Unit II: Political Parties and Interest Groups

CHAPTER 8 Political Parties

I. Introduction: Why do we have political parties? A. Madison: The Federalist, No. 10 1. “Sown in the nature of man” and caused by an unequal distribution of property 2. Unsavory, but a necessary evil for a free society 3. The authors of the Constitution anticipated “factions” but not “parties.” Factions (like the Anti- federalists at the time of the ratification debates) were expected as temporary alignments among like- minded citizens; never did they dream of the more permanent party structures that eventually grew into the “two party system.”

B. People’s link to the government: Linkage Institution 1. Avenue to change policy 2. Ensures public preferences are heard loud and clear.

II. Traditional Functions of Political Parties A. Nominate candidates B. Raise and spend money to get their candidate elected in order to influence policy C. Register voters D. Simplify decisions E. Unify diverse opinions F. Provide loyal opposition to the majority party G. Serve as a linkage institution H. Inform on the party platform1 I. Streamline policymaking process by establishing an agenda

III. The Party Organization: 2

A. Parties in national government (traditional identity) 1. Elected Officials3 2. Appointed staff 3. Main goal of dominating the three branches of government and steering national policy

B. National Committee (RNC & DNC) 1. Responsible for setting the agenda nationally, organizing the national convention 2. They focus on broad, fundamental beliefs of the party’s “base” 4 3. Assist in managing presidential campaigns for chosen candidate 4. Feed campaign funds to candidates around the country in critical, tight races at all levels of government

C. 50 separate state party systems

1 Each party creates a clear party platform that is designed to clarify the official position of the party. Although it is important to note that party members are not required to follow the platform verbatim, but should philosophically abide by most major tenets. Go to https://gop.com/platform/ for a detailed looked at the Republican platform in 2016. You can view the Democratic platform at https://www.democrats.org/party-platform. 2 Although it makes for a convenient teaching tool, parties are not really organized as strict, streamlined, vertical hierarchies. In reality they characterized mostly as decentralized and fragmented. 3 Party label does not mean that party members believe in all party policies. For example, check out the political platform of Senator Harry Reid of Nevada (http://www.reid.senate.gov/issues). Even as the minority leader in the Senate there are issues within the Democratic platform that he does not agree with. He places his personal beliefs and those of his constituents ahead of the party. 4 Check out the RNC (http://www.gop.com/) and DNC (http://www.democrats.org/) 1. Each state has its own party chapter – not necessarily connecting its message to any other 2. States are not required to be in step with the national party platform; they focus on local/regional interests 4. Partisan offices like state legislators and governors help steer policy for the party 5. State parties focus on winning seats in state legislatures to steer policy creation

D. Local party systems 1. Focus on local issues5 2. Grassroots effort of the party with the task of “electioneering;” educating, connecting, and motivating the locals behind a local, state, or national candidate 3. Although local parties are not required to be in step with national platform, national candidates rely heavily on grassroots (close to the people) local party chapters as critical source of energetic volunteers.

E. Party in the electorate 1. The largest component of a political party 2. To be a member you need only to claim membership or identify yourself with the party; as a result, party identification is mostly psychological and lacks institutional enforcement. 3. The trend over the past forty years is “dealignment:” a growing detachment from traditional party identification6 Possible causes of “dealignment:” 1. growing dissatisfaction with the performance of two major parties 2. increase of interest group activity as a replacement for traditional party involvement 3. increase of television coverage of campaigns which fosters “personality centered” campaigns 4. increase in web/satellite technologies that democratize and personalize politics in general; eliminating some of the most important traditional functions of political parties 4. COMMON MISCONCEPTION: Party “dealignment” means few Americans are voting for one of the two major parties…NOT TRUE! In the last two elections the two major parties won record levels of votes. Dealignment merely refers to how voters identify themselves.

IV. Major Party Eras A. New Deal Coalition 1.) 30 year domination of American politics7 2. Associated with government assistance/paternalism/growth of government services and spending B. Era of divided government 1. Control of the executive and legislative branches was split 2. Possibly caused, in part, by party dealignment and ticket splitting8 C. Present day? For brief periods under Bush (R), then again under Obama (D), control of the Congress and the White House was united under one party. As of the midterm elections of 2010 it shifted back to a status of “divided government.” These fluctuations make it difficult for analysts to label ours as any kind of “era.”

V. Third Parties A. Types 1. Personality centered 2. Splinter party: breaks from the mainstream 3. Issue oriented party 9 4. Ideological party 10 B. Reasons for third parties 1. Place for the political discontent 2. Force candidates to focus on their issues

5 Check out the local party websites here in Spokane county (http://www.spokanedemocrats.org/) and (http://republicansofspokane.com/). Browse to see examples of grassroots connecting and motivating. 6 Here’s a passionate rant about how both political parties have lost America’s confidence and contributed to dealignment. 7 The New Deal Coalition, formed by FDR in 1933, created a powerful Democratic Party for decades. Under this coalition the government became more paternalistic in nature, implementing programs like Social Security. The coalition included the following groups: urban dwellers, labor unions, Catholics, Jews, Southerners, and African Americans. 8 As the trend of party dealignment increased more individuals became party neutral and thus became more candidate centered. 9 The US Marijuana Party is an example of an issue oriented party. 10 The Libertarian party is a good example of a third party based on a specific ideology. Learn more at http://www.lp.org/introduction/what-is-the- libertarian-party 3. Break up the third party “duopoly” by securing public financing in future elections C. Obstacles in the ways of Third Party success 1. Funding11 2. Televised Debates: third party candidate must show 15% popularity in 5 simultaneous national polls 3. Ballot access: 50 different sets of requirements are logistical/financial hurdles for start-up third parties 4. Winner-take-all system: it is nearly impossible to gain momentum and support with a “single-member district” system. 5. Access to public financing: third parties must receive 5% of the nation-wide popular vote to secure public financing for the following election cycle

VI. Evaluating Traditional Political Parties (Are political parties still serving a vibrant function in American politics?) A. Examples: “the party system is weak and dying out” 1. Party dealignment and ticket splitting among the electorate 2. Candidate centered politics 3. Disagreement within the party 4. Party committees across the country (national/state/county/local) are decentralized lacking a clear, consistent message. 5. Increasing role of individual donors, PACS, Super PACS, and 527s in campaigns

B. Examples: “the party system is thriving” 1. The majority party in control of Congress controls the Congressional agenda. 2. Provide jobs to party faithful in the form of patronage. 3. Judicial nominations 4. Bitter “partisan wrangling” in Congress demonstrates importance of parties as competing teams with opposing agendas 5. Major party candidates running for office receive outrageous sums of money in hopes of influencing policy.12 6. National parties aggressively pursue (fund) victories in state elections to help foster/sustain political climate friendly to their preferred policies

Chapter 10: Interest Groups I. Interest group basics A. Definition: An interest group is an organization of people with shared policy goals whose objective is to use various means to sway government to their position. B. Origins of interest groups B.1. James Madison, in Federalist 10, identified the primary source of political “faction” as…13 B.2. First Amendment in the Bill of Rights protects freedoms of speech, assembly, and petition. However, there are restrictions on lobbying members of government and campaign contributions (as discussed in unit II). B.3. Basic human appetite for social/political association; to be part of a team; to part of something bigger than ourselves; to give our lives a sense of purpose. B.4. Failure of government to meet unlimited needs of a self-interested population B.5. Shifted participation? What if the decline in voting corresponds directly to the explosion of interest group activity over the last forty years? Perhaps people have given up on voting and chosen interest group involvement as a means by which to pursue their policy goals. C. Basic functions C.1. Advocate for policy change for a specific group or for public at large C.2. Differ from political parties in that they (1) do not run for political office; and (2) are usually policy specific (whereas parties are considered to be policy generalists). D. Public image: Interest groups get bad press because many Americans see them as too influential, accomplishing their policy goals through campaign contributions (“bribery”) and political pressure.14

11 A lack of funding greatly hampers a third party’s message from getting to the people. View this graph discussing the campaign spending from the 2012 Presidential election. 12 Check out the Heavy Hitters section of opensecrets.org to see the amount of money being donated to political candidates. 13 Review your Federalist No. 10 Reading Guide, link to the complete text of Federalist No. 10, and link to a summary of Federalist No. 10. 14 In the media they’re called “special interest groups” and politicians are frequently criticized for pandering to “special interests.” Notice how if it’s something you want from your elected official it’s a “policy preference,” but when it’s someone else asking for something it’s called a “special” E. Recent explosion of interest groups E.1. It is extremely difficult to give an exact number of interest groups within the United States.15 E.2. Technological advancements lead to an increase in the number of interest groups because… E.2.a. The internet allows for “main street” voices to be heard in Washington DC E.2.b. Increased communications technology allows lobbyists to organize constituents and keep them informed of their representative’s position on issues.

II. Types of interest groups16 A. Economic: A primary concern is the impact government regulations on wages, prices, and profits. One regulation is particular, the tax code, is a constant source of concern for the groups listed below. A.1. Labor: work on issues pertaining to higher wages and better working conditions. A.2. Business: this is the largest subcategory, and thus difficult to define. The large majority of groups here have competing interests. A.3. Agriculture: concerned with issues related to the price of goods and subsidies government awards to farmers. B. Environment: these groups promote environmentally friendly concerns to government. Most often their agenda is in direct conflict with that of energy companies and other big businesses. C. Equality: civil rights interest groups such as the NAACP are most well known. Less recognized groups champion the causes of the poor, women, and disabled. D. Consumer and public interest: these groups attempt to change policies that will benefit the collective good, such as making toys safer for children or improving safety features in automobiles.

III. How interest groups shape policy A. The basic components of the “Iron Triangle” (old textbooks call these “sub-governments,” while the newest textbooks call them “issue networks”)17 A.1. Congressional committees: Responsible for making policy and overseeing the executive branch implementation of policy. A.2. Executive branch agencies: Responsible for implementing national policy by regulating aspects of the economy or enforcing federal guidelines within industries/society. A.3. Interest groups: Groups of like-minded citizens who exert pressure on congressional committees in order to shape policy to their benefit. May also include unions, corporations, and individuals.

B. Tactics used in the Iron Triangle B.1. Lobbying18 B.1.a. Two types of lobbyists: A.1.a.1. “Regular, paid employees of a corporation, union, or association.” A.1.a.2. Temporary hire, usually from a law or lobbying firm within the District of Columbia. Most often these firms have a specific focus and provide expertise in a specific area.

interest, giving a negative connotation. 15 Because the federal government does not require interest groups to register the actual number of them is extremely difficult to determine. Some estimates run in the thousands. 16 Here’s the most comprehensive list I could find. Follow your curiosities to learn more about what interests groups do and what they hope to accomplish. 17 The newest textbooks out there no longer use a “triangle” (they call them “issue networks) in order to include the role played by the media, individuals, and corporations. The diagrams look more like webs than triangles; but you get the point. 18 The term “lobbying” is a broad term that encompasses any effort to persuade/inform a lawmaker. It is often performed by professional lobbyists hired by interest groups, corporations, and unions. But anyone can “lobby” a member of Congress. Check out these suggestions for “How to Lobby Your Member of Congress” from Amnesty International. B.1.b. Background: most lobbyists have either law or business educations. A recent trend sees many ex-members of Congress being hired on at lobby firms in Washington, DC.19 B.1.c. Tactics: testifying at congressional hearings, contacting government officials directly, engaging in informal contacts with government officials… B.1.d. Helping Congress: A.1.a.1. Providing specialized expertise and information on a specific topic. A.1.a.2. Strategizing with members of Congress or their staff on ways to pass specific pieces of legislation. A.1.a.3. Creating campaign strategies to get individuals elected or reelected to Congress. This often involves providing techniques to reach a specific audience and volunteers to help with the campaign. B.2. Electioneering B.2.a. Interest groups are successful in getting politicians elected into office. This is done through organizing grassroots political participation at the community, state, and national level. REMEMBER: before an interest group can contribute to campaigns it must first register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) as a political action committee (PAC). B.2.b. Interest groups prefer incumbents over challengers. In fact, incumbency status is more important than ideology or political party.20 B.3. Litigation B.3.a. When interest groups are unsuccessful in their attempt to influence legislations they turn to the courts. This is done in two ways… A.1.a.1. Amicus curiae briefs: “friends of the court” are used by interest groups when they are not a legal participant in particular litigation. These briefs are filed in an attempt to ask the court to consider a specific element of the case that is of concern to the interest groups.21 A.1.a.2. Class action lawsuits: the combining of grievances into one suit. This form of litigation is designed to allow a small number of plaintiffs to represent a large group.22 B.3.b. The threat of lawsuit makes government and businesses more likely to consider the legal ramifications of their actions. This can influence policy.23 B.4. Going public24 B.4.a. Interest groups speak directly to the people in an attempt to influence the policymaker. B.4.b. Interest groups use public relations firms to cultivate a specific image. This benefits the interest group by giving them mass citizen appeal.

IV. Theories of interest group politics A. Pluralist theory: A.1. Groups provide a key link between people and government. They do this fairly, playing by the rules of the game. A.2. Groups compete and thus no one group is likely to become too dominant than the others. A.3. They are various ways to influence government. The textbook gives the example of big business using money and labor groups using it large number of members. The textbook asserts that these two characteristics balance each other out. B. Hyperpluralism: in an effort to please and appeal every interest, agencies proliferate, conflicting regulations expand, programs multiply, and the budget skyrockets.

19 USA Today ran a story in February 2013 on this subject. Former Congressman George Nethercutt of the 5th District of Washington (our district) is now “Of-Counsel” for BlueWater Strategies in Washington, DC. The firms president, Andrew Lundquist, states, "At BlueWater Strategies, we are constantly cultivating new ideas and developing solid strategies to give our clients a competitive edge in Washington." 20 In other words, it’s not uncommon to see a well known conservative interest group (say, the NRA) contributing PAC money to a Democrat’s re- election campaign. Interest groups simply want their voices heard in the policymaking process; it doesn’t matter who is listening. 21 Check out this example of an amicus curiae brief filed by the Sierra Club in California. 22 These days every class action lawsuit has a website dedicated to educating potential “class” members. To get a sense of what it would be like to join a class action suit, check out the site for the lawsuit against Wal-Mart, organized and funded largely by the National Organization for Women. 23 Here’s an example of how the mere threat of a class action lawsuit results in an interest group victory against Disney’s Baby Einstein products. 24 This one is listed last, but it’s certainly not the least important or powerful. “Going public” refers to any activity in which an interest group reaches out to its own members or accesses the media to inform/recruit non-members. C. Elite and class theory C.1. Real power is held by only a small few. As a result their concerns and ideas are the focus of the policymakers. C.2. The vast number of interest groups is irrelevant because power is held by only a small few. C.3. Minor victories over policy may be awarded to smaller less connected groups, but the big battles are won by those corporate and connected.

V. Interpreting interest group success A. Making an interest group successful A.1. Single-issue groups: those groups that have a narrow focus in attempting to change specific policy have a much better chance of being successful. A.2. Small groups have an organizational advantage over large groups because members share a vision and it is easier for smaller groups to stay on message = “cohesiveness.” A.3. Small groups also are aided by selective benefits. These rewards, which are only given to members of the group, can entice participation and foster group loyalty.25 B. Why some interest groups are unsuccessful B.1. Olson’s law of large groups: when groups become too large they fall short of their desired goal because too many deviations on how to achieve the groups “mission.” B.2. Free rider problem: often times when interest groups are attempting to change policy for the collective good they are thwarted by this problem. Many people can benefit from the group’s efforts even if they are not members of the group. The group is weaker as a result. The bigger the group the larger the free rider problem becomes. C. Overall success? C.1. Generally, interest group activity is successful in generating public policy as seen through the explosion of groups over the last half century. C.2. Interest groups do produce gridlock in government, but is that always a bad thing? C.3. Interest groups expand the overall size (cost/scope) of the federal government. In a peculiar paradox, American individualism actually contributes to our government’s growth.

25 So why join an interest group in the first place? For the benefits of course! Check out these beauties from the AARP. And don’t forget all those sweet discounts and offers to be found in the pages of the NRA magazine.