ensis Nkok rcu in eastern Can Po p e, Erethiz on d orsatum Kak

ad a d orsatum Ra it merican snow bb , A Lepus americanus amer Oaposh shoe icanus eal tlantic ar or Atshok S , A h b Phoca vitulina concolo r rew mas e Tsinis a ok hi Sh , k d S orex cinereus to p os sh un nort eastern Tsé k Sk k, h Mephitis mephitis me a striped pknk uirrel nort rn flin e onik Sq , h y g Glaucomys sabrinus Op otsash uirrel red Sq , Annikotsash cus ’ easel Ric ar son s Mustela erminee rich Socoshish W , h d short-tailed ard sonii ale w ite Del hina te Wh , h p p rus leucas ol eastern r W f , timbe Canis lupus lycaon Wolverin e Gulo luscus lus cus Woodchuck Marmo ta mona x

BIRDS

u st Eu ha ar in Blackbird, R y p gus c ol as caro Tshetshe kenoi linus

untin astern now lectro henax nivalis o on ineshis h B g , E S P p P p p nivalis

ic a ee astern lac Paras at rica illus atrica i Ch k d , E B k p T peikan pineshish capped pillus ic a ee u sonian arus huds onicus its i i i Ch k d , H d P P h k k ross ill Red Loxia curvirost ra Oatshi koteshish C b , ross ill ite-win e Loxia leuco tera leuco Oatshikoteshish ka a C b , Wh g d p p o tera pishit row astern Corvus brach rh nchos as o C , E y y A b brachyrhynchos D ovekie Pla utus alle T sikaoniss uc lac Anas rubri es Ilni e D k , B k p Sh p arle uin Histrionicus histrionicus ost aostok shish Duck, H q N p oe Ea le ort ern al Halia eetus leucoce halus Kaoa estokoanet mest g , N h B d p p alas canus sho

i r American omateria molissima d res esse E de , S N p s eri

lic er ellow-s a t e Cola tes auratus F k , Y h f d p l ene e merican Buce ha la cla n ula amer Go d y , A p g icana

oose ana a Branta canad ensis G , C d os aw astern Acci iter entilis atrica G h k, E p g p illus

in Pinicola enucleator Kamishistit mishoi Grosb eak, P e HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

o se u sonian ana chites cana d ensis Ilin eo Gr u , H d C Spruce canad ens is uill mot lac e hus r lle atla nt is G e , B k C pp g y T shimoshomas h ull merican errin Larus ar entat us smith Mes tshiask G , A H g g h sonia nus

ull reat lac - ac e Larus marinas i G , G B k b k d Opoe oeo tshiask ull Icelan Lauru s laucoid es G , d g T shiask kaoapishish aw merican ou Buteo la o us sanc t o hak tom H k , A R gh g p u S o legged ircus c aneus hud sonias aw ars C y Notshineo oesh H k , M h o eris oreus cana densis a ana a P ki han i ki J y , C d Ois ts or O s t san unc o h emalis h emalis unco late-colore J y y Otete is o J , S d p h Me ac er l a on alc Kin is er astern elte g y e lc y y on shiss m ls gf h , E B d T e e b o in l t Eastern ol en R egulus satrapa sat rapa K g e , G d Kaioassi koniskoeo nes crowned in let Eastern u Regulus calend u la calen K g , R by T shatshao nish d la crowned u Kn ot m erican Calid ris canutus rufa , A i L ar orne Eremoph la alpest ris k , H d Mer anser oo e Lophod yt es cucullat us g , H d d M r ans r R - r Mergus s errator serrat or e g e , ed b eas ted la n ula h ma lis Old Sq uaw C g ye ' n Os re mer can Pand ion haliaetus caroli p y, A i

Owl merican aw Surnia ulula caparoch , A H k wl orn Bubo virginia nus O , H ed Owl now N yctea ny ct ea , S y Anas acut a Pintail tarmi an u son Ba Lag opus mutus ru pestris P g , H d y Rock tarmi an Un a a Wil Lagopus la gopus u ngavus P g , g v Oapineo low

Ra en ort ern orvus corax rinci alis v , N h C p p Ka katsho Re oll ommon Acanthis lina ria i hoi dp , C Kaipishissit m s Ro in m erican Tu rd us mi rat orias b , A g Pi pitsheo an i er ott e Actit is macula ria S dp p , Sp d Katsha kaskopiniot oter m i i m ni r a ri ana S c , A er can O d e ia g a me c O momok coter ur M ni rs ic illat a n S , S f ela tt a pe p Koaike coter ite-win e Melanitt a d e la nd i d e Koiskoshi atom S , Wh g d g g p land i ri e ort ern Atsensketsan or Mishoi Sh k , N h Lanius excu bitor borealis ’ — ni e ilson s l ina lic ate Ka moskoashst o r S p , W Capella ga l go d e Otitipesho? arrow ouse Passer d omesticus d omes T s i moalo Sp , H h tious

arrow ite-crowne # onotrichia ni rilora Oa oskao ineshish Sp , Wh d g p p arrow ite-t roate # ono trichia albicollis ante ni atshiko ts i Sp , Wh h d T p h kotshin

wall w T r Irid o roc n bicolor hak ik n h S o , ee p e S oe e es ern rctic S terna arad is aea Tshiask oeshish T , A p

ar ler la D end roica tria ta Tossi irnan h W b , B ckpoll s p s ellowle s reater Totanus me la noleucus Sheshesho Y g , G 86 UN IVE I T OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . RS Y KANSAS , H ST

AMPHIBIANS

’ rre c ei Toad , C ope s Bufo te stris op ro ort ern oo Rana s lvat ica cantabri F g , N h W d y gensis

FIS HES

ur ot m erican L ota lota lacustris eli eni or iri B b , A M , M , M Capelin Mallot us villo sus Keskenemekosh Cod tl Gad us calla rias nonoi , A antic O Eel m ri n uilla rostrat a irnmishoi , A e can A g Opp errin Leucic hth s arted i hikoshmek H g , L ake y ?Ats Ouananiche Salmo salar ouana niche Ouananiche i e ort ern Esox lucius shinosheo P k , N h T almon l almo salar salar m k S , At antic S Otchatcho e tic le ac Thr ee-s ine Gas terosterous aculeatus ?Tsistaskoannamesh S k b k, p d u c er ommon S k , C Catostomus commersonii Makatsheo commersonii

atostomus catostomus Mikoashi or Mokoashi C , S alvelinus fontina lis Matamek ris tivomer na ma cush Kokemesh or uku C y , K mess

ite is ommon ore onus clu ea ormis i m Wh f h , C C g p f At ka eg it e is Roun ro o ium c lind raceum Wh f h , d P s p y ?Potmekosh quad rilat erale

Ind ia n Dogs ofthe Ungava Peninsula

My own opportunities for observing these dogs were limited to a o on few m ments October 10 at the Moisie village near Seven Islands . At that time I was scarcely aware of the peculiarities of the two Mon f o to . tagnais breeds and the interest attached them In any event, I was too much engrossed with other matters on that crowded after

to t to noon pay any par icular attention dogs , other than including two of them ( an adult and a puppy ) in some photographs . These dogs were perhaps of the breed that is used for help in hunting . The 2 2 f t . 1 . o photograph ( pl , fig )suggests that they were the same ype a ash uan - a o that was kept by the Montagnais at N t q forty Odd years g , in as described by Townsend ( see below ). The adult, as revealed

r : - w a Kodach ome , appears somewhat as follows buff colored, ith - Th m Th . e o ar . e whitish face , c ll , feet, and tail tip tail was curly ani al of f was the size o a smallish hound . u It may be useful to review some of the accounts in the literat re . 773 re . ti on to the 1 R Cur s a visit Labrador coast in , “ on of i of marks the large dogs the Esk mos , whereas the dogs the ” Mountaineers [ Montagnais] are extremely small . ul to d i Dogs are very usef [the Montagnais ] Indians , in fin ng bears - r n . du ing the winter, when their hidi g places are covered with snow HAR PER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAIS OF UNGAVA 87

”

They smell the torpid animal, and thus discover his den . ( Hind ,

1863, In describing the embarkation of some Montagnais families at Mus uaro Natashquan for q , Townsend writes “ l i The sma l slinking foxlike Ind an dog , black and tan in color, was ” everywhere , each one nervously anxious not to be left behind . He “ : r a s or adds Eve y f mily posse sed a cat , either carried in arms , har ” nessed the or l l d o . and straining at leash , again fol owing free ike a g ” Th e to cats were said to be a recent acquisition , and be treated ” most kindly as pets . In a later work Townsend describes these dogs further “ At the Indian encampment at the mouth of the Great Natashquan “

of . River, we were received by a rush and chorus Indian dogs These dogs are very different from the Eskimo dogs and are much smaller . - -u il They are long haired with pointed noses and ears and curled p ta s , and are generally black and tan in color with white bellies and white ” tips to their tails . ’ Glimpses of Montagnais dogs ar e shown in some Of Townsend s 1 6 19 8 : . . 8 plates ( opp pp , Referring perhaps more particularly to the Montagnais of the Lake

1922 z204 St . John area , Cabot writes ( ) m tim aid of Bears are found even in idwinter, some es by the small

“ The keen little dogs referred to are indispensable in the huntin g of the small game , joining their efforts and senses to those of family in a marvelous way . In traveling by canoe , they are often put ashore i to . o run the banks , with great effect An Ind an dog , a pole , and a n ose are as effective a combination in hunting some Of the grouse kind as almost any that can be brought to bear . One of the breeds of the American aborigines is d iscussed by Allen “ 1920 4 the - e o ( z 64 ) under name of Short legg d Indian D g . It was

ri r apparently dist buted from B itish Columbia to Quebec , and per

to . of 1920 haps New England and New York One the dogs ( Allen ,

1 . . 5 . pl , fig ) was photographed by William B Cabot at Bersimis , “ Quebec . The large head , erect ears ( somewhat laid back in the

u - u photograph ), long, heavy body, short, straight legs , p t rned tail , l i agree we l with other descriptions . Th s particular individual has the

” ’ spiritless air of an Old dog . ( P . ( Speck s photographs [ 1925] to no s - seem show dogs o extremely short legged . ) “ These smaller dogs were appar ently the familiar household pets or hunting companions of the Indians of forested country or of the 88 UN I E I OF L A PUB S . M US . N T . I . V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

- h canoe using tribes . T ey were too small to be of service as pack t travois r anni r animals wi h o p e . ( P . Pere Le Jeune speaks [in 1633] of the familiarity of the [Quebec] to Indian dogs , that in winter they are unable Sleep outside and come ” 4 n . 68 into the cabins , lying and walki g over the inmates ( p Th e most comprehensive account of the dogs of the Montagnais is evidently the one by Speck from whose paper the following excerpts are made The tribes of the Labrador peninsula use dogs extensively for the transportation of their val uable cargoes of fur and provisions in i i ” “ w . the r inter wander ngs He concludes that the practice , and even the d o t g stock itself , have been derived by the Montagnais hrough ” contact with the French Canadians . ( P . “ f d o to The Montagnais have several types o g. First be mentioned

u n : the u is a small , decidedly v lpi e race prominent , pointed , p a k i standing e rs , the pointed nose , the Sil y ha r, and whitish belly are f or i . o characterist c In color, dogs this race are brown , reddish , white and gray . They have a light delicate step , a trim graceful figure , and

m . o and an a iable disposition These , c nsidered the real Indian

n . Th n dogs , undoubtedly represent the origi al strain ey serve o ly as for r r o trailers , thei scent being keen and thei acti ns quick, they make

. d o d excellent , intelligent hunters The hunting g constitutes a decide type About thirty years ago there were no dogs other than these ‘ ’

. not . . among the Lake St John Indians , and they did train ( Pp 58 “ to The driving animals , in contrast the breed just described , are

a . ordinarily big hardy beasts , with broad heads and short h ir Usually d o oc their features indicate affinity with the European g races , but n ll casio a y some mixture with the Eskimo husky is evident . ( Pp . 59 The breed of dogs used for sledding by the Montagnais of Lake

St . John and eastward generally as far as Seven Islands , is a

i of mongrel shaggy beast , prevail ngly dark brown , a rusty, worn hue , ” r f o t o . black , with a Slight admix ure white ( p “ As regards the technique of d og transportation among the Mon

r r not tagnais , an Eu opean o igin is convincingly suggested only by the breed of the large dogs but in many details of harnessing ” and management ( p . Speck shows figures of the hunting type on pages 58 and 59; of the — on 60 63. train dogs , pages n 1947 2 Tan er ( , )writes

90 I E I OF AN L M A PUB S . US . N T UN V RS TY K SAS , . HI ST .

“ Mr . Ouellet writes : All the specimens I have seen display a curled ” — in - down tail contrast to the generally described curled up tail . of Some the Cree , Naskapi , and even Montagnais have obtained

. For k f Eskimo dogs example , S inner writes o conditions among the Eastern Cree “ for t i In winter, sleds drawn by Eskimo dogs , are used ravel ng , but according to the Indians this custom was derived from the Es

i i for k mo , from whom the Eastern Cree st ll purchase dogs this purpose . At Lake Mistassini the train dogs are almost of the pure husky

type, and the technique employed in harnessing and driving, them ” tr o is s ictly Eskim an ( Speck, 1908 161 1 f When Mrs . Hubbard ( : )came in 905 to a camp o Monta n of She g ais at Resolution Lake, near the head the George River, “ ” “ found some six or eight splendid Eskimo dogs that prowled about one h one n snarling at anot er . The shown in a photograph o the 158 not one of plate opposite page is clearly enough a Husky , and f n . o t co the Montagnais breeds This band na ives , while maintaining or i to i tact with Seven Islands Mingan , also made trading v sits Dav s on Inlet the Atlantic Coast, where presumably they had been able h to obtain the Eskimo dogs . At Resolution Lake t ey evidently man aged to kill enough of the Barren Ground caribou to provide food for these big dogs . Strong ( 1930a z5 )makes a slight reference to the use of dogs by members of the mixed Montagnais -Naskapi band of Davis Inlet in ’ “ u of : Wfol the h nting Cabot s caribou hen these are seen they are

d o i the . lowed , Often with g sleds , unt l game is fairly close at hand to Then the dogs are secured , and the men , keeping carefully leeward ES of . u the deer, creep as close as possible These were pres mably kimo dogs . “ It is most interesting to find how much the Naskaupee have

of borrowed from the Eskimo . Some them have procured draught dogs . Strong says that the Davis Inlet and Barren Ground people to used a few Eskimo dogs , which were harnessed the sled in fan

koma tik shaped formations , but this art , like the with runners , was only acquired from the coastal Eskimo some fifty od d years ago . Prior

own and to that the men pulled their toboggans , the small white

Indian d og was used only for hunting small game . These dogs are ” 1947 now n . almost exti ct ( Tanner, , “ of r A few men [ the Easte n Cree] , using snowshoes and drawing

the toboggans , since dogs are scarce among Indians , may return [from HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 91

t t to rrrid winter heir rapping grounds] Great Whale River in , to ” Honi mann exchange skins for flour , sugar, and other supplies ( g ,

Deep snowfall was a deterrent to the use of dog-teams in the eastern woodlands . Most Mistassini families had a small huntin g did dog , but they not keep Sleigh dogs . ( J . W . Anderson , i in On the other hand , teams of Esk mo dogs were used fairly ’ recent years the 1930 s )for tr avel along the east coast of James Bay

. 17 ( Op Cit . : 7) McLean indicates a lack of dogs among the Naskapi during his tim e ( 1837 When they remove from camp to

i r camp in w nter, the women set out fi st , dragging sledges loaded with k ” Of of . their effects , and such the children as are incapable wal ing A passage in Turner ( 1894 z309 ) suggests that in his day likewise the Naskapi of the Fort Chimo area had no draught dogs , but merely a small type that was perhaps identical with , or at least analogous to , the Montagnais hunting dogs When on a journey the younger women and the men drag [ the sled] along . When the men return to the station to trade they alone i i the drag it . A small dog is somet mes h tched to it by a thong , but as The animal is so small and light , it affords but little assistance .

off of animal , however, would certainly wander in search game

an d i along the track , by being hitched to the sled it is kept with n ” bounds The scant attention given by Tu rner to dogs indicates that they then formed an element of comparatively little import ance in the life f o the Naskapi of the Fort Chimo area . At that period the Naskapi may not have been sufficiently familiar or friendly with the Eskimos 4 . 18 to have acquired draught dogs from them . Turner says ( p )that “ ” the local Indians and Eskimos do not intermix . ’ McKenz ie s m In Sebastien ti e ( as reported by him ), the Naskapi ( of the Koksoak River area? )used very few dogs in winter; a man - i would have perhaps one or two . Obviously most of the sled haul ng - — - o r . was by man power woman power At Indian House Lake , Se Of bastien said , the people kept dogs all the time , in view the abun f dance o caribou for feeding them . l t However, it sti l remains a question as to how long the la ter group — the so-called Barren Ground Band— may have had the use of large

. 1912 draught dogs For example , Cabot ( ) seems to make no ref erence to seeing any dogs among his native friends at Indian House his Lake, and none appear in photographs , although the large num 92 UN I E I OF A R M . US . N AT . V RS TY K NSAS PU LS , HI ST . bers of Barren Groun d caribou in the area at that time should have aska i to enabled the N p keep dogs .

Ind ian Dances of the Ungava Penins ula Skinner and Speck —180)give extremely few descriptive details of dances among the Eastern Cree and the Mon tagnais , respectively . It would appear that neither had been present “ ” of at any the Old dances anywhere in the peninsula . “ The f former remarks ( p . Memories o but few native dances now remain among the Eastern Cree an d these have been set aside ” for f r i the square dances o the Europeans . He secu ed with d fficulty some meager information concerning certain primitive dances— the the war dance , the conjuring dance, the feasting dance , deer ( cari

bou . e ) dance , the bear dance, and the mide dance On a lat r page 73 r o the ( )he adds that in former times , after a ca ib u was killed by “ ‘ ’ no i f n now Oh Cree, a deer dance was held but n ormatio can be ” i i ta ned concern ng it . Th e ur a o a n 1863 dances were in vogue a cent y g , as ttested by Hi d ( , “ The goose-dance is a time-honoured custom among the Crees of the Saskatchewan; and similar rejoicings and ceremonies urther exist among the heathen Montagnais and Nas quapees . F of more , Couper remarked that the Montagnais are fond n n music, si gi g and dancing . Religious ceremonial dances cann ot be shown to exist among the

i . t a e r nat ve populations Of the peninsula Never heless , d nc pe form ances in h n o d t appear w ich spiritual influences are i v ke , though hey to o n in seem c ncern only the i dividual . The dance is indulged at times when families come together in the bush , but more especially when they gather at the various rendezvous at the lakes of the interior

o . e and at the post and missions along the c ast This , however, is som of i who d o not to what against the wishes the m ssionaries , seem ’ understand how essential such emotional outlets are to the native s or how to t mental balance , much better adapted native mentality hese - are than the but half comprehended Mass . ( Speck , “ A scientific discus sion of the dancing is hardly possible for here

l of n the art as wel as the religion dancing is not a regulated o e . The

of one for r steps are form , men an alte nate shuffling with the foot brought down heavily and a shake of the whole body; for both sexes the arms , hanging loosely at the sides , and chest are given a Violent ”

. 1935: 179 jolt at each step ( Speck, Speck and Eiseley —237) give the following brief hint It was stated that they [ a group of families operating in the general

94 I E I OF F E . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS U LS , H ST

1931 for Matamek f on . , the Con erence Biological Cycles The par

ci an s h in in ti p t were all male . T ey stood single file a small circle and the entire file moved slowly around the cir cle by shufflin g halt ingly along in short steps in time with the rhythm Of ins tr umental

Th r h . origin . ey were d essed in t eir usual Old store clothes I thought

the Sight uninspir ing . “ i to . The dancers moved forward , front back I th nk the ” movement was clockwise . Subs equently two other participants in the Matamek Conference have writt en me on the subject : “ The dances were put on at night Many of the delegates in ” clud ing myself too k part in the dances and tried to mas ter the step. 0 19 t n t . o ( Alfred Gross , March , ( It is interes i g note that these dances Of the Montagnais , like some that I Observed among

in 1914 e their relatives , the Cree, at Lake Athabaska , wer held at night . ) “ ’ n of n I have a co fused memory the I dian dance at Mr . Amory s Matamek n nd in t in l Co ference . The I ians were going around errn ab y it on in in a shuffle step , in a small circle w h hands the shoulders ” front . Ellsworth Huntington roused us by suddenly joining them# r 16 ( Cha les Elton , April ,

Ind ian Canoes of the Ungava Penins ula

Dur in g the twentieth centur y the birch-bark canoe seems to have become fair ly obsolete in the Ungava Peninsula . It has been replaced - l - by factory bt canoes or imitations thereof . An excel ent first hand account of the primitive craft is presented by Turner on the basis of his observations at Fort Chimo and vicinity from 1882 to

1884: “ A poin t of great dissimilarity between the Naskopies and the Little Whale river [Eastern Cree] Indians is that the birch—bark canoe o Of the latter is much m re turned up at each end , producing a craft to f well adapted the swift currents o the rivers . The occupants are f boatrn en skill ul , and will fearlessly face wind and wave that would f k i o Nas o e . appall the heart the p ( P . “ All the Indians of this [Koksoak River] region use birch-bark f # # # # o u . canoes , the pattern shown in the [lower] fig re ( Pl I , from a photograph; The style of canoe used by the Little Whale river Indians has very much more sheer at the bow and stem than those

f K k o k 3 . 04 used in the valley o the o s a ( Pp . “ Th ere are two kinds of canoes in use among those Indian s [ of the HARPER : THE FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 95

K oksoak the m . River] , differing only in the shape of ste and prow The original form was nearly flat along the rails and had the bow i and stem but little turned up . Of later years ntercourse with some of their neighbors has induced them to modify the nearly straight ’ 39 fi c z r . edge canoe into an intermediate shape [ f Tu ner s pl , upper g ; 2 h s . 5 . 3 t e al o pl , figs and , of present report] between their own and of n s that the East Mai Indian , whose canoes are very much turned to up , and are acknowledged be far superior vessels to those Of the ” Ungava Indians . ( P . “ AS the forests in the vicinity of Fort Chimo do not contain birch il Koks oak ao trees , and none are found unt the headwaters Of the [ tu all l Kania iskau e y the midd e course of the p ] are r ached , where they too r i are small to afford ba k of sufficient s ze and thickness , the In di s l to who an are compe led procure the bark from the traders , ” import it from the St . Lawrence river and gulf stations ( p . “ Without the birch-bark canoe the Indian would have difficulty

i i r in obtain ng his liv ng, as it is even more necessa y than the sled , and ” th 307 nearly as useful as e snowshoe ( p . ’ f 39 . 5 . 3 O Turner s plate ( see pl , fig , the present report )shows that no aft the Naskapi canoe has decking, either fore or ; there are five thwarts . ’ inla son r Of Half a century before Turner s time , Nicol F y w ote the Naskapi in the Fort Chimo ar ea going inl and on jou rneys of four or of five days in search birch bark for their canoes . Low speaks of the canoe birch attainin g a larger size in that area than elsewhere north of Nichicun Lake or the upper “ Hamilton Basin : At Cambrian Lake [on the K aniapiskau River

110 i eu about m les south of Fort Chimo] , where the limestones are - t countered and the river valley is deep and protrac ed , the size of the m tree i proves , and birches six inches in diameter are not uncommon .

l McKenz ie in Fina ly, Sebastien formed me that there is much

i McK enz ie and canoe birch in the vicin ty of Fort , there the Naskapi

t ar t used o make canoes of it . This ea is a northern ou post of the n species in the Ungava Peni sula . 290 r 1947 . Tanner ( , fig )shows a Naskapi canoe very simila

1 . t in 894 : . 39 in shape and construction to hat Turner ( pl , lower fig except that the covering seems to be canvas rather than birch bark . So much tr ansformation had evidently taken place in the half century ’ ’

t . . 6 . 3 be ween Turner s time and Tanner s ( See also pl , fig , of the present report . ) Canoes are frequently used [by the Naskapi] for a portion of the 9 I E I OF S PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . 6 UN V RS TY KANSA , H ST

f e trip in or out o the country . Th se resemble the Montagnais canoe in - to ah type . At present they are usually canvas covered , owing the ” f i z o . sence b rch Of suitable Si e ( Waugh , ’ Skinn er s account —43 )of the canoes and canoein g of the Eastern Cree is well worth quoting : “ ’ Most of the summer traveling to and from Hudson s Bay is done no by canoe along the rivers . The canoe birch does t grow to a large

of a of or size in the northern part the r nge the Eastern Cree , else the bigger trees have been destroyed by the Indians so that birchbark canoes are becoming rarer every year at Eastmain River Fort and ’

e . to h the i Rup rt s House Owing t is scarcity, those seen by wr ter f of were made o many small pieces bark . “ Owin g to the difficulty in obtain ing birchbark it has long been

for - n No . w imported in rolls canoe and tent maki g , however, most canoes and wigwams are covered with canvas purchased from the

’ ’

. 1908 not Hudson s Bay Company At Rupert s House , in , there was a

n i all e - si gle b rchbark canoe, thos seen were canvas covered . “ The Eastern Cree canoes have lower and less rounded bows than

of who of o those the Ojibway, border the southern part their c untry . n The writer was i formed, however, that the canoes used at Fort

’ George , and in Ungava and northward along the Hudson s Bay

‘ ’ proper, have such very high bows that they are called crooked

a . to in c noes This is aid in battl g with the waves in the open sea . “ or t Canoes average twelve fifteen feet in leng h , but those used by the Labrador voyageurs are often twice that size and sometimes Th more . ey are capable Of bearing enormous weights , and many

o r o will h ld twenty o more men . The paddles used are sh rt and rather

Th no i of a l to clumsy . ey have swell ng at the end the h nd e facilitate

as the grip . In paddling, the E tern Cree take shorter and more jerky tr s okes than their Ojibway neighbors on the south . In shooting

bow m rapids , the men at the and ste ( the bowsman , by the way, is considered the leader ) always stand upright in the canoe when approachin g the head of the rapids and gaze down the stream for a

for i moment, noting the easiest course travel in an incred bly short

f k w to space o time . When they reach rapids which are no n be bad , they sometimes go ashore and follow down the str eam to examine u the co rse . If the rapids prove wild , the canoe is then lightened and

h or . t ey proceed , portage around, as the case may be All steering in the how rapids is done from the , the man in the stern merely keep in to g the boat straight . In ascending streams , it is usual pole up

98 I E I OF AN PUB L . M . AT I . S US N . UN V RS TY K SAS , H ST

the Naskapi type . Waugh offers practically no other information ’ r conce ning it; possibly his sketch was based upon Hind s figures . By his time the use of the Montagnais birchbark may have practically In 1953 n out . o of i died I saw Montagnais canoe a prim tive type ,

nor did I hear Of any .

of of e The Indians the Mingan area excel in the structure cano s , and the amount Of labor and substantial work put on them is aston ” ishin — n l o of g i deed , it is the on y go d piece work made by them 1 868 z9 . Couper, )

n to n the t 1921—1940 Referri g his an ual cruises along Nor h Shore , , “ in i 22 l tt . Harrison F . Lewis writes ( , September , I have i d o not repeatedly seen Montagnais bu lding canoes , but I believe that ”

o m . they c vered the frames , in my ti e , with birch bark

in tt 19 1 no - li . 7 6 Howard Cleaves ( , August , ) noticed birch bark canoes during a cruise along the eastern part of the North Shore of 1927 i the Gulf in , but he photographed a Montagna s making a can - vas covered canoe . Miss Leitch —23 )shows in several photographs the build ing of the latter type Of canoes by M ontagnais at Mingan an d Ro maine . Some general remarks by Waugh ( 1919 )may be included here “ The - the factory made canoe, though modelled after Indian article , so i o has , in fact, far ecl psed it that it is seld m seen except among remote and backward bands of Indians who employ it main ly from ” or economy conservatism ( p . “ ” The seams in all barked canoes are gummed ( p . An in side gun wale to which the upper edge of th e covering is n e sewn conti uously , is found among the Chip wyan , Ojibwa , Monta ” gnais and Micmac ( p . Jenness scarcely discusses the canoes Of any of the natives of the 6 ’ i to . Ungava Pen nsula, except reproduce fig ) Waugh s e figure of the Montagnais type . He adds ( p . Bark cano s e to t varied somewhat from trib ribe, in the amount Of curvature at ” how m in i of the . and ste , the deck ng ends , and in a few other details

S ome Contributors to the Ethnology of the Ungava Peninsula The reader of the foregoing pages may be interested in the fol lowing slight sketches of some of those who laid the foundations of to o the regional ethnology . It was my great privilege enj y friendly — n relations with four of them Cabot, Townsend , Speck, and Ski ner . The few hits of information on their professional and personal qual HARPER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAIS OF UNGAVA 99

’ t i w ities may enhance the reader s apprecia ion of the r ritings , as ex emplified in the numerous quotations that have been pres ented .

1823—1908 his Henry Youle Hind ( )was of British birth , but spent

i . Af adult l fe as a Canadian teacher, geologist, and explorer ter ex

rienc Of i 1857 pe e as geologist the Red River exped tion of , he was in command Of the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan explorin g expedition 1 1 of 1858 and of the Labrador expedition of 86 . He published reports on all n - three Of these expeditions , includi g a two volume account of 1901— 1911 i . . . the th rd ( London , ( Dict Nat Biog , supplement ,

’ Although Hind s travels in the interior were not SO extens ive as his might be suggested by the title of volumes , he produced a very — i n . readable and useful work fact, a Labrador classic It probably deals more fully with the Montagnais and the Naskapi than any

th the previous account since e time Of the early Jesuits . At his period Indians had the advantage of lead ing a much more primitive and natural life than a century later , and of not having received such a o f his strong infusion of alien blo d as the present generation . Some o characters stand out as individual personalities— not merely as un

ri named representatives of t bal groups . There are also notes on the

Of flora and fauna and the devastating effect forest fires . In no other work have I found such glowing appreciation of the fairyland of Labrador lichens and mosses ( see “ Hind leaves a vivid narrative Of the difficult southern wooded ” i the h lls of Canadian Labrador ( Elton ,

Perhaps few scientific men alive today have any personal recol lection of Lucien McShan Turner ( 1848 who spent two years 1882—1884 t ( ) in the Ungava Peninsula , with headquarters at For

Chimo . While there he labored prodigiously and effectively in the Of u f field nat ral history as well as in ethnology . The Bureau O Eth nology of the Smithsonian Ins titution published his monumental treatise on the Eskimos and the Naskapi in its Eleventh Annua l Re port His collection of Labrador and Ungava birds and mammals still remains at the United States National Museum ; like l On m wise his notable unpub ished manuscripts ma mals , birds , and on i f m t fishes . The one mammals contains probably more real n or a ion

’ on the life history of Cabot s Caribou than may be found in all the

publications on that Species . ’ In contrast to Turner s widely and favorably known works on the zoology and ethnology of both Arctic Alaska and Arctic and Sub 100 I E I OF PUB L . M . N AT I . S US . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

has arctic Ungava, extremely little appeared in print concerning his

f . S O not personal li e far as I have ascertained , there has been even com an Obituary notice in any scientific journal . He was a boyhood of the 1850 panion Robert Ridgway, distinguished ornithologist ( 1 4” ’ . o 86 in Mt Carmel , Illin is . In Turner s mother suggested “ to young Robert that he write to the Patent Office in Washington for him 1935 information about certain birds which puzzled ( Stone ,

He thus became engaged in correspondence with Spencer F . Baird; this was the begin ning of an association that lasted as long as ’ t u the latter lived , and it even ally resulted in Ridgway s career as t curator of birds in the United States National Museum . He in urn ’ for Opened the way Turner s appointment for field service , first in 1874—1877 1878—1881 1882 Alaska ( , ) and later in Ungava ( ’ Turner s primary duties in each region were the keeping of meteoro for o for logical records the Signal C rps , and that purpose he enlisted in the Ar my; but a considerable portion of his time was left free for s his collections and observation in natural history, and eventual pub lications bear ample testim ony to his zeal and marked ability in that field . ’ o of e t -s The rec rd Turner s s cond enlis ment in the Signal Corp , “ 6 1878 thef ollowin : r March , , provides g information Bo n in Main [e] hi 2 9 . ville , O o . Aged years Has grey eyes , dark hair, and dark ” 5 r complexion . Is feet, inches high . His discha ge record , May “ ‘ ’ 24 1882 n : , , bears the notatio Character Excellent . ( Memorandum h i s . Sc e . s o 20 from Paul J p , U . S Army Signal Hi t rical Office, March ,

’ t is one Among Turner s let ers in the Smithsonian Archives , there

. 1869 i ds from Mt Carmel as early as , in which he describes b r , eggs , and nests collected; he also states that he had learned taxidermy ’

. t o from Ridgway O her letters were written fr m St . Michael s , Alaska 1875 i 1 . 87 C. 7 ( San Francisco and Wash ngton , D ( in While he was Alaska , numerous letters were received at the Smithsonian from his wife, Mary E . Turner, in Mt . Carmel . A letter from Turner in 1886 indicates that he had been a bricklayer r f by trade . ( Abst acts o the foregoing letters have been very kindl y

. a . of f supplied by Mrs M rgaret C Blaker, the Bureau o American n in litt 12 Eth ology, January ,

’ Further information on Turner s life has been gleaned from the McGill Ridgway Collection at University . The material consists of 29 letters written by Turner between 1873 and 1895 to his lifelong friend , Robert Ridgway . They have been made available through

2 I E I OF FUE AT 10 . M US . N . HI . UN V RS TY KANSAS LS , ST the sesquipedalian polysyllabic conglomerations Of this fearfully compound language . “ one n Unalaska Of the worst places o the face Of the globe . A t two con inual round Of drunkenness and worse . Just white men there . ’ r 20 on r on . own Notes bi ds sent . Turner s bi thday June Does his - n - ki i r cooking, house cleani g , bed ma ng, and iron ng . Made the fi st f f “ o o . loaf bread his life This is a hard life, but it has its pleas antri s r f e . Game is scarce . I have the p ivilege o writin g up my own ” birds this time .

2 i f r 4 1 1 n t . no o 88 o u o . October , ( ret rning Mt Carmel ) Has des re “

of l . . r any duplicates his A askan birds . Prof S . F Bai d remarked that it would be better to await my ret urn before the last boxes were ” “ ‘ ’

. o . E. W. Opened The Corwin has arrived at San Francisc [ ] Nel ” son should be ou her . 11 1 1 ll c 88 . in to co e November , Donat g the National Museum a

of s All one tion birds made by him elf and Samuel Turner . but f to for Of them collected in the vicinity o Mt . Carmel . Plans start

Washington on the 18th. 2 1 2 i 88 . of 14 July , , R golet, Labrador Arrived here after a voyage of days from Quebec, and has made a collection birds . Hopes his of ( Alaskan )report is in the hands the printer . 2 1 188 . on September , , Fort Chimo, Ungava Arrived here August - 6 63 . a . , after a day trip from Quebec Describes the Labrador co st ’ 23 t ns r l n Chimo , miles from the river s mou h , contai th ee dwe li gs .

Much pleased with the prospect . Made collections at Davis Inlet as to to well as at Rigolet . Hopes be able send ( via London )

1 r i 883. ou i b rd skins by December, I assu e y that the wh te man here k ” ’ forms a pleasant contrast to the dr un en scamps of Alaska . Turner s

Indian bodyguard is so slim that he hears the nickname Of Ghost . “ I think I shall have a very interesting report on this part of l n . ot to the globe . Birds are very plentiful I sha l fail properly t record everything pertaining to the na ural history Of this place . “ Th e deer [ caribou] were so plentiful in this village in June that the women had to dr ive [them] Off with sticks to prevent the animals from knocking down the tents . i 28 1883 o . August , , Fort Chim Professor Ba rd had written that he ’ would endeavor to have Turner s Al askan report published by the of Smithsonian . Part his Alaskan notes had inadvertently been taken i ’ with him t o Ungava . R dgway is thanked for news of Turner s own

to of family . Turner had gone a great deal trouble in prep aring his HA RPER : TII E FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA

bird specimens and packing them for shipment . By that time he had 10 to l 20 u collected about birds . From April Ju y he had s ffered ’ such agonizing torture from writer s cramp that he had not been able Th i e on to use his hand . is condit on had b en brought by writing stories related to him by the natives . The man in charge at Chimo was not an educated man nor at all in ’ sympathy with Turner s work .

tur of On the depar e the supply vessels in the fall, Turner was K ksoak plannin g a tr ip to the falls higher up the o . ( Some of his bird Kania iskau specimens came from The Forks , where the p and the S did not s c to Koksoak. O Larch join form the far as known , he a end

o . farther upstream . ) He had seen thousands Of carib u He had not found the field Of ethnology here so varied and at of his tractive as in Alaska . Meanwhile he had suffered the loss best

n Of o e o . assistant, Mrs . Maggie Brow , wife the c op r at the p st She of t Eu was a nice little lady, Indian and English ances ry , and spoke glish that was superior to the general average at Fort Chimo . She had taught Turner to speak Eskimo an d was beginning to instruct had to him in Indian [Naskapi] when she died . She been able i i i secure , in his behalf, th ngs that the nat ves would not permit a wh te ’ man to touch . ( This otherwis e unn amed collaborator of Turner s now - n e of may , some four score years later, be gra t d a little the for u f credit due her nsel ish and devoted labors . ) hi s 1883. Turner had had news from home up to May , He had “ ” e S te ne also received quite a nice letter inde d from Dr . Leonhard j ger, written in Russian , English , and German . 3 1884 September , , Fort Chimo , Ungava . This note lists the packages ( and their contents )that had been shipped to the Smith sonian in 1 to 884. He was leave the next day for Rigolet on his way home .

22 1884 s December , , Smithsonian In titution . A note to Ridgway ( in New York City ) expresses thanks for thr ee hummingbirds re i d B ce ve . . . ni on A Dr [ Warren was to fi sh , the next day , the ’ ’ cataloguing of Turner s specimens in Ridgway s book . 11 18 n 85 t . December , , Smithsonian I sti ution A note about ar ’ for rangements illustrating Turner s report . 26 1 t 886 . f January , , Smithsonian Insti ution The data o the Una laska collection can be supplied on receipt of the original numbers of

Th two the Specimens . ( ese last notes suggest that Turn er may have stayed on in Washin gton for more than a year after his return from

Ungava . ) I OF A R . M US . N AT . I . 104 UNIVERS TY K NSAS PU LS , H ST

25 1888 20 1889 . October , , and January , , Huntingburg, Indiana

on of of De These notes , written letterheads the Bureau Pensions ,

artment of all p the Interior, are a sad indication that Turner, with his n x fi e talents in zoology and ethnology, had apparently e hausted , of 40 i of h before the age , the opportun ties contributing t ose talents through fu rther service with some scientific branch of the govem on ment . It is a lamentable commentary the pitifully slight prospects

of in the n an those days , comparison with astro omical sums spent i nu ally on scientific projects at the present t me . In the first note “ Turner writes : I have no time for birds ; nothing but writing all the

time . Although a few local birds Of the winter season are mentioned “ : so t t for in the second note , he adds I get li tle ime private corre

spond ence that I have almost quit writin g to anyone . He mentions “ f r ? o . sending, Mrs Ridgway, three salted Reindeer [ caribou ] u of tong es . Were these mementoes the Ungava trip , from which he had returned more than four years previously? 30 2 e e 31 1894 15 March , May , and D c mber , , and January , Janu 29 24 2 1 9 hi 8 8 5 . ary , April , and April , , Seattle, Was ngton The five 1 1 4 ’ years from 889 to 89 represent an apparent blank in Turner s life . of He then writes seven letters from Seattle . In some these letters we fin d a little reference to business of an unspecified natur e; this “ 1894 to of of led, in , the prospect a trip east the Cascades and into f ” the arid region o the state . The letters refer mainly to observations

on of i to for r , and collections , b rds , and a steady desire acqui ing ti on i i publica ons b rds . Read ng matter is scarce with me . In some cases bird skin s were to be supplied in exchange for the publica ’ r His tor o North Amer tions , such as Bai d, Brewer and Ridgway s y f ’ an B r ic i d s. He also express es a desire for the American Ornithologists “ - i . a 29 1895 : Un on Check List On J nuary , , he writes I gather a few

od d ti t of birds at mes with the intention, ul imately, preparing a of of i sketch the bird life th s state . I have collected 107 species in the ti o 80 633 past ten months , represen ng ab ut genera and specimens . He speaks of havin g much leisure time during the rainy seas on to of ri to ( October May ), and desi ng Spend this time in collecting “ i for ll to s b rds , in return a sma sum sufficient pay my expen es . 1 I will secure fine specimens and put them up in good form for 33 74: ” f z o . not to cents each , regardless si e Ridgway only offered take

n on of ski s these terms , but apparently induced William Brewster

to r for 30 Cambridge, Massachusetts , place an order with Tu ner skin s of each bird less in siz e than a jay and 10 each of larger

birds .

I E I OF AN PUB LS . M US . NAT . HI . 106 UN V RS TY K SAS , ST

14 The undated and retouched portrait published herewith ( pl . ,

2 of of . fig . )is from the files the Bureau American Ethnology in 15 . The other photograph pl . , fig showing Turner his winter t i quarters at For Ch mo , is from a negative transferred recently from the United States National Museum to the Bureau of American Eth nolo not gy . Although the negative was accompanied by any data , its identity is established satisfactorily by the following intrins ic evidence : the close mutual resemblance of the subjects of both r n i a or on photog aphs , i clud ng a vertic l ridge scar the forehead above the left eye ( mostly retouched out of the formal portrait ); the cal e on the 18 w n 29 ndar the wall, bearing date February, sho i g

days in that month ( therefore in a leap year, and issued by

h o r and o of . . Jo n D . Park[er] , a stati ne b okseller Washington , D C “ the meteorological ins tru ments in two glass cas es ; the word Species w t to of the of on rit en across the p largest sheet paper the wall ; and , of for finally, the use the same stereoscopic camera this photograph f r n 1 u are as o o e 5 u . the reproduced as plate , fig re These feat res more discernible in the original photograph than in the halftone

engraving . the fol The foregoing part Of this sketch had left my hands , when lowing additional inforrnation on Turner was derived from records i ur i th very k ndly f n shed by e National Archives . “ ” on 14 1864 in Lucien Turner was enrolled May , , Company H , 136th i of f out wi Reg ment Indiana In antry, and was mustered , th the

on e 2 1864 hi is no i na . T t company, Septemb r , , as a private ( s the or gi l c of m a re ord enlist ent, but a War Department memor ndum , dated

9 his on r m was January , Although age, en oll ent , recorded “ 19 16 as , he was actually, at that time , several weeks less than . Like

n of e i e many other eager you gsters that period , he must hav fals fi d h l s is age in order to en i t . “ n v 1 r A Lucie Turner, gi ing his age as 8 yea s and his occupation r o on 1 1865 as a fa mer, v lunteered at Indianapolis , Indiana , March , , for of one 1 80th m f a period year in Company , Regi ent o Indian a Vol “ nt r u eers . His bi thplace was recorded as Wabash County [in which ” Mt . Carmel is located] , Illinois . Physical characteristics were re

: r i of 5 corded as hazel eyes , da k ha r, fair complexion , and a height 4 t feet inches . ( These characteristics correspond in general with hose

on i 8 1878 . given his enl stment record in the Signal Corps , March , But his actual age at this time was only

on 14 1869 . r Turner married Mary E . Lutz March , , at Mt Ca mel, l li on 4 1850. s Il nois . She had been born there July , While sti l re id HARPER : TII E FRIE NDLY MONTAGNAIS OF UNGAVA 107

1872 n . ing there, they had two sons Jesse J . ( born in )and Euge e S in as i as ( born The former was living at Dalkena, W h ngton , ’ 1 19 s late as 9 . A ide from the mere record of Turner s death in San i on 8 1909 i of Franc sco April , , his last years rema n very much an enigma . n e The name of L . M . Turner is intimately con cted with a Naskapi Indian exhibit installed several years ago in the United States Na his tional Mus eum ( pl . The toboggan has name painted on two it . The thin planks of which it is composed were perhaps orig ’ inally part of a packing-case in which Turner s meteorological ins tru

to i ments were shipped Fort Ch mo , the planks being brought back

f one l o 6 later in the form o a small toboggan . This is on y ab ut feet i s long and 1 foot wide . The remain ng material in the exhibit con ists ’ of: a man s winter clothing of caribou skin ; a doll representing a

’ an i in i an d wom s winter cloth ng ; a wooden cup wh ch red, blue , - yellow paints were prepared for garments ; two fork shaped object s of l bone, used in applying the paint in paral el lines to the garments ; a

two e on i tobacco pipe; bone scrap rs ; and , the wall at the right , a pa r f o Naskapi snowshoes . At least most of this material was collected

h e to by Turner . The ot er pair of snowshoes belong d the Kutchin

of tribe the far northwest ).

i li 1858— 1949 As an eng neer by profession , Wil am Brooks Cabot ( ) t was engaged in the construc ion of many important works , including bridges across the Charles and Connecticut rivers , a dock at the “

the . r Boston Navy Yard , and Catskill aqueduct Five t ips to Lab ‘ ’ of n rador made the subject matter a book , In Norther Labrador 1912 i ( ) He contributed the introduction to Mrs . Leon das Hub bard ’s ‘ A Woman ’s Way Through Unknown Labrador’ ’ ‘ ’

[London] , and a chapter on Indians in Grenfell s Labrador

f e . . . He was a Fellow o the Royal G ographical Society ( Nat Cycl . Am

Biog . “ il Mr . W liam B . Cabot of Boston , who for several years has made an to a has annual visit the Montagnais Indi ns of Labrador , and who

i of i tu e ed ted a dictionary their language , has had un que oppor niti s for observing their habits . He has contributed a valuable monograph hi 1 22 ii s . 9 zv . from special experiences ( Grenfell , ) “ Business and the love of the shrinking wilderness carried Cabot in to the Canadian woods where in 1899 he formed a close personal friendship with two half-Indian guides who tutored him in their way of 1 f l life . In 903 he fell in with Dr . Gren e l whose enthusiasm for Lab I E I OF PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . 108 UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

’ rador was responsible for Cabot s turning his interests in that d ir ec

f if i 1950z8 . for o . tion the rest his l e ( Sh pton , ) For a most delightful and intimate sketch of the former way of

aska i one ll life among the N p of Indian House Lake, wi turn again ’

to r In Northern Labrad or . and again the pages of Cabot s maste piece ,

r 1859 n of Dr . Cha les W . Townsend ( a physicia Boston ,

r n om itholo t of the with a prima y avocatio in gy , was a wor hy member school of New England nat ure writers exemplified by Henry D .

Thoreau , Wilson Flagg , Bradford Torrey, Frank Bolles , William

n . . Brewster, Wi throp Packard, Francis H Allen , and Edward A n a Preble . Aside from his favorite Ipswich sand du es and salt m rshes , Th coastal Labrador had a very special attraction for him . is resulted 1907 1910 1918 on l in three volumes ( , , and ) that region, as wel as several contributions to ornithological journals and one t o a geo graphical journal; also a comprehensive work on the birds of Lab 1 n o 907 t . o rad r ( , in collabora ion with Glover M Allen ), a chapter ’ bir ds in Grenfell s Labrad or and the editin g of a modern ’ ed ition ( 1911 ) of Captain Cartwright s Labrador journal Here and there he made interesting and useful observations on the n Montag ais . “ of i A strong, positive nature, generous heart, active in m nd and

to of tu body, ever quick see the humor a si ation , he was a delightful

r . l companion in the field and a keen obse ver ( Al en ,

The official reports of Albert Peter Low ( 1861—1942 )in the pub lications of of i the Geological Survey Canada , wh le devoted primarily to r of val geology and geog aphy, contain a very considerable fund uable f on or of in ormation the several groups tribes Ungava natives , on l and fauna and flora as wel . He was fortunate in knowing the ’ Indian s at a fairly primitive stage of their existence ( in the 1880 s ’ 1890 s and ). “ ’ Here [in Low s reports] is a noble pattern drawn from years of i s travel and clear n ight into the land . “ ’ Such journeys [ as Low s] put everythin g except light Indian

. r travel in the shade The results are set down in a full , schola ly ”

o of i . way, and from the broadest p int v ew ( Elton , “ Ranking with the greatest of these [ accomplishments of the Geo logical Survey of Canada in his day] were the achievements of Lo w in traversin g and investigating the vast hitherto unexplored spaces of

Labrador Peninsula . “ The Ungava or Labrador peninsula was crossed in b oth an east

110 I E I OF N F E . M US . N AT . H I . UN V RS TY KA SAS U LS , ST

— — He re survivals of a primitive and to him golden age . once “ marked that he always preferred the more primitive tribes to ” study . ( A . F . C . Wallace,

Outlines o the Geo ra h Li e is Cus toms o New ound land f g p y, f f f

' Labr 2 l i n 1881 ad or vo . a o ( , by V n Tan er ( will be a t m t ti las ing monu ent o that dis nguished Finnish geographer, geol o ist n in g , sociologist, and eth ologist . Its excellent composition , a

n so di of his o no la guage fferent from that native land, f rms small part ’ f of o the author s accomplishment . His masterly digest the volu m l on of inous iterature the subjects which he treats , produced by

of t a . the scholars many different coun ries , is nother notable feat Especially commendable is his very sympathetic understanding of f the natives o Labrador . Th in r ere is a memorial ( Swedish ) by his fo mer assistant, E . H . Kr anck

Alanson Skinner ( 1886—1925)grew up on Staten Island at a time when it still contained sufficient open spaces— fields and woods and a — to i archaeologic l sites insp re a budding naturalist, especially when he had the companionship and encouragement of such a mentor as 1 2 William T . Davis ( 86 author of Days Afield on Staten Is la nd o ou i ul of enthusi From boyh od , Sk nner was f l energy, f o . t asm , and love Indian lore Wi h such gifts he had a notable s of l career at the American Mu eum Natura History, the Museum of the Am i erican Indian ( Heye Foundation ), and the M lwaukee e t off Public Mus um , un il cut prematurely before reaching the age f “ ” o forty . His Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux a presentation copy of which I have treasured for half a u on cent ry, has been my principal source the Cree of the James Bay ar ea . “ Probably no one alive today has so thorough and detailed a

ed of n n 1926: knowl ge the Central Algonkia tribes ( Harri gton ,

“ The gatherings of his short but busy life are of the greatest value

to 1935: and importance anthropology ( Hough ,

Acknowled gments

n of to Aside from the reference , at the beginni g this report the o of r i support received fr m the Arctic Institute No th Amer ca, the of the of Office Naval Research , Office The Surgeon General , De

artment of the p the Army, and National Science Foundation, it is a HARPER : THE FRI ENDLY MONT AGNAI S OF UNGAVA 111 pleasure to acknowledge the very fri endly hospitality of the Iron Ore Company of Canada throughout my sojourn in the Ungava Pe l i i nins u a . . . . Dr A E Moss , then ch ef geolog st of the company , together with numerous others— for the most part officials or employees of the company— did a great deal to smooth my way and to make my sum ’ mer s work a most memorable and enjoyable experience . The names of many of them appear here and there in the pages of this and other

ri . reports , as cont butors of much useful information o x t u the I must, m reover, e press my particular grati de to Monta gnais friends who generously provided me with opportunities for lear ning and recording something of their interesting ways of life .

m tr Their na es , activities , and por aits appear chiefly in the latter part of this report . t in In the pro racted task of assembl g portraits of, and biographical on of who e data , some the pioneer ethnologists pursu d their investi ations i g in the Ungava Peninsula , I have been d stinctly aided by the

w i : . r follo ing individuals and nstitutions Frederick J Alcock , Howa d

i . e . . . Cleav s , Harold J Coolidge , Mrs Joseph R Cool dge , W Earl God k Kr an c . C . . l frey, E . H . , Mrs Frank Speck, Mrs Wende l Taber , the i the u American Philosoph cal Society, B reau of American Ethnology

l . . ( through Henry B . Co lins and Mrs Margaret C Blaker ), the Geo f o h . . logical Survey Canada ( t rough J M Harrison ), the Public Ar chives of Canada ( through the National Gallery of Canada Ot ch i l . S e s tawa ), and James T . White Company . Pau J p , of the i r to Un ted States A my Signal Historical Office , has gone consider ’ to e able pains transmit information from L . M . Turner s s rvice record

rn in the National Archives . The portrait of Tu er has benefited by the retouching skill of Miss Marion Seiler . Other photographs have been contri buted by the Smithsonian In titutio P r s n é e . . 0 . , J E Beaudet, Roland C . Clement, Roger Stand l . r 0 . field ( through W Ea l Godfrey ), Howard Cleaves , A fred Gross , and Henri Ouellet . The American Museum of Natural History has s provided four photograph from James Bay, taken by my late k n Th e Of esteemed friend Alanson S i ner . Bureau American Ethnol o m t a gy , in the S ithsonian Insti ution , has providenti lly turned up , and o s r presented, f ur ancient photograph taken by Tu ner himself; they

5 15. . . . appear herein on plates and Dr S H Riesenberg and Dr . Wil

infor liam H . Crocker have been good enough to supply detailed mation about the Naskapi exhibit in the United States National Mu seum ( pl . Contributions of hitherto unpublished information by various I E IT OF PUB LS . M US . NAT . I . 112 UN V RS Y KANSAS , H ST

i i Pé re . . friends ( nclud ng J E Beaudet, Howard Cleaves , Charles

0 . . . Elton , Fred Farah , Alfred Gross , Bertram H Harper, Harrison F

w . . . Le is , Henri Ouellet, Gilbert Simard , Mrs Frank G Speck, and J Laur ent Vé ronneau ) are gratefully acknowledged at the places in the text where this information has been utilized . n n i to In reviewi g the eth ological literature , I have been priv leged make use of the facilities of the Academy of Natural Sciences of il of i Ph adelphia , American Philosophical Society, Free Library Ph la

of Uni delphia , Library Congress , United States National Museum , t of McGill t of versi y North Carolina , Universi y, National Museum

of t . Canada , Ottawa Public Library, and Library Parliament, Ot awa f f - o . . o Through the courtesy Mrs J Schachter, the Blacker Wood McGill i t i of 29 Library at Un versi y, I have received m crofilms letters

. o . by Lucien M Turner in the Ridgway Collecti n Mrs . Margaret C . Blaker has very kindly furnished abstracts of various Turner lett ers

in the Smithsonian Archives .

For to to di permission make quotations , I am glad express my cor al thanks to the authors or publishers of the followin g publications

’ ’ oles Mice and Lemmin s T n Elton s V , g Jenness he I d ians ’ “ ” of Canada and Miss Leitch s Montagnais of the COte Nord and to both author and publisher ( The Ryerson Press ) of ’ ’ An derson s Fur Trad er s Story Alan Cooke has kindl y read the manuscript and given me the

of and benefit suggestions criticisms .

LITERATURE CITED

L C CK D ICK A O , FRE ER J .

1944 . Memorial of l ert eter Low ro Vol l ri n A b P . P c . . Geo . S oc . Ame ca An . — e t . 200 1 R p , pl .

1948 . centu in h isto of eol ur n t r t r o i a e Na . A y e h y the G g c l S v y of Ca ada. 4 - 1 iii— ii — 6 l Mus . n S ntr 4 7 v 1 9 2 . a a a l . o . : C d p C , , p EN CL OVER ALL , M . 1920 o s of the merican a ori in s Mu . e . ull. s . om . #ool . 63 D g A b g B C p , — 1 1 l 5 7, 2 p . l T wns n Auk 2 — 2 9 5 n em riam : arles en e l o e . 52 3 : 27 23 1 3 . In o Ch W d d , ( ) , ipl N D N A ERSO , J . W . ’ Fur tr r t Tor nt x n a 19 1 . or 6 ade s s y . o o : v 245, 10 pl . , 1 m p. N D N R A ERSO , . M .

f ana an mammal of th nort . ro ue ec ssoc . 1948 . sur e o di s A v y C e h P v. Q b A — 9 17 1 ma . rotection is and ame Ann . e t . : P F h G R p , p

ND N I I M H . A ERSO , W LL A AS LEY Th e true stor of au e att an d her f u son Ba . 1959 . The an gel o H d y y M d W

coura eous us an who sa e a eo le rom extinction . atu r g h b d , v d p p f S — d E nin t 2 1 0 fi anu ar 24 . a e os 3 z24 8 82 3 . y v g P , , , g , J y

D B N MARIA . AU U O , R

New Yorkzxiv 532 21 l . ls Vol . 1 . n his ourna . 1897 . A d ubo and j + , p ,

1 qig.

114 I E I OF P L M A UB S . US . N T UN V RS TY KANSAS , . HI ST .

T N H EL O , C ARLES S .

1942 . Voles mice and lemmin s Oxford iii . : 496 1 l . i 14 f . , g [ ] + , p , g , 8 ma s p . FRAz ER , JOHN E .

1950 . a ra or wint r n 1 e otes 950 . r ti L b d , A c c , AB I N IRA AN D R DE I K C C. IN C N . G R ELSO , N F E R L OL 1 h ir — 959 . T e s of s a arri ur hin n la . s and Was to z9 922 12 l . b d A k H b g g , p , 1 fi 1 g. , map. DF A GO REY, W . E RL .

1949. ir of ake Mistassini an d a e l ane u t u s l e ec . Na . M s . B d L L k A b , Q b n i a a a ull. 43 6 f . 1 ma . C d B , g , p

R N F E IL F D T . AND TH . G E LL, W RE , O ERS 9 r o tr n l N w N w Yo k xxvi 1 22 . Lab ador, the c un y a d the peop e . e ed . e r z 1 i 529 47 l. 9 f . 6 ma s ri e , p , g , p . ( O g . d

A W I VIN . H LLO ELL, A . R G l 188 -19 l is 5 1 Gou d smith ec 1 50 . Am . An ro o t 3 1951 . ran o F k Sp k, th p g , ( ) - 67 8 7, 1 fig .

A P AN CIS . H R ER, FR M n Mus Nat . ist . isc. 9 ir s of the Un a a eninsula. U i . ansas . 1 58 . B d g v P v K H — 6 ma s . l . 171 6 l . 2 Pub , , p , p - 1961 an and res water mammals of the Un a a eninsula. Uni . . L d f h g v P v — 45 ma s . l 3 fi . 178 8 . N at Hist Misc u l . Kansas Mus . . . . P b , , p , g , p - i and istorical no es on res water is es of the Un a a Pe 1962 . F eld h t f h f h g v l ninsula and on cert ain marine fishes of the North Shore of the Gu f —342 r lis Mitc ell S ci. Soc . awrence . ou . a , of S t . L J E h h , a s 2 pl . , 20 m p ,

T N M . HARRIN G O , . R — lo ist 280 . n m. nt ro o lans on in er. A 1926. A Sk A h p g ,

IN D N . H , HE RY YOULE ninsul a the countr x lora ions in the in terior of the a ra or e , 1863 . E p t L b d P y ns on on : 1 : xvi 35 1 of the M ontagn ais and Nasq u apee India . L d ,

1 ma . fi . 304 4 l . 7 1 fi . 1 ma 2 xv 9 pl. , 5 g , p; : , p , g , p

HON IGM AN N HN . , JO J olo ist Int rcultural relations at reat ale Ri er. Am. nthro , 1952. e G Wh v A p g — 522, 1 map.

H T . HOUG , WAL ER i inn r i t Am. o . 1935. Alanson Buck Sk e . D c . B g

B B D MIN A N N . HU AR , BE SO ’ w or : 10 305 woman s wa throu un nown a ra or. Ne 1908 . A y gh k L b d Y k [ ] , 1 a 33 pl . , m p .

D N . HU SO , W . H 1951 tur in Lond on zxx 287 . N a e downl an d . .

EN N Ess IAM N D . J , D O ii 1955. Th e In ans f ana a . 3 N t Mus ana a ull . 65 : x di o . . a . . C d Ed C d B , 452 l 1 1 i 7 . 4 f . 10 ma s , p , g , p . I M B L T AND O TH D K E, GEORGE H . D RO Y GOO 2 r lan s S S l . u l . 3 : x 1955 . e a of the ort Am o eo . oc . G g phy N h d . . G g p P b , 5 34 85 fi . 39 a s , g , m p . KRAN CK N T AKAN , ER S H . ’

1953 . VainO ann er memorial s eec at th innis cienti i ociet s [ T , p h e F h S f c S y meetin anuar 19 Pins a vetens ka s-so i tet n ok g , J y , k p c e e . Arsb vu osikir a 1952—1 1 j , 953 , 3 , C( 2 ). B KROE ER, A . L .

1939. ul tural and natural areas of m ri U i ort e ca . n Cali orni u l C N h A v . f a P b .

Am . rc aeolo and t nolo 38 : xii 242 28 ma s A h gy E h gy, , p . N K N N T H LA E, E E S . - 1952 . The onta nais In ians 1600 1640 r . oe er nt ro Soc . Pa M g d , K b A h p. ers —62 1 ma p , , p . HARPER : THE FRIENDLY MONTAGNAI S OF UNGAVA 115

GON TRAN . 1955 ot s on th ori n f r in nt ro e e ab e es sic o th o ce of ue ec . . N g [ ] e p v Q b A h l i — m po og ca, 1 : 198 211 , 1 ap.

C CK N . LEA O , ELEA OR “ t r m . n o . The onta nais untin t erritor and the fur tra e . A 1954 . M g h g y d A h p

M em. 78 xi 59 4 ma s . ssoc . : A , p

CHM N . LEE A , DOUGLAS

Toronto zix 357 238 fi . 7 ma s . 1957? ati e tri es of ana a. N v b C d , g , p - LEIT CI r D AID . , A EL E — r 23 7 fi . n n f th COte or . ea e 1956 . o ta ais o e M g N d B v , , g

EM IN . L O E, GEORGE i nn aire ran ais-monta n ai o ton : 1—281 — 1901 . D ctio f c g s B s , 1 63 .

I LI N . . LESL E, O EL A D n n n l t r ntine ts Lo o : xvi 223 27 . 1 il erness trails in ee co . 193 . W d h d , p

IP I . . L S, JUL US E n L w d o n and a e Mistas sini a s . a an Naskapi law ( Lake St . J h L k b d ) 4 37 t . : il s S oc . n . s . in i Trans . Am. o . hunt soc et . ord er in a g y Ph , , , p - ma . 9 4 92 3 fi . 1 37 , g , p w Lo , A . P . w ali t - Mistassini re ion . Ott a a atur s 28 . 1890 . Th e g N , e ort on ex lorations in the L a ra or eninsul a alon the Eas t 1896 . R p p b d P g Main Koksoak amilton Manicu a an and ortions of ot er ri ers , , H , g p h v , — — — t n s . 8 n Ann . Re . . 9 ol . ur e a a a in 1892 93 94 5 . G e S v y C d p , , , — l 1895 zl L 387L, 4 p . Re ort on a tra erse of the nort ern art of the La ra or enin 1898 . p v h p b d P

n a eol . ur e ana a sula from Richmon d Gulf to U gava B y . G S v y C d — Ann . e t . n 1 L R . p , . s , 9 : L 43 , 4 pl .

Mc LEAN HN . , JO ’ ’ 19 o n McLean s notes of a twen - i e ear er ice in th on s 32 . J h ty f v s s v e H uds

t i la l S o . l . am ain c Ba erritor E te b S . a ce . u . . W y y ( d d y W ) P b Ch p ma ri 19 . r nt xxx i O T o o o . . . c d . v p ( g ,

MICH N T M AN . ELSO , RU tu ies amon the onta nais- as a i In ians of the nort ern 1938 . S d g M g N k p d h i n - r t awr n i er . l r t f th S . e ce Ex o a o s an i w r sho e o e L R v p d F eld o k . — 1 ma . mit sonian Institution 122 2 fi . S h , g , p - 19 in istic classi ication of ree an onta nais as a i ialec ts . 39. L gu f C d M g N k p d B r — Am . t n ul u . 1 7 olo l . 23 z6 95 . E h gy B ,

ICHI H. AN D I C M . I . M E, GEORGE , ER NE L 1 55 ultur a conflict in h n i i l 9 . t e a a an arct c . ana ian eo ra er C C d C d G g ph , — i 41 , 7 f g .

I N AM . NE LSO , J ES M Th Mistassini territor f nort rn n 8 . e 194 e o ue ec . a a ian o r y h Q b C d Geog . J u — i 4 l 15 f . 1 ma 37 ( ): 44 7, 23 g , p.

M . PAL ER , ROSE A h ri an In i ns mi ni I 1929. T e ort Am e c a . t so an ns titu tion eries 4 N h d S h S , i 7 09 86 l . 10 f . 1 ma . [ ] 3 , p , g , p M N E PO ERLEAU, RE . ’ ni rsit a al —16 2 Au sommet d e l Un ava . e ue e é 1950 . U L g R v v v , ,

maps .

W . . PO ELL , J W lo R ir t r In mit sonian Institution Bur . t no 1894 e ort of the ec o . : . p d S h , E h gy , —x i i l i . e t . : xx Eleventh Ann. R p v

RICH D . K TH . P AR , H HES E

1 a . l a ra or Lond on zxv 254 54 l . m 1 Th rou trac ess . 191 . gh k L b d , p , p

B T N S M . RO ER SO , A UEL it t h ast f a ra or rans . er . and is . S o . ue ec 1843 . otes on t e co o . c N L b d T L H Q b , — 4 ( 1 : 27 53 . DWA D AN D AN ROGERS , E R S . JE H . lr r l n i — l c c e of the Mistassini I ans . r ti 1959. e ea c c y y y d A , 138 , Tfi g. 116 I I F E O PUBLS . M US . N AT . I . UN V RS TY KANSAS , H ST

oss IL I R , W . G L ES . ’

1957. no a e on ana a s n w ronti r d ian eo ur e e . ana o . 54 6 K b L k C d f C G g . J , ( ) 8— i 23 245 9 f . 2 ma s . , g , p

R E C . OUSS AU, JA QUES ’ 1949 A tr n — r U ava M m . r in . a e s l Mon r . e a otani ue t eal 131 v g J d B q , , 1 ma p. - 1955. Le arta e d u i ier ans la cuisine d es onta n ais as a i An p g g b d M g N k p . thro olo ica 1 1 — 1 p g , : 2 5 2 7.

HI P T N IFF D . S [ O ] , C[ L OR ] K 1950 illia r r — m oo s a ot . o Am nti . c . . . Soc . 9 W B k C b P A q , .

KIN N N N . S ER, ALA SO

he astern ree and ; ort ern 191 1 . otes on t aulteaux Anthr o N E C N h S . p. - r Am Mus . Nat . ist . 9 t a e 17 2 . s . . 7 l 55 fi . 1 ma P p H , , p , p , g , p. P CK N K S E , FRA G . h nt ai n — 1909 . T e o a n s I ian s out ern or man 154 M g d . S h W k , , i 6 f g . 923 istassini untin t rri h r 1 . e tories in t e a a r nin l A An o e su m. M h g L b d p a . thro olo ist : 45 — 71 1 fi 2 4 5 . 1 ma . p g , , g , p 1 f he a ra or In i ns is — fi 925 . o s o t a D g L b d d . Nat . H t . , 64, 7 g. i win is — 19260 . n in ent in th onta nai c d e M g s ter life . Nat . H t . , 26 ( 1 ): 61 67, f1 ? g. r i s r r l in n rt eastern rt me ic a c . l o Am o . l b ultu e o ems o . ro . g26 . C p b h N h A P Ph — S oc . , : 272 3 11 . 1 onta nais- as a i an s and earl s imo istri ution in the 193 . M g N k p b d y E k d b nin la Am l i — m a ra or e su n 557 00 a s . . . t ro o o st : 6 2 L b d P A h p g , , p unter f th r r nin man 9 5 as a i: the sa a e s o e a a o e sula . or 1 3 . N k p v g h L b d p N , — fi . 1 ma . 8 20 l . 28 la . : 3 24 Ok , p , g , p

1 6 Es imo and In ian ac roun s in sout ern a ra or . ec on 93 . k d b kg d h L b d [ S d — i hr oni le : 143 163 . nd st . c llm n G n M a . a in sta e t e . ] g H C ,

P K AN K . AN D N IS EL EY C G . E . S E , FR , LORE C Monta nais- as a i an an mil untin istricts of the 1942 . g N k p b ds d fa y h g d i os Am . l . nin la roc . central and sou theastern Labrador p e su . P Ph — Soc . 242 3 ma s . , , p T N ITM S O E, W ER . i i i — 1935. o ert w c t . Am . o ra 99 a . 5 . R b R dg y D B g phy ,

T N I IAM N C N . S RO G , W LL DU A 0 mamma s of the a r n ri r r l 193 a . otes on l N L b ador i te o . Jou . Mamma ogy , — 10 .

stone culture rom nort ern a ra or and its relation to the 193Gb. A f h L b d - h nt r l i t 1 ltures of th nort east Am . o o o s 32 Es imo li e cu e . k k A h p g , ( ) -1 126 44 6 l . , p W N T N HN R S A O , JO . i r t n lo t rn n Am. o n ian f the out eas e U te tates Bu . The I s o . 1946. d S h d S E h gy

1 iii 107 fi . s . ull . 37 x 943 l . 5 13 ma B z , p , g , p l ll 145 Am . t no o u . The In ian tri es of ort merica . Bu r . 1952 . d b N h A E h gy B vi a s 726, 5 m p . O N N V IN . TA ER, A 1 Ou tline of th eo ra li 8: customs of ew oun lan 947. s e e g g phy, f N f d d — ma s —906 r r ri 1 fi . 23 a a o . am e : 436 86 L b d C b dg , g , p ; ,

130 fi 3 ma s . g. , p

HN . R TEAL, JO J , J . ion i in o ulat s . In 1 or al : eor . T i e . m l r 955 . Ab g p p G g H K b e and Do othy o o eo ra of the ort lan s : 139-162 5 fi N w r e o . G d , G g phy N h d , g. Y k

H M M . T O AS , ORLEY K tl n Ottawa z — 1 limatolo ical a as of a a a . 25 953 . 3 3 74 art c s . C g C d , h

WN N D HA N D . TO SE , C RLES WE ELL 1 r r rin ston xi 2 910 . a a o s . Bo z 26 32 l A L b d p g , p . s ort tri int r nin 1913 . A h p o the Lab ador P e sula by way of the Natashqu an — r ll . eo i i e . u la el ia 1 0 1 . S oc . : 7 82 4 l R v B G g Ph d ph , , p .

l J / I l l

PLA T E 1

— i cou n tr a V iew n ortheastwa rt l rom Clrff e a alo n the l . as a FIG . N k p y f P k g o t the s o reline o f a rn m o st arm o f In a n l l o n s e L a e ue ec . e northe di k , Q b N h l 1 o to ra e i l l elo w the s u mmit in the c en te r . u postglac a ak e b J y , Ph g ph d

o n lem e n t . by R la d C . C

— y m o f o s e Gabriel o n Iro n Arm tti \ lo nt a nais c o u ntr : lo ( a , I . l F G 2 . g g p J ph A

l 1 1953 . L L T wo eo lo ic al vis rto rs . u kam a en a e a ra o r . ) g k , b d ( g g J y , PLAT E 2

— ' n FI 1 r e illa e and c an s . Eastmai ame 190 t r G . . e oe s Ba 8 . o o a e C v g , J y , Ph g ph d inn rt f h merican useum of atu r i ns n ou es o t e al stor . by Ala o Sk er . ( C y A M N H y )

— m in m s a 1908 o to ra e b lanson FIG m n . East a a e B . . 2 . ree e C , J y , Ph g ph d y A inn r ou rt f th m eri an useum f atu r l ist r S . k e ( C esy o e A c M o N a H o y . )

PLAT E 4

— i n f FI . i t sini i t a ini o t u e ec u t t r th lect o o G 1 . s as ree at s ss s s a e e e M C M P , Q b , j f h llot a new c ie stan in in ore roun who is a ressin t e oters . a h f ( d g f g d ), dd g v B in him n x n ta le e . u 30 1 47 o e t n i l o es o t . S e 9 . o o b r . a e . b b b h d J , Ph y R g O df d

’ I 2 i r im u r in c u ust 19 . l e t S ard s s e art . ero a e u e e F G . G L L b v y g p y y k , Q b , A g , n mon eau in enr 9 L f to i s G or e s S t . e a 1 53 . e t r t : o e e gh J ph g O g , R y d B d , H y n n V ronneau eor e i el ierr Goté L aro uc e Ben M c Ke z ie . L au re t é G s c e h , , J , g M h , P , il rt imar irst s o n rt ixt ont n i . G e S . ec ou an d s a a s b d ( F , d , f h , h M g ) PLA T E 0

— ' wi — w l\ ask i am t o u r en FIG . . i o n FIG l . m 2 as a me an il n . a c d c re p p , h f , N k p h d - i n n - i o u s n te t s a ol . ri o u in t n n w n car a d c ca s e t a d t o ca o es . b k , ff d b k ,

- no i ir r c . T u rne r 1894 l . 39 u e r u re . IG 3 . c a c a e : ) F . ) b h b k ( f , 1 , pp f g to ra 1— 3 ta e n a t o rt imo Ko kso ak i e r ue ec y L u c ie n o s . ( Ph g ph k F Ch , R v Q b , b \ 88 — 8 8 o te s‘ # o the m t so nia n In s tit u tio n Bu rea u o f l T u rne r 1 2 1 4 . u r S f . . , C i h m ri n no l A e c a Eth o gy . )

I 4 — n ta nais c am a t M tamek ue ec ul o to r e F G . A o y a . . l M g p a , Q b , Ph g ph d l r r s v . b A f e d 0 G o s . PLA T E 6

i wit e astien M c Kenz e , 2 . —S z ie in FIG . S b astien M c Ken , b l . e FIG . h

Lac Au lneau , at on s ou l er . i tent wit seals in co , front of h s , h k h d

c ul 30 1953 . ins Lac Aul u e e , y , leggings an d mo cc as . Q b J ,

neau u e ec ul 26 1953 . , Q b , J y ,

- Vi init of no e . c — o wit nati e u ilt c a y N ask a i man an d b y , b 3 . FIG . p h v

ro s s . L oto ra e b l re 0 . G N b r o r ul 8 1934 . P g y A f a in a ad J , h ph d d , , y

PLAT E 8

e tem er 4 1953 . hu ani i i er L a ra o r . S , 1 B astien Pin ette by the As p R v , b d p b FIG . .

i er e tem e r 4 1953 . the Ashu an i i , S , — M ich el Pinette d rink in g f rom p R v p b 2 . FIG . PLA T E 9

Ashuani i i er nd asti n inett la in In u mbled e e . I . a y F G 1 . e e B P p g p g p R v , .L r r ¢ ab ad o n S epunn be L 1953 .

— \ i h IG 2 . i I c l in n hi i h n F . As ua i i i r m r e ette a d s s sters . er L a a or S e te e P p R v , b d , p b 1 4 , 953 . PLAT E 10

ed ule . ose erries Viburnu m ) — ic el inette wit mo ( 1 . , FIG . M h P h b 1953 . L o r S e t em er 4 , i Ri er ab ra , b Ashu anip v , d p

’ r a ra or e tem Ashu ani i Rive , , — Kom P inette s wif e . p L b S 2 . FIG . d p

1953 . ber 4 ,

PLAT E 12

r 10 1953 . isie u e ec ct o e , i wi e . o , — Alexand re McKenz ie and h s f M , Q b O b 1 . FIG .

0 1953 . ec c to er 1 , s oisie u e , — M ontagnais b o s and d og . M , Q b O b 2 . y FIG . PLAT E 13

— M o rs ie u e ec c to er 10 1953 . G nai s ool o s . I 1 rou of o nta s c , , F G . . p M g h b y , Q b O b

— i i ue e c c to er G f o nta nais sc ool irls . o s e IG 2 . rou o , F . p M g h g M Q b O b PLA T E 14

— is wi FIG . 1 . oun onta na t sn w o s oes . Y g M g , h h t of at as u an i er u e ec 1927 o u . oto M h N hq R v , Q b , Ph ra w r l g phed by Ho a d C eav es .

- I 2 . u ien M Shan T u rner 1848 F G . L c c ( o urtes of the Smit sonian Institu tio n u reau of ( C y h , B m ric Et n l A e an h o ogy . )

PLA T E 16

1 - enr oule in 1823 FIG . . H y Y H d ( on N ews cto er From Illus trated L o nd , O b 18 ou rtes of the u lic 2 1858 . 3 . ( C y P b , , p f an a a t rou the ation al A rc hives o C d , h gh N

w . G allery of C an ad a O tta a )

— illiam roo s a ot 1858 2 . ( FIG . W B k C b i o F rom National C y clopaed a f 537 l . O . . American Biog raphy ( 38 zp pp p , ite ( C ou rtesy of J am es T . Wh

C omp any . ) PLA T E 17

FIG ~ l y n u 18 9 . C I I l s e n e ll T m s e d 5 l . a e W d ( 19 ri w it u li n u x e I s wi 34 t a l . c ) ( gh ), h J H y p h . assa c us e t 19 o u rt y f \ Ir ts 32 . es o . s . M h , ( C Fa r b e . )

— 188 1 wit FI . r n e 2 a . c G . F k G Sp k ( h two l o n ian In an s T ima ami n tario A g k di , g , O , 19 1 o u r tes o f merican ilo so ic al 3 . ( C y A Ph ph S o iet y c . ) PLAT E 18

e ron it Es imo assist ants at , V aino T ann er 188 1 w h k H b IG 1 . ( F .

Kranck. L ou rtes of E . . ) ab ra do r 1937 . ( C y H ,

n atu ralist — 925 left wit y oun g — lanson S inn er ( 1886 1 ) ( ), h 2 . FIG . A k n New o r cto er s ille t aten Isla , , f Is aac Wo rt f arm R os , S Y k O b i n d s on the , v d r e , s oto ra e b o war lea e . 3 1909 . Ph g ph d y H d C v ,

PLAT E 20

crac d o wit cro e ears el b a orest ran er of the u e ec A ky g h pp d , h d y f g Q b h n t rs of t rou n t nais In ia s . D e partmen t o f L an d s and Forests . O h e e g p are M o ag d i st 1 1 t r n r t i u elle . S t u u st n u e ec u u 96 . o o a e b e . A g , Q b , A g , Ph g ph d y H O HARP ER T HE FRI EN DLY BI ON T ACN AI S OF UN GAVA

I nd ex

c a em of atu ral S c ienc es of il Cletln io nom s a eri 65 A d y N Ph y g pp , a el ia 1 12 lim ate 16 17 d ph , C , ,

i . 1 1 1 lins n r lcoc re er c ol e B . 1 1 1 A k , F d k J , C , H y , Alo ex la o us 63 oo e lan 1 12 p g p , C k , A , ri n r i t r i 1 me c a useum o f atu al s o ool e arol . 1 1 A M N H y , C dg , H d J ,

1 1 1 M rs . o s e R . 1 1 1 J ph , meric an ilo s o ic al S o c iet 1 1 1 o re o nus clu ea o rmis 67 74 77 A Ph ph y , , C g p f , , , t rr 1 12 C6 é e e 69 l . i 4 f . 2 , Pi , ; p , g mo r o le 93 94 ree In ian s East ern East ain A y , C p y , , C d ( , M , n n VV 1 12 ames Ba it \V erso . . L tle hale iver A d , J , J y , R , And re at ieu 64 is tas s ini oo s e i er o r , M h , M , M R v , nimals o nta nais names o f 62— 65 S wam 3— 10 12 14— 27 30 A , M g , , py ), , , , — — 8 1 86 .32 38 42 6 1 64 69 90 92 97 , , , , , , , rctic Ins titute of o rt meric a 1 10 u es tern 78 92 94 A N h A , ( ), , , C rist iuo mer n ama c ush 6 7 y , 3, 0 n 100 102 air S e c er F . B , , , r r 1 d p o c e H. 1 1 C k , , ear s lac 22 27 48 49 66 B ( ), ( b k ), , , , , , 73— 75 an c e s In ian 92— 94 D ( ), d , rown 66 o n ta nais 73 78 b , M g , , av i 1 10 1 s T . eau et ere . E . 80 8 1 83 1 1 D , , B d , P J , , , , , 1 1 1 i 1 eer c ar o u 33— 35 37 2 l . 1 f . ; p , g D , ib ), , , in 4 1—43 45 48 102 eau a mon l . 4 fi . 2 B d , R y d , p , g , , , ea e r s 22 25— 27 48 49 54 60 Dieros to n x hud s o nia s 56 70 80 B v ( ), , , , , , , r/ , , , Do s Es imo or us 4 1 86—9 1 63 74 g ( ), k H k , , , y B n ir r 10 In ia n 27 63 67 68 70 74 8 1 e d e a les E . 5 , Ch , d , , , , , , , , — 86— 2 l 12 fi 2 l 0 9 . 2 irc es c anoe 94 98 . . B h , , ; p , g ; p lac e r—“b o d Lrbrar 1 12 o r In ian s 22 B k y , D g ib d , l r r Do men i u e 74 75 C . 100 1 1 1 a er M s . ar a e t 1 1 2 B k , M g , , , q , , “ on o mme le 7 1 72 uc s 22 48 B h , , , D k , , lac 77 ow s ) and arro w s 22 31 46 50 B k , B ( ( ), , , , , 69 Eels 1 1 r w 1 1 , e er T M . 0 B , . , Ei e r 52 rews ter \Villiam 104 d , B , , Elto n a rles 1 12 wn M rs i 10 , Ch , ro . a e B , M gg , 3 E rethiz o n d o rsa t um 63 74 Bubo uir inia nus 0 , , g , 8 Es imo s ) Es u imaux I 2 18 28 ( ( ), , , , u reau of meric an Et no lo 106 k q B A h gy , , 35 36 38— 40 42 43 63 86 9 1 1 1 1 , , , , , , , , 99 105 Buteo la o us san c t o hanIris , g p u , 67 Es ox lucius 6 , 3 , 74 E ua rc to s a merica nus 74 a o t \Vrlliam ro o s 6 16 , 8 98 l . C b , B k , , , ; p ,

fig . 2 a ra re 18 69 75 76 79 1 12 F h , F d , , , , , , a nachites ca nad ens is 74 C , s 7 ' i er 4 F h , a ms lu us 63 74 C p , , ox es 48 54 60 70 75 F ( ), , , , , ano es In an 94— 98 C , , di arctic or w ite 32 63 ( h ), , a ella a llina o d elic ata 80 C p g g , red 32 74 ’ , , ari o u a o t s o r L a ra o r arren C b , C b , b B d ree Li rar o f ila el ia F b y Ph d ph , G roun 1 1 12 17 18 25 3 1— 33 d , , , , , , , — — — 35 37 39 43 50 56 58 60 63 G a riel ierre 56— 60 , , , , , , b , P , — 65 66 70 82 89 92 99 102 Ca eia imm r , , , , , , , e , 72 103 105 G ee se 22 48 , , , — eastern wo o lan 12 17 18 20 22 G eolo ic al S u rx ey o f ana a 1 1 1 d d , , , , , g C d , 26 45 46 48— 50 53— 55 60 63 V G o re \ . Earl 1 1 1 , , , , , , , df y . , 68 69 72 74 75 77 82 92 93 w G o o e G . ro n 105 , , , , , , , , d , B , ’ s ee als o eer ein eer ren ell il re 107 ( G WT . ; D R d ) f , f d , as to r ca nad ens is 63 74 G rinnell o s e 9 C , , , J ph , atos tomus catos to mus 74 G r z z l n a a 66 C , i y , U g v , commerso riii 74 G ros ea in e 80 , b k , P , ats 87 C ros s l r 94 1 1 1 1 1 C , e O . 2 , A f d , , , i ewa an In ians 98 G ro use 4 C y , 8 h p d , lea es owar 98 1 1 1 S ru ce 4 1 74 C v , H d , , , p , , lement l o an C . 1 1 1 1 fi . l . 1 Gu lo la s c as 74 C , R d , ; p , g , ' 120 N IVE I N E . 1\I US . N AT . I . U RS TY OF KA SAS FU LS , H ST

are s S nows oe ra its 1 1 22 ic e mea ow 65 H ( ) ( h bb ), , , M , d , 58 red - ac e 65 b k d , i r — i 4 f . 2 arctic 41 c el eo es 69 73 l . , M h , G g , ; p , g 1 12 icma In ians 9 ar er e rtram H . c 8 H p , B , M d , 1 1 1 M ic rot us enns loanic us 65 rri n M . a so . , p y , H , J aw ou -le e 67 in 38 48 63 70 74 75 H k , R gh gg d , M k , , , , , , i 1 16 f . o llu s stro o 7 in enr oule 99 l . s a 7 H d , H y Y , ; p , g M k , g p d , untin ton Ellswort 94 onta nais al a et 49 H g , h , M g ph b , “ n 1 i 1 In ians o u ntain er 1— 1 7 f . e s 2 u xle ulia l . H y , J , p , g d ( M , 23—25 29—33 3 38 40 41 5 , , 6 , , , , 4 9 2— 94 1 — 1 0 , 9 , 98 , 99 07 09 1 1 1 ; r n r n o f ana a 1 1 1 , , I o O e C om a y C d , p 1 — 1 c o er ls . 4 5 20 , p , , I is In ians 19 22 25 v ro uo , , , q d oose 1 1 12 22 27 55 M , , , , , I t rms 16 so e , h oose erries 78 M b ,

oss . E . 1 1 1 M , A , a ana a 66 ouse s ruce 71 J y , C d , M , p , enness iamon 6 us rat s 48 54 70—72 74 80 J , D d , M k ( , , , , M u tela ermine s a, 74 vison 63 74 K enne William 29 , , dy , ,

k H . 1 1 1 Kranc E . , , as a i In ian s Nasca ees N ascau N k p d ( p , ees Nasco ies Naskau ee Nas , p , p , 62 p L a rec u e ean P. b q , J , kau is Nasko i Nasko ies Nas p , p , p , 74 La o us s . g p p , u a e Neneno t or Neseau q pe s , s , La nius excubitor borealis 66 , ic 1 3— 23 25 28—41 43 46 p k ), , , , , , , La rix la ricina 66 , 48— 50 53 61 62 64—66 69 79 i , , , , , , , 4 f . 2 Larouc e enr 69 l . h , H y , ; p , g 82 89—95 99 105 107— 109 1 11 , , , , , ; L au ren t Pé re 80 , , ls 1 5 6 19 p . , , , Leec man ou las 6 , D g , h atio nal rc i es 1 1 1 N A h v , L eitc elai e 89 1 12 , A , , h d d ational G aller of ana a ttawa N y C d O , L emmin s L a ra o r ar in 65 70 g , b d v y g , , , 1 1 1 71 80 , ation al useum of ana a 112 N M C d , Lemoine Pé re G eo r e 82 , g , ational c ience ou n ation 110 N S F d , Le us a mericanus 63 74 p , , n 1 2 elso E . W. 0 N , , ri n 93 98 1 12 L ewis ar so F . , H , , , Li rar of on ress 1 12 b y C g , ice o f a al esearc 1 10 Off N v R h , Li rar of arliamen t tt awa 1 12 b y P , O , ic e of the S ur eon eneral 1 10 Off g G , Li e—z one rctic 16 f , A , — i wa In i ns 98 1 1 fi . a 96 l . Oj b ( y ) d , ; p , g an a ian 16 C d , 1 u so nian 16 H , d Ond a tra z ibc thic us 7 0 , 4, 8 Loon s 22 ( ), ttaw a u lic Li rar 1 12 O P b b y , ommon 72 C , tter s 32 38 54 60 70 74 75 O ( ), , , , , , , w r 1 5 L Al er ete 97 108 09 l . 1 o , b t P , , ; p , , uan anic e 48 O h , fig . 2 Oullet en ri 89 90 1 1 1 1 12 , H , , , , L utra cana d ensis 60 74 , , wls G reat o rne 80 O , H d , t r 106 Lu z a E . , M y , L mnaea 77 y , r man ranc is 1 P a k , F , L nx es 22 48 70 y ( ), , , art ri e S ru ce 79 P dg , p , artri es 22 50 69 P dg , , , M a rmota mo nax 77 artri es 2 tarmi an 28 , P dg ( P g ), arten s 32 38 48 60 63 70 72 eri o reus ca nad ensis 66 M ( ), , , , , , , , P s , 74 75 79 80 hena com s u n ava crassus 71 , , , P y g , M a rtes a merica na 63 74 79 hoca vitu lina concolor 76 , , , P , M a rtes ennanti 74 i e 22 63 74 p , P k , , , — fi 1 McGill ni ersit 1 12 inette as tien 76 78 l . 8 U v y , P , B , ; p , g ; 12 fi M K n i x n r l . l c z e le a e 68 69 . 9 . 1 , A d , , ; p , p , g — 7 fi . 2 Fi 2 Ko m 73 75 79 83 l . g , , , ; p , g 0 — i — i l 10 n 2 M K m 75 78 l . 7 f . 2 . Be 8 5 60 69 73 83 l 4 f . o , , , , , ; p . , g , ; p , g ; p , r n is 62—64 7 83 r i a c 6 co e ? . 2 F , , , ; v g — — s i n 1 i l fi 1 l . 9 t 6 . S e a e 18 20 3 38 63 69 76 c el 7 79 8 . b , , , , , , , M h , ; p , g ; p , 7 1 i 9 83 91 5 l i s i s . 2 l . 10 f 1 9 . 1 . 6 . 2 , , , ; p , f g , f g , ; p , g M e hi i me hiti — 5 fi 1 t s s 74 Willé 73 7 l . 7 . p p , , ; p , g

ni ersit of ansas us eum of atural Histor iscellaneous u lications U v y K M N y , M P b

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