Islam, Terrorism, and the West

Political Science Terrorism and Political Violence

Terrorism and political violence affect the lives of governments and civilians across the globe. The era following World War II has witnessed the resurgence of political violence and rebellion by groups and movements contending for domestic power or opposing foreign domination. Insurgencies and terror within states have been the main threats to civil peace and regional security since the end of the Cold War in 1991. The tragic events of September 11 have brought the reality of terrorism home to America, and the potential for more ominous and devastating threats are ever present. Understanding the underlying causes and different manifestations of terrorism and political violence is, therefore, a critically important undertaking.

Course Themes

This course will explore the issue of terror and armed struggle from theoretical and historical perspectives. Through this exploration, the course will analyze a number of violent movements – IRA, PLO, HAMAS, al-Qaeda – and address the following themes:

 What are common definitions of terrorism and political violence, and how do they differ from definitions of wars, domestic crimes, and state repression? Can we formulate an objective definition of terrorism?

 What are the underlying political, economic, and psychological causes of political violence?

 How do terrorist groups operate and what are the profiles of violent militants?

 How should we analyze terrorism perpetrated by religious fundamentalists? Does religious terrorism differ from nationalist or rightwing terrorism?

 What are the emerging terrorism threats facing the world and the United States in particular? Are we prepared to handle suicidal militants or biological and nuclear forms of terror?

 How should we respond to the events of September 11 and their aftermath? What

Required Texts

 Terrorism: An Introduction by Jonathan White (Wadsworth, 2003, 4th edition)  Origins of Terrorism by Walter Reich (Woodrow Wilson Center, 1998)  Why Muslims Rebel by Mohammed Hafez (Lynne Rienner, 2003)

1 Outline of Topics

Part 1: Concepts, Definitions, and Historical Examples

I. Introducing Terrorism and Political Violence  Introductions and overview of course topics  Key debates surrounding subjective and objective definitions of political terror  Analytical distinctions among terror, revolution, war, genocide, crime, & state repression

Readings: Class Handouts; Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 1: pp. 4-12)

II. Origins of Modern Terrorism  Terrorism in historical perspective - French Revolutionaries and Russian Anarchists  Ideological Justifications for Terrorism  ◄ Video: A Legacy of Terror ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 5: 65-77)

III. Terrorist Means and Motives  List the different means and methods to engage in asymmetric (low- intensity) warfare  Name at least 12 motives and objectives for terror  ◄ Video: War Against Colonialism ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 3: 31-45; Chapter 16: 256-266)

IV. Organizing and Justifying Violence  The social base, organizational features, and psychological profiles of terrorist groups  Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement  ◄ Video: Terror Goes International ►

Readings: Origins of Terrorism (Chapter 9: “Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement”, pp. 161-191); Why Muslims Rebel (Chapter 4: 109-129; Chapter 5: 155-185)

Part 2: Theoretical Frameworks

V. Theories of Terrorism and Political Violence – Part I  Terrorists and Rebels are Mad - The Psychological Approach  Terrorists and Rebels are Sane - The Rational Actor Approach  ◄ Video: Freight Decade ►

Readings: Origins of Terrorism (Chapter 1: “The logic of terrorism”, pp. 7-24; Chapter 2: “Terrorist psycho-logic”: pp. 25-40; and Chapter 5: “The Psychopolitical Formation of Extreme Left Terrorism”, pp. 65-85).

2 VI. Theories of Terrorism and Political Violence – Part II  Terrorists and Rebels are Poor – Relative Deprivation Approach  Terrorists and Rebels are Made - The Political Process Approach  Take home mid-term due on October 20 at 4:00 PM  ◄ Video: Looking for Answers: The Story of Ayman al-Zawahiri ►

Readings: Why Muslims Rebel (Chapter 1: 1-26; Chapter 2: 27-70)

Part 3: Case Studies

VII. Irish Republican Army - IRA  What is the IRA and how did it evolve?  What are the roots if Irish nationalist violence?  ◄ Video: The IRA: 30 Years of Terror ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 6: 78-91; Chapter 12: 193-199); “From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional IRA” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 94, No. 6, 1989 (ask professor to e-mail .PDF)

VIII. Palestine Liberation Organization – PLO  What is the PLO and what are its main factions?  What are the roots of Palestinian nationalist violence?  ◄ Video: The 50 Years War ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 7: 97-104; Chapter 9: 135-151)

IX. Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda  Who is Bin Laden?  How has Bin Laden used religion for violent ends?  ◄ Video: In Search of Bin Laden ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 4: 46-60; Chapter 10: 153-170); Why Muslims Rebel (Chapter 5: 185-191).

X. After September 11: Counter-Terrorism in the 21st Century  New Terror Threats in the 21st Century  Competing Approaches to counter-terrorism  Combating Terrorism in historical perspective: Lessons from the 1980s  Balancing liberty and security concerns when combating terrorism  ◄ Video: Target America ►

Readings: Terrorism: An Introduction (Chapter 15: 239-255; Chapter 17: 267- 283; Chapter 18: 284-300); Why Muslims Rebel (Chapter 6: 199-212)

XI. Suicide Bombers  What motivates people to sacrifice their bodies for a cause?  Which theory best explains suicidal violence?  How can we combat suicidal terror?  ◄ Video #1: Human Bomb ►  ◄ Video #2: Shaheed: The Making of a Suicide Bomber ►

3 Readings: Origins of Terrorism (Chapter 8: “The Moral Logic of Hizballah”, pp. 131-160; Chapter 10: “A Readiness to Kill and Die”, pp. 192-210); Robert Pape, “Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” American Political Science Review vol. 97, no. 3 (August 2003) pp. 343-361 (Ask professor to e-mail)

Research Assignment

Do a research paper on a historical revolutionary movement or terrorist group. Select one from the list below.

Rebellion Terror and Political Violence

 Algerian war against the French (1954-  Al-Qaeda (1990s – Present) 1962)  Aum Shinrikyo (Japan)  Algerian Civil War (1992 – Ongoing)  ETA (Basques)  Boxer rebellion in China (1898-1900)  FARC (Columbia)  Chechnya (1992 – Ongoing)  HAMAS (1987 – Present)  FMLN - El Salvador leftist rebellion (1975-  Hizbullah (1983-present) 1992)  Irish Republican Army (1968-1997)  Guatemala Campesino Movement (1954-  Militia Movement in America (1990s) 1985)  Palestine Liberation Organization (1960s-  Kashmir Rebellion (1989 – Ongoing) 1970s)  Palestinian Uprising or Intifada (1987-  Red Army Faction/Baader-Meinhoff gang 1994) in Germany (1970s-1980s)  Palestinian Uprising or Intifada II (2000-  Red Brigade terror campaign in Italy Ongoing) (1970s)

The paper should include the two following elements:

I. Narrative History  Who fought whom and why did they fight?  Was Religion, Economics, Nationalism, or Ideology the principal inspiration for violence?  How did the rebels or terrorist mobilize people and what were the strategies and tactics of the militants?  What was the state’s response and how did the conflict evolve or end?

II. Analysis  What do you think were the underlying causes of the conflict?  Which of the theories discussed in part II best explains the violence?  Does your research suggest additional factors not discussed in class?

Guidelines for Research Paper

 5 – 8 pages (double-spaced with 1.25” margins up/down and right/left, and 12-point font).  Well-researched based on a combination of books and journal articles (Terrorism and Political Violence, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, etc.). Internet resources are acceptable, but should not be the primary source of information.  Accompanied by footnotes or a bibliography of works cited (one or two citations are not enough).

5 Books To Consider

Protest and Revolutionary Movements

 Bates, Robert H. Prosperity and Violence: The Political Economy of Development. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.  Colburn, Forrest D. The Vogue of Revolution in Poor Countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.  Creveld, Martin van, ed. The Encyclopedia of Revolutions and Revolutionaries. New York: Facts on File, 1996.  Diani, Mario and Ron Eyerman, eds. Studying Collective Action. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992.  Dunn, John. Modern Revolutions: An Introduction to the Analysis of a Political Phenomenon. Cambridge University Press, 1989.  Franks, C.E.S., ed. Dissent and the State. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1989.  Goodwin, Jeff. No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991. Cambridge University Press, 2001.  Goldstone, Jack A., ed. Revolutions: Theoretical, Comparative, and Historical Studies. San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1986.  Goldstone, Jack A., ed. The Encyclopedia of Political Revolutions. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1998.  Guevara, Che. Guerrilla Warfare. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997.  Gurr, Ted R. Why Men Rebel. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970.  Hardin, Russell. One For All: The Logic of Group Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995.  Ignatieff, Michael. The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience. New York: Henry Holt, 1998.  Jasper, James M. The Art of Moral Protest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.  Jenkins & Klandermans Politics of Social Protest: Comparative Perspectives on States & Social Movements. University of Minnesota, 1995.  Leatherman, Janie et al. Breaking Cycles of Violence: Conflict Prevention in Intrastate Crises. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press, 1999.  Levene, Mark and Penny Roberts, eds. The Massacre in History. New York: Berghahn Books, 1999.  Lichbach, Mark I. The Rebel’s Dilemma. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995.  Lichbach, Mark I. The Cooperator’s Dilemma. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.  Lofland, John. Social Movement Organizations: Guide to Research on Insurgent Realities. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996.  MacKenzie, S.P. Revolutionary Armies in the Modern Era: A Revisionist Approach. New York: Routledge, 1997.  Marwell, Gerald and Pamela Oliver. The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory. Cambridge University Press, 1993.  McAdam, Doug, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly. Dynamics of Contention. Cambridge University Press, 2001.  Moser, C. O.N. and F.C. Clark, eds. Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence. Zed Books, 2001.  Motyl, Alexander J. Revolutions, Nations, Empires: Conceptual Limits & Theoretical Possibilities. Columbia University Press, 1999.  Olson, Mancur. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.  Opp, Karl-Dieter. The Rationality of Political Protest: A Comparative Analysis of Rational Choice Theory. Westview, 1989.  Parker, David, ed. Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West, 1560-1991. New York: Routledge, 2000.  Parsa, Misagh. States, Ideologies, & Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of Iran, Nicaragua & Philippines. Cambridge University, 2000.  Regan, Patrick M. Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict. University of Michigan Press, 2000.  Rule, James B. Theories of Civil Violence. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.  Sandole, Dennis. Capturing the Complexity of Conflict: Dealing with Violent Ethnic Conflicts in the Post-Cold War Era. Pinter, 1999.  Selbin, Eric. Modern Latin American Revolutions. Boulder: Westview, 1993.  Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979.  Tarrow, Sidney. Power in Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.  Tilly, Charles. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1978.  Tilly, Charles. European Revolutions, 1492-1992. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993.  Wiktorowicz, Quintan. Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach. Indiana University Press, 2003.

Terror and Political Violence

 Cordesman, Anthony. Terrorism, Asymmetric Warfare, and Weapons of Mass Destruction (Praeger, 2001)  Hoffman, Bruse. Inside Terrorism (Columbia University Press, 1999).  Kepel, Gilles. Jihad (Harvard University Press, 2002)  Lesser, Ian., Bruce Hoffman, John Arquilla, David Ronfeldt, and Michele Zanini. Countering the New Terrorism. RAND Project Air Force, 1999.  Rapoport, David C. Inside Terrorist Organizations. London, UK: Frank Cass, 2001.  Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. Yale University Press, 2002  Reich, Walter. Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies. Woodrow Wilson Center, 1998.  Schweitzer, Glenn E. Super Terrorism. New York: Plenum Trade, 1998.  Schweitzer, Glenn E. A Faceless Enemy: The Origins of Modern Terrorism. New York: Perseus Publishing, 2002.  Weimann, Gabriel and Conrad Winn. The Theater of Terror: Mass Media & International Terrorism. New York: Longman, 1994.

7 Literature by Country:

Afghanistan:

 Coolely, John K. Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America, and International Terrorism. Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 1999.  Goodson, L. P. Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban. University of Washington Press, 2001.  Mangus, Ralph and Eden Naby. Afghanistan: Mullah, Marx, and Mujahid. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2002.  Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism. New Haven, CT: Nota Bene/Yale University Press, 2001.  Rubin, Barnett R. The Search for Peace in Afghanistan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.

Algeria:

 Hafez, Mohammed. Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003.  Hafez, Mohammed. “Armed Islamic Movements and Political Violence in Algeria.” Middle East Journal (2000)  Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace. London: MacMillan, 1977.  Hutchison, Martha C. Revolutionary Terrorism: The FLN in Algeria, 1954-1962. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1978.  Martinez, Luis. The Algeria Civil War, 1990-1998. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.  Talbott, John. The War without a Name: France in Algeria, 1954-1962. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1980.  Wiktorowicz, Quintan, ed. Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach. Indiana University Press, 2003.  Willis, Michael. Islamists Challenge Algeria. New York: New York University Press, 1996.

Chechnya and Former Soviet Republics:

 Hafez, Mohammed. Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003.  Lieven, Anatol. Chechnya. Yale University Press, 1998.  Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia. Yale University Press, 2002.  Gall and De Waal. Chechnya. New York University Press, 1998.

China:

 Calhoun, Craig. Neither Gods nor Emporers: Students and the Struggle for Democracy in China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.  Cheng, Chu-yuan. Behind the Tiananmen Massacre. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990.  Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.  Lin, Nan. The Struggle for Tiananmen: Anatomy of the 1989 Mass Movement. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992.  Preston, Diana. Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising. London, UK: Constable, 1999.  Preston, Diana. The Boxer Rebellion The Dramatic Story of China’s War on Foreigners. New York: Walker, 2000.

Colombia:

 Bergquist, Charles, ed. Violence in Colombia, 1999-2000: Waging War and Negotiating Peace. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001.

 Whitney, Robert. State and Revolution in Cuba: Mass Mobilization and Political Change, 1920-1940. University of North Carolina Press, 1992.

Eastern Europe:

 Cipowski, Peter. Revolution in Eastern Europe. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.  Mason, David S. Revolution in East-Central Europe. Boulder: Westview, 1992.

El Salvador:

 Binford, Leigh. The El Mozote Massacre. Tucson: University Press of Arizona, 1996.

8  Bracemonte, José Angel Moroni and David E. Spencer. Strategy and Tactics of the Salvadoran FMLN Guerrillas. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995.  Grenier, Yvon. The Emergence of Insurgency in El Salvador. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990.  McClintock, Cynthia. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador FMLN and Peru Shining Path. US Institute of Peace Press, 1998.  Manwaring, Max G. and Court Prisk. El Salvador at War: An Oral History. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press, 1988.  Menzel, Sewall H. Bullets versus Ballots: Political Violence and Revolutionary War in El Salvador, 1979-1991. Lynne Rienner, 1994.

9 France:

 Dartnell, Michael Y. Action Directe: Ultra Left Terrorism in France, 1979-1987. Essex, UK: Frank Cass, 1995.  Mayer, Arno J. The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.  Tilly, Charles. The Contentious French. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.

Germany:

 della Porta, D. Social Movements, Political Violence, and State: Comparative Analysis of Italy & Germany. Cambridge University Press, 1995.  Dulles, Allen Welsh. Germany’s Underground: The Anti-Nazi Resistance. New York: Da Capo Press, 2000.  Grix, Jonathan. The Role of the Masses in the Collapse of the GDR. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.  Joppke, Christian. East German Dissidents and the Revolution of 1989. New York: New York University Press, 1995.

Guatemala:

 Handy, J. Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala. University of North Carolina Press, 1994.  Jonas, Susanne. The Battle for Guatemala: Rebels, Death Squads, and U.S. Power. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.  May, Rachel. Terror in the Countryside: Campesino Responses to Political Violence in Guatemala, 1954-1985. Ohio University Press, 2001.  Toriello, Guillermo Garrido. A Popular History of Two Revolutions: Guatemala and Nicaragua. San Francisco: Synthesis, 1985.

Ireland:

 Bell, J. Bowyer. The IRA: 1968-2000. London: Frank Cass, 2001.  Bell, J. Browyer. The Irish Troubles: A Generation of Violence, 1967-1992. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.  Bell, J. Browyer. The Secret Army: The IRA. New Brunswick, CT: Transaction, 1997.  Dillon, Martin. The Dirty War: Covert Strategies and Tactics used in Political Conflicts. New York: Rutledge, 1999.  Dixon, Paul. Northern Ireland: The Politics of War and Peace. New York: Palgrave, 2001.  Dunn, Seamus, ed. Facets of the Conflict in Northern Ireland. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.  Farren, Sean and Robert F. Mulvihill. Paths to a Settlement in Northern Ireland. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.  Feldman, Allen. Formations of Violence: The Narrative of the Body and Political Terror in Northern Ireland. University of Chicago Press, 1991.  Hennessey, Thomas. A History of Northern Ireland, 1920-1996. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.  Hennessey, Thomas. The Northern Ireland Peace Process: Ending the Troubles? New York: Palgrave, 2001.  Irvin, Cynthia. Militant Nationalism: Between Movement and Party in Ireland and the Basque Country. University of Minnesota Press, 1999.  Mullan, Don. Bloody Sunday: Massacre in Northern Ireland. Niwot, CO: Roberts Rinehart, 1997.  O’Brien, Brendan. The Long War: The IRA and Sinn Fein. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999.  O’Day, Alan. Political Violence in Northern Ireland: Conflict and Conflict Resolution. London, UK: Praeger, 1997.  O’Doherty, Malachi. The Trouble with Guns: Republican Strategy and the Provisional IRA. Belfast, UK: The Blackstaff Press, 1998.  Ruane, Joseph and J. Todd. The Dynamics of Conflict in Northern Ireland: Power, Conflict & Emancipation. Cambridge University Press, 1996.  Tanner, Marcus. Ireland’s Holy Wars: The Struggle for a Nation’s Soul. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.

Italy:

 Catanzaro, Raimonda, ed. The Red Brigades and Left-Wing Terrorism in Italy. New York: St. Martin’s, 1991.  della Porta, D. Social Movements, Political Violence, and State: Comparative Analysis of Italy & Germany. Cambridge University Press, 1995.  Meade, Robert C., Jr. Red Brigades: The Story of Italian Terrorism. New York: St. Martin’s, 1990.  Tarrow, Sidney. Democracy and Disorder. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

10 Japan:

 Lifton, Robert J. Destroying the World to Save It: Aum Shinrikyō, Apocalyptic Violence, and the New Global Terrorism. Henry Holt & Co., 2000.

Latin America:

 Castro, Daniel, ed. Revolution and Revolutionaries: Guerrilla Movements in Latin America. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999.  Landau, Saul. The Guerrilla Wars of Central America. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.  McClintock, Cynthia. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador FMLN and Peru Shining Path. US Institute of Peace Press, 1998.  Selbin, Eric. Modern Latin American Revolutions. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999.  Wickham-Crowely, Timothy P. Guerrillas and Revolution in Latin America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992.

11 Lebanon:

 Jaber, Hala Hezbollah: Born with a Vengence. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997  Saad-Ghorayeb, Amal. Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion, 2002.

Mexico:

 Ross, John. Rebellion from the Roots: Indian Uprising in Chiapas. Monroe, MN: Common Courage Press, 1995.  Ross, John. The War Against Oblivion: The Zapatista Chronicles. Monroe, MN: Common Courage Press, 2000.  Womack, John Jr. Rebellion in Chiapas: An Historical Reader. New York: New Press, 1999.

Palestine and Israel:

 Alexander, Yonah. Palestinian Religious Terrorism: Hamas and Islamic Jihad. 2003.  Aronson, Geoffrey. Israel, Palestinians, and the Intifada: Creating Facts on the West Bank. Institute for Palestinian Studies, 1987.  Carey, Roane, ed. The New Intifada: Resisting Israel’s Apartheid. New York: Verso, 2002.  Haroub, Khaled. HAMAS. Institute for Palestine Studies, 2000.  Hunter, F. Robert. The Palestinian Uprising: A War by Other Means. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.  Lockman, Z. and J. Beinin, eds. Intifada: The Palestinian Uprising Against Israeli Occupation. Boston: South End Press, 1989.  Mishal, Shaul and A. Sela. The Palestinian Hamas, 2000.  Peretz, Don. Intifada. Boulder: Westview Press, 1990.  Sayigh, Yazid. Armed Struggle and the Search for State. Clarendon Press, 1997.  Wiktorowicz, Quintan. Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach. Indiana University Press, 2003.

 Gorriti, Gustavo. The Shining Path: A History of the Millenarian War in Peru. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.  McClintock, Cynthia. Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador FMLN and Peru Shining Path. US Institute of Peace Press, 1998.  Palmer, David Scott, ed. Shining Path of Peru. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.  Strong, Simon. Shining Path: Terror and Revolution in Peru. New York: Random House, 1992.

Philippines:

 Davis, Leonard. Revolutionary Struggle in the Philippines. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989.  Kessler, Richard J. Rebellion and Repression in the Philippines. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.  McKenna, Thomas M. Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics & Armed Separatism in Philippines. University of California Press, 1998.

South Africa:

 Cohen, Robin, Yvonne Muthien, and Abebe Zegeye,. Repression and Resistance: Insider Accounts of Apartheid. Hans Zell Publishers, 1990.  Gutteridge, William and J.E. Spence, eds. Violence in Southern Africa. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1997.

Spain:

 Irvin, Cynthia. Militant Nationalism: Between Movement and Party in Ireland and the Basque Country. University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Sri Lanka:

 Austin, Dennis. Democracy and Violence in India and Sri Lanka. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1995.  Bullion, Alan J. India, Sri Lanka and the Tamil Crisis, 1976-1994. New York: Pinter, 1995.  Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam. Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism. Vancouver, Canada: IBC Press, 2000.

United States:

12  Archer, Jules. Rage in the Streets: Mob Violence in America. San Diego, CA: Browndeer Press, 1994.  Dees, Morris. Gathering Storm: America’s Militia Threat. New York: Harper Collins, 1996.  Flynn, Kevin and Gary Gerhardt. The Silent Brotherhood. New York: Signet, 1995. U.S. militia movements.  McAdam, Doug. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.  Sonder, Ben. The Militia Movement: Fighters of the Far Right. New York: Grolier, 2000.

Additional Resources  Terrorism Research Center (http://www.terrorism.com/index.shtml)  PBS: Frontline (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/programs/)