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1 Figure 1a.Primary Orality – Printing; b. A (somewhat incomplete) Timeline of Social Media: Kim H. Veltman Keynote: “Notes for A New History of Media, Scales and Disciplines”, Strategies for a Creative Future with Computer Science, Quality Design and Communicability, San Marino, September 15-16, 2014. http://www.ainci.com/HCITOCH- 2014/workshop_HCITOCH_2014.html ...... Abstract The history of media was long treated as a gradual shift from oral media, to written and then printed media, which was seen as part of a history of progress, culture and civilization. The 20th century brought new attention to a shift from orality and literacy, and to limitations imposed by print media. The latter 20th century saw trends towards a history of computing and the Internet that included new media. It also saw a redefinition of media as mass media and rewrote its history in three phases: pre-media, leading to mass-media and infinite media. This latest phase, variously called infinite media, social media, personal media or Me Media has come to dominate attention as if the thousands of previous years were insignificant. It has focussed attention on a coming Internet of Things (IoT) and Internet of Everything (IoE). This essay reviews some current timelines for the history of communications, mass media and new media. It expands the definition of media to include the entire gamut used in communication from painting and manual media (glyphs and petroglyphs) to the latest versions of electronic media and nano-media. It suggests that a future history of media should include not only different media types and technologies but also the scales of reality which they entail. Links between media, scales and shifts in disciplines are explored. It is shown that Shannon’s Theory of Communication reduced communication to transmission of information. Needed is a broader view that will lead to an Internet of Letters, Words, Concepts and Knowledges. Implications for interfaces are considered. ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Manual Media 3. Written Media 4. Print Media 5. Scopic Media 6. Electric Media 7. Analog Electronic Media 8. Digital Electronic Media 9. Multimedia 10. Social Media 11. Scales 12. Growth 13. Implications for Interfaces 14. Conclusions ...... There are 330 million times more bacteria on earth than bits that the world broadcasts per year. Hilbert, 2014.1

3 Figure 2a-b. Two histories of media.2 1. Introduction The history of media was long treated as a gradual shift from oral media, to written and then printed media, which was seen as part of a history of progress, culture and civilization. A survey of keywords (Appendix 1) and connected publications in libraries helps to visualize a basic chronology of studies: letters (1515), language (1549), writing (1561) communication (1599), alphabet 1615), cuneiform (1858) and petroglyphs (1968). Mechanical media have seen publications since the 16th century: e.g. printing (1517), publishing (1597), media (1640), telegraph (1795), telephone (1878), and radio (1906). This evolution can also be seen terms of new media and mass media (1646), cinema (1895), electronics (1947), social media (1961), computers and video (1967), personal media (1994), converged media and nano-media (2004). The 20th century brought new attention to a shift from orality and literacy: e.g. Havelock, Innis, Ong. Studies inspired by Ong explored a long timeline from 140,000 before the present to now (figure 1a).3 In the 1960s, Marshall McLuhan noted that media do more than simply transport content. They affect the content or as he aphoristically stated: the medium is the message. His exploration of limitations imposed by print media contributed to his fame. It also tended to focus attention to media in the post-Gutenberg era (1454) or since 1500 (the end of incunables, figure 3a). As networked computers began to spread after 1968, the latter 20th century saw trends towards a history of computing and the Internet that included new media. By 1994, some saw McLuhan’s descriptions of a global village as prophetically envisioning the World Wide Web (WWW).4 In the United States, the focus shifted to the internet as a pipeline, epitomized by Al Gore’s information highway, emphasizing the container rather than the content. The European G7 Summit (1994) sought to shift this focus to contents and their effects by insisting on an Information and Knowledge Society. Eric McLuhan continued to explore how his father’s insights applied to the web.5 The American mainstream saw a redefinition of media as mass media and rewrote its history in three phases: pre-media, leading to mass-media and infinite media (figure 2a). Pre-media included an infinitesimal era of word of mouth (c.200,000 years ago); the emergence of writing (c.5,000 B.C.); the invention of movable type (1440 sic!) 6; the first newspaper (1605) and the Penny Press (1840s). The next 150 years had mass media including the first radio broadcast (1906) and first TV statio (1928). The WWW (1991/1992 sic!)7 introduced a third phase of infinite media. This latest phase, variously called social media, personal media or Me Media has come to dominate attention as if the thousands of previous years were insignificant. Generous timelines may still begin with the postal service in 550 B.C. (figure 1b), while others are reduced to the last 200 years (table 2a) or even the past 20 years (figure 3b). While very attractive from a current events point of view, these contemporary tables could lead to the impression that nothing serious happened in communication until the end of the 20 th century. This essay begins with a review of some current timelines for the history of communications,

5 Figure 3 a-b. Media History Made Simple; Publishing 1980-2009 media and new media. It expands the definition of media to include the entire gamut used in communication from painting and manual media (glyphs and petroglyphs) to the latest versions of electronic media and nano-media (table 1). It suggests that a future history of media should include not only different media types and technologies but also the scales of reality which they entail. Links between media, scales and shifts in disciplines are explored. The need for an Internet of Letters, Words, Concepts and Knowledges is outlined. Implications for interfaces are considered. 2. Manual Media While oral media theoretically goes back to Adam and Eve, no actual history of oral media is possible prior to means of recording the human voice (1930). The advent of painting and glyphs (geoglyphs, petroglyphs, hieroglyphs) introduced the possibility of a history of extant cases. Those in the Blombos Cave,8 dated as at least 75,000 years B.C. are among the oldest painted human artefacts found.9 Recent work by Genevieve von Petzinger10 claims that there were a surprisingly small number (28) of non-figurative signs that were used in cave art in Africa and Europe. Needed is work to compare examples in Asia, the Americas and Australia. 3. Written Media One of the earliest objects associated with the earliest writing is a woolly mammoth tooth with markings from a cave in Tata, Hungary, previously dated c. 43,000 B.C., which is also a date connected with the earliest sign of human culture.11 Recent research dates this to 100,000 B.C. Meanwhile, the formal origins of writing are typically associated with Sumer (Iran) c. 3,200 -3,000 B.C.12 and Jemdet Nasr (Iraq) 3,200-2,900 B.C.13 The advent of writing brought a split between oral languages and written languages with their own alphabets.14 Of the 6,910 extant languages only c. 2,200 have alphabets. It also introduced a range of writing, script and alphabet functions (e.g. sacred, clerical, business). A future history of writing needs to be linked with a history of alphabets, scripts, and hands. So there will effectively be multiple histories of writing, whereby sacred writing is linked with sacred scripts and alphabets; commercial writing is linked with commercial alphabets, scripts, and so on. A full history of writing would trace growth in various categories of writing. 100,000 B.C. Glyph Media Tata Cave, Hungary 75,000 B.C. Paint Media Blombos Cave, South Africa 5,500 B.C Written Media Susa, Jamdet Nasr, Persia 593 A.D. Print Media Xian, Gyeonji, Dunhuang, China 1610 Scopic Media Florence, Italy; Delft, Netherlands 1800 Electric Media Pavia, Italy 1897 Analog Electronic Media Cambridge, UK 1948 Digital Electronic Media Murray Hill, USA 1984 Multimedia 1990-1999 Networked ICT 2000 - Networked UCT Table 1. Chronology of media and key early locations.

7 Figure 4a-b. History of Printing Timelines 4. Print Media While the West continues to link printing (figure 4a-b) with Gutenberg (1452), printing on paper was introduced in China by 80 A.D., printing as a profession is said to have started in 593 A.D.; woodblock printing c.650-670 AD.; printed books in the 9th c. (805 in Korea and 868 in China); moveable type by 1040 A.D. and moveable metal type by 1234. 15 McLuhan was unaware of this Asian dimension when wrote the Gutenberg Galaxy (1962) he claimed that: The invention of movable type was the decisive moment in the change from a culture in which all the senses partook of a common interplay to a tyranny of the visual. He also argued that the development of the printing press led to the creation of nationalism, dualism, domination of rationalism, automatisation of scientific research, uniformation and standardisation of culture and alienation of individuals.16

In retrospect, a little over a half century later (2014), movable type may have had the effects described in the West, but this then begs the question: why did it not have the same effects in the East? We need a new history which explains how a given technology can have very different effects in different societies.

Meanwhile, the important work of Giesecke (1991) has shown that the importance of printing lay in a shift from secretive to public knowledge through a new commitment to sharing knowledge for the common good. Hence, communication became linked with the rise of science and a cumulative model of knowledge.

5. Scopic Media Media are usually described in terms of those which can reproduce existing information mechanically in multiple copies, oral media being an obvious exception. The 17th century introduced two new instruments which played no direct role in mechanical dissemination, but changed entirely the scale of that which could be seen and known, namely the telescope and microscope. Prior to this, the realm of study had spanned the scale of 101 to 10-1. Galileo’s telescope (1610) and Van Leeuwenhoek’s microscope (1673) changed the realm of study from 102 to 10-2. As lenses improved these scales increased in both the + and – scales. 6. Electric Media Alessandro Volta’s invention of the battery (1800) introduced a new era of media leading to inventions such as the telegraph (1804), the microphone (1827), the electric telegraph (1837) and the telephone (1854, 1876). Officially these were breakthroughs in human communication at a distance. While their effect was rapid, their growth in terms of numbers of persons was still relatively slow. “Claude Chappe developed the system for the French optical telegraph in the 1790's, about 50 years before Morse's electro-magnetic telegraph.”17 The first International Telegraph Alphabet was developed in 1880. By 1999, Morse Code stopped being taught to Radio operators. In the case of telephones, it took about 100 years to reach 1 billion users of the telephone.

9 Figure 5. Margaret Riel: Capturing Information in the 19th and 20th centuries. Parallel with these developments in communication technologies were a series of inventions in information technology pertained to capturing information: lithograph (1796), photograph (1827), typewriter (1860), mimeograph (1875), phonograph (1877), radiograph (1886) and cinematograph (1891, figure 5a). 7. Analog Electronic Media J. J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897 heralded a new era of analog electronic media. In terms of scale, this meant work on machines and instruments descended to the level of 10-3. In the 20th century, this discovery brought new communications technologies: radio (1905), Arpanet (1969), telecommunication by e-mail (1970s), tele-presence and tele-communities (1980), NSFNet Internet (1980s), and cell phones (1983). It also brought many developments in information technologies: First colour movie (1924), television (1927), telebotics (1950), videotape recorder (1956), personal computer (1976), WWW (1992), Telerobotics over the net (1994). Margaret Riel has noted these parallels between information and communication technologies and characterized the 19th century in terms of capturing technologies (cf. -graph as in photograph, phonograph) and the 20th century in terms of distance technologies (tele- as in tele-phone, tele-robotics, tele- communications, figure 5a -b). Scholars have taken different approaches in trying to understand these changes. Innis focussed on the history of communications technologies. He explored a contrast between time-biased media (clay or stone tablets, hand-copied manuscripts on parchment or vellum, oral sources)18 and space-biased media (printing, radio, television, mass circulation newspapers). He claimed that time-biased media typically entailed oral, tribal cultures, whereas space-based media tended to entail empires and imperialism. Innis urged a need to balance the two kinds of medias. As Innis19 noted, in conjunction with physical networks of railways these new communications systems also led to a new standardization of time. His younger contemporary at Toronto, McLuhan also focussed on communications. He explored metaphors such as visual-tactile, hot-cold to contrast the differences between printed book communications in the 15th and 16th centuries and television in the 20th century. Whereas McLuhan saw new media as extensions of man, Friedrich Kittler (Berlin), saw new media as independent technical developments. He approached these changes in terms of three different discourse networks (Aufschreibesysteme, or more literally, writing-down, inscription or notation systems). He characterized the age of the book (from Gutenberg in the 15th to the 19th century as an Aufschreibesystem 1800.20 He associated this with an alphabetic monopoly, authorship, copyright and mechanization, standardization, and normalization. The early 20th century brought an Aufschreibesystem 1900, which included partial bundling of media (Medienverbunde), notably, phonograph and grammaphone, kinetoscope and film, as well as the typewriter (Schreibmaschine) and later television, radio and tape.21 A consequence of these innovations was a toppling of the alphabetic monopoly, and the storage monopoly of writing. According to Kittler the new ability to store text, image and sound, undermined the Gutenberg Galaxy. His student, Norbert Bolz, attempted to map this end of the Gutenberg Galaxy and the rise of a Computer Galaxy.22

11 Figure 6. Charts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum.23 A third, Aufschreibesystem 2000, includes the digital age of the computers where a complete convergence of media (totale Medienverbund) enables a compete manipulation in terms of modulation, transformation, synchronization, delay, storage, shift keying, scrambling, scanning und mapping.24 Subsequent thinkers have shifted the framework. Manuel Castells, saw a shift from a McLuhan Galaxy towards an Internet Galaxy. 25 Others have described the radio era as a Marconi Galaxy or Tesla Galaxy26 as a stage towards a Turing Galaxy.27 Kittler’s insistence on storage media such as image and sound as well as text began partly as a reaction against Foucault’s focus on writing and books with respect to discourse networks. Kittler’s eloquent arguments about the end of alphabetic monopoly were important in increasing the scope of studies concerning storage media. For those in computer science and information studies, they tended to make storage media a fundamental category for analysis. At the same time the new, more inclusive approach to media and storage tended to obscure other unique aspects of alphabetic, written, text, and printed media. Texts are about carefully organized and ordered knowledge as well as storage. Their message requires understanding. By contrast, a recorded image (photo, silent film) or a sound recording, for all its beauty and fascination, only becomes a powerful tool for knowledge when it is complemented with written data (metadata in the jargon of today). A photograph of a valley could be anywhere on earth, a photograph of a person only becomes valuable when there is a written description of who the individual is, when it was taken, where, how and perhaps even why. So the history of these new media in the 18 th, 19th and 20th centuries is not a simple story of replacing text with images and sound. Rather it is a story of how images and sound became integrated into alphabetic, written systems of ordering knowledge. Increasingly the new technologies entailed working in as well as simply observing and recording at the scale of 10-2. Study of the electromagnetic spectrum in the 19th and early 20th century greatly expanded the scope of scales studied, in wavelengths, wavenumbers, electron volts and frequency, ranging from 1021 - 10-15 (figure 6). The bundling of text, image and sound media (Medienverbunde), became much more important because they were applied to this whole range of new scales. 8. Digital Electronic Media The discovery of the transistor (1947) and the introduction of Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication made it possible for analog electronic media to become digital (electronic) media. As a result, knowledge entered the micro and neuro realms with the study of bacteria and microbes. In the next generations, greater magnification made viruses (10-7 to 10-8) and proteins (10-8) domains of study.

Shannon began by redefining communication:

The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem. 28

13 Figure 7a. Timeline, from Pong to Playstation 3, b. Home Video Game Systems To achieve his goal, the model29 reduced all communication to 5 elements or functions: source, sender, channel, receiver, and drain streams (data sinks) of information. 30 The good news was a transmission model of communication, which used transport and conduit metaphors. In terms of machine communication it seemed as if the problem of information could be reduced to scan, send, store, retrieve. The model was an inspiration for Kittler, which helps us to understand his quip about “driving the human out of the humanities:”31 The concept of discourse networks is essentially a free application of Claude E. Shannon’s (Weaver and Shannon, 1949) information theory. Hence Shannon’s theory, founded on information source, information channel and information receiver, that is, on informational inputs, transmission and outputs, is the engineering or technical model behind my literary experiment. Discourse Networks, 1800/1900 is, however, also deeply influenced by Michel Foucault. But at the time I was writing my book, and I do not think that this is a mistake, it occurred to me that what is wrong with Foucault’s The Order of Things (1970) is that it merely describes the production of discourses. There are, for example, no descriptions in Foucault’s book of the source of these discourses, of the channels or the receivers of discourse in the form of, let’s say, readers or consumers. So my idea was very simple. I just thought about the source of two discourse networks and not about any particular discourse networks in history.32 Kittler’s approach has obvious merit but points ultimately to a history of information transmission (communication in Shannon’s restricted sense) rather than a history of human communication, which requires more. A beautiful manuscript page in Sanskrit can be scanned perfectly, sent perfectly, received perfectly and stored perfectly but if a human receiver does not know Sanskrit there will be no communication of the contents of the manuscript page. Similarly a passage from the Old Testament perfectly recited, recorded, transmitted will communicate none of its contents to a person ignorant of Hebrew. A film of a mediaeval Latin manuscript may communicate nothing even to a Latin scholar if they have not been trained in palaeology. This is not to diminish the magnitude of Shannon’s contribution. Without his solution to an engineering challenge, there could be no Information Highway.33 It would be more accurate to call his work a theory of information transmission. In terms of Riel’s distinctions, (figure 5a-b), one could argue that in the past two centuries the United States has contributed mainly to information technology and very little to communication technology (in its traditional sense). The Internet is described as a communication technology but the information it transmits tends to assume unilingualism and is communicated only if we happen to read the language(s). To an average unilingual American, pages of search engines such as Baidu in Chinese or Yandex in Russian communicate nothing, until a translation software introduces an English version. 9. Multimedia The term multimedia was coined by Bob Goldstein (1966), in the context of discotheques and the entertainment business,34 with initial meanings related to hypermedia (Douglas Engelbart, 1962), intermedia (Dick Higgins, 1964) and hypertext (Ted Nelson, 1965). The advent of Macintosh computer (1984) with MacWrite and MacPaint heralded links between multimedia and computers, which evolved a decade later (1994) into a Macintosh computer (1994) with a Graphical User Interface (GUI), which helped establish home video game systems.35 15 Figure 8a. Rise of Social Media, b. Social Media Landscape Indeed, it was in the field of video games that multimedia first became important (figure 5a-b), beginning with Tennis for Two (1958) and home video consoles (1968), Pong (1972), Atari, Mattel, Nintendo and Sega. The resulting games industry has become a field of increasing profit36 and study. The 1980s are considered 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation video consoles; the 1990s are considered 4th, 5th and 6th generations. Since then, there have been a 7th and 8th generation.37 While they obviously entail new media, video games clearly do not fit into traditional categories of either information or communication technologies. They do not further cumulative knowledge in the manner of time-biased media. Indeed, they are often “based on plots of violence, aggression, and gender bias.”38 As a result, video games are often described as an epidemic and could be seen as examples of destructive education.39 10. Social Media In the past decade, social media, also called Me Media, has evolved as one of the important new categories. It has become one of the umbrella terms for video games in the form of social games, MMO (Massively Multiplayer Online Game) 40 and virtual worlds. These three items again have nothing to do with communication in its traditional sense. One of the innovations of social media (figure 6a-b) is said to be user-generated content (e.g. Wikipedia). Another is the ability to publish. For instance, Wikia claims to operate “the world’s largest network of collaboratively published content on the web.” It entails seven hubs: games, movies, TV, comics, music, books, lifestyle.41 Digg is a news aggregator which claims to offer “what the Internet is talking about right now.”42 Other innovations are the ability to share (e.g. Flickr, YouTube, Crowdshare) and to discuss (e.g. Skype). While of obvious personal interest most these innovations are mainly about opinions, likes, dislikes, rather than about traditional communication, certified information or cumulative knowledge. According to the rhetoric, the shift from Mass Media to Personal Media entails a move from publicity and propaganda to conversation and collaboration (figure 3a). In practice, a number of the domains of social media (figure 6 a-b) are simply a more strategic form of so-called personalized advertising: e.g. digital marketing, and brand social networking. The rhetoric claims content is king, but in practice the concern is about new ploys for companies. In theory, through blogging, microblogging, and social networks (real time communications), the user is now associated with personal, personalized media and personalization. In practice, politicians and news services use blogs for outreach, there are now user profiles, clandestine tracking methods; persons have an online identity, which is increasingly becoming a federated identity and becoming a digital record of a person’s life (e.g. Lifestream, Livecast). Personal was traditionally connected with privacy, what one did in one’s own home, what one shared and communicated with family and friends in private. Ironically, personal media and social media are attempting to destroy the very idea of privacy. In the name of communication, they are sending us increasingly more information targeted at selling us what we didn’t know we wanted. In terms of the traditional trivium (grammar, dialectic and

17 Figure 9. a. Powers of Ten, b. Comparison of nanomaterials sizes: rhetoric), grammar has been dropped, dialectic has been translated into the logic of computer algorithms and rhetoric has been reduced to new slants on persuasion and selling. This is said to be an Information Age. Optimists tell us that we have entered a new Communications age.43 Sceptics ask whether we are losing touch in this age of digital communications.44 Indeed, in a world where communications is defined as transmission of information, one could suggest that the new information age poses threats to meaning and knowledge, which are essential for true communication. In the United States, major universities typically have a department, faculty or school of information studies (iSchool), Information Sciences or Information Management. In Dublin, there is a School of Information and Library Studies. Elsewhere the iSchools have typically absorbed earlier Faculties of Library Studies or Library Science. Organising Knowledge is a now a subset of ordering information, at least in the minds of university deans. 11. Scales An unexpected corollary of the move to digital electronic media has been a new focus on scales: first a shift from the micro to the nano; second, an increasingly systematic awareness of scales and third, a gradual re-definition of traditional disciplines in terms of scales. . 11a. From Micro -to Nano-Media As mentioned above, the development of the transistor and of information theory were almost simultaneous at the end of the 1940s. This introduced the micro-level (10-6) and brought new levels of operation at the micro level: micro-chips, micro-processors, micro- computers etc. Sixty years later the advent of nano-levels (10-9) brought the vision of nanotechnology into the world of practical operation. In the United States, it also heralded a new convergence of four hitherto independent domains: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology, and Cognitive Science (NBIC).45 Chemical, Bioengineering, Environmental, and Transport Systems (CBET)46 and Electro-Magneto- Opto-Chem-Mechanical Systems47 are other examples of such convergence. In Canada, following examples of work in Paris, London and Rome, there has been a related convergence under the umbrella of Bio-Systemics Synthesis.48 Meanwhile, in Europe, Alfred Nordmann has explored a larger vision of Converging Technologies (CTEKS)49 as: Nano-Bio-Info-Cogno-Socio-Anthro-Philo-Geo-Eco-Urbo-Orbo-Macro- Micro-Nano.

101 to 10 -2 Mechanics 10-3 Electro-Mechanics (Electro-Magneto-Mechanics) 10-3 to 10 -6 Micro-Mechanics (Electronic Mechanics, Digital Mech.) 10 -9 Nano-Mechanics 10 -10 Atomic Mechanics 10-10 to 10-12 Quantum Mechanics (Molecular Mechanics) 10-15 Nuclear Mechanics 10-17 Particle Mechanics Table 2. Links between scales and branches of mechanics

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Figure 10a. Storage in optimally compressed MB, b. The Digital Universe Store Broadcast Telecom(munication) Information through Time Information through Space 1 way 2 way Capacity to store information to receive information 1986 2.6 432 281 petabytes 1993 15.8 715 471 “ ” 2000 54.5 1,200 2007 295 1,900 2013 1,200 2020 4,351 to 40,000 Table 3. World's technological capacity in (optimally compressed) exabytes50 11b. Scales A Dutch educator, Kees Boeke, published a book on scales: Cosmic View: The Universe in 40 Jumps (1957).51 This inspired three films: Cosmic Zoom (1968) produced by the National Film Board of Canada; Powers of Ten (1968, re-released 1977)52 by Charles and Ray Eames and the IMAX film Cosmic Voyage (1996) produced for the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum.53 The films were intuitive but they introduced a new awareness of interconnectedness. These scales could become a criterion in storage of and search for information. For instance, a person searching for DNA would immediately be taken to the nano-level (10 -9). 21 The system would indicate the temporal limits within which information and knowledge at that level exists. It would also list other things and organisms existing at the nano-level (e.g. figure 9b). There could be introductory timelines in the form of overviews that show how these classes of objects change over time: i.e. effectively maps of changing boundaries of the visible. 11c. Scales and Disciplines Each new scale inspired new branches of knowledge. For instance, mechanics was traditionally concerned with 101 – 10-2. Subsequent scales became new divisions of mechanics (table 2). This applies to most disciplines. So histories of a field would become histories of how fields spread to more scales. Accordingly, searching for mechanics could be refined into searching for nano-mechanics, quantum mechanics or particle mechanics. This basic idea is already implicit in contemporary library classification systems. The difference would be that one could search visually, temporally, geographically, in a sub- discipline at a given scale: e.g. nano-mechanics in Canada in the year 2007 A.D. Examples of such scaleometers were offered in a previous keynote.54 12. Growth There has been an enormous increase in both the capacity to store information and to receive information.55 Even the terms used to categorize change are expanding. In the 1990s, it was customary to speak of bytes, megabytes and gigabytes. Hilbert approaches this growth in terms of three functions of information: Store through time; Communicate through space and Compute, i.e. transform through space/time. Communicate is subdivided into broadcasting, 1 23 Figure 11 a –b. Internet of Things, Internet of Everything way transmission and telecom(munication), 2 way transmission. He notes that in 2007 broadcast was still 30 times more than telecom and that the 2 way transmission of telecom represented only about 3.4 % of all data transfer. In 2006, the largest figure was a Yottabyte (1024). In the past eight years, three further scales have been added: Xenottabyte (1027), Shilentnobyte ( 10 30 ) and Domegemegrottebyte ( 10 33 ). It has been estimated that 10 Terabytes could cover the printed collection of the US Library of Congress; 2 Petabytes would potentially include all US academic research libraries; 1 exabyte would include 36,000 years’ worth of HD-quality video56 while 5 exabytes would entail “all words ever spoken by human beings.”57 The capacity to store information has grown (table 3) from 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 1,200 in 2013 and is predicted to expand to 4,351 or as much as 40,000 exabytes by 2020 (figure 9b). Hilbert’s view of the so-called information overload is optimistic. He notes that while the economy grew by c. 6%, telecom transmission grew by 24% and computing grew by over 60%.58

Viewed from a human point of view there is reason for concern. If all human words only amount to 5 exabytes, then the human aspect of the equation will be only 1/8000 of the big picture by 2020 (figure 9b). The amount of curated data59 in our memory institutions (libraries, museums, galleries) is much less. It is like a needle in a haystack of big data. In the case of this human knowledge and information, we need a richer theory of communication: one that goes beyond simple transmission and has built into it understanding, comprehension, meaning; not just the syntax (logic or dialectic) and effects of communication (rhetoric) but also the substance and meaning (grammar in terms of the trivium).

12.1. Internet of Things (IoT) This human dimension is being neglected. A vision of the Internet of Things (figure 10a) includes 9 service sectors: IT & Networks, Security/PublicSafety, Retail, Transportation, Industrial, Health Care & Life Sciences, Consumer and Home, Energy and Buildings. Many of the sub-topics are about non-stable conditions: e.g. Hospitals, Emergency Reponse, Alarms. Research is mentioned only with respect to drug discovery. Education is absent. Indeed, absent from these lists is any reference to knowledge, religion, philosophy, books, art, music, culture, and cultural heritage. 12.2. Internet of Everything (IoE) The Internet of Things, we are told, is a step towards an even more comprehensive Internet of Everything (IoE). This is described in conceptual terms (figure 10b). At the centre is process. It is surrounded by a triangle of People, Things and Data, reminiscent of mediaeval diagrams of the Trinity.60 They entail three domains: Home, Mobile and Business and three kinds of interaction: Person to Person (P2P), Person to Machine (P2M) and Machine to Machine (M2M): Rather than just reporting raw data, connected things will soon send higher-level information back to machines, computers, and people for further evaluation and decision making. This transformation from data to information in IoE is important because it will allow us to make faster, more intelligent decisions, as well as control our environment more effectively. 61 The accompanying diagram speaks of the what, where and how of the Internet of everything, not the who or the why (figure 10b). The good news is that Persons are a third of the schema. The less good news is that there are only persons and no individuals. There is work, but no leisure, business but no products of the spirit in the form of books, music, art, culture. If man is about body, mind and spirit, why do we have only an internet of every thing, and not every person, every mind, every spirit, every expression of mind and spirit? Why do we have only an internet of change: motion, transmission, operation, production, maintainance, of vita activa and nothing about vita contemplativa? Innis62 worried about a balance between time-biased and space-biased media. Carey63 contrasted a ritual view with a transmission view of communication, one maintaining society in time, the latter extending messages in space. The Internet of Things and the Internet of Everything are ultimately about space-biased media, a transmission view of information and communication, extending messages in space. They are about efficiency, decision making, action and control: an extension of the hegemony, empire, and imperialism metaphors. They omit history and enduring knowledge. From a human viewpoint, they are about half of the story. 12.3. Internet of Letters, Words, Concepts and Knowledges The human side is but 5 exabytes in a large bucket of zettabytes expanding into yottabytes and beyond. Of those few exabytes, much belongs to social media, transmission of transient yos, likes, opinions, views. The “hard core” of enduring knowledge of memory institutions is a minority. Just as it takes analysis to change data into information, it takes further analysis to change information into knowledge: enduring thoughts and insights which remain valuable long after the next thing has been replaced by the next next thing. Searching through 40,000 exabytes for some detail in a subset of 5 exabytes is inefficient and increasingly impossible. Google alone now“processes over 40,000 search queries every second on average…, which translates to over 3.5 billion searches per day and 1.2 trillion searches per year worldwide.”64 In 2014, the Internet will reach 3 billion users65 and there will be 6 billion new internet-enabled devices.66 The Internet is predicted to reach at least 5 billion by 2020.67 To avoid redundancy, we need a re-classification of knowledge for an internet of letters, words, concepts and knowledges. At a level of greatest granularity, namely, letters, there are ISO lists of many letters, but no dictionaries of their meaning or histories of their usage. An index of every occurrence of an individual letter such as A would have limited use, but a list of all occurences where meanings and associations of A are given would be very useful. This applies not only to letters but equally to glyphs (petroglyphs, hieroglyphs), kuni, runes, tamgas, seals, and symbols. We have dictionaries of words, but most are unilingual. Multilingual dictionaries typically extend to a few languages. Wiktionary is one perhaps the most wide ranging effort to date, but only a small number of its words and languages are cross-referenced.68 Today, our memory institutions typically organize information and knowledge using words (keywords) and concepts (classes, terms). There are subdivisions into media such as manuscripts, books, articles, newspapers. There are national union catalogues, there is one 25 attempt at world catalogue (World Cat), but these efforts are far from comprehensive. Even a comprehensive list of all books, manuscripts, drawings, paintings which can be searched alphabetically, chronologically or by location for a famous individual such as Leonardo is lacking. We have citation indexes but only for the last decades and only in some fields. At the level of knowledge we have a dictionary of knowledge, 69 a knowledge encyclopedia70 and knowledge book. Knowledge leads to 89,673 hits in the GVK (Gemeinsamer VerbundKatalog), knowledge book leads to 4,848 in GVK71 and 535,000,000 hits in Google.72 Indeed there are a number of knowledges: e.g. ritual knowledge, religious knowledge, theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge (know how, how to do it). But there is no systematic access to all knowledge, pace the British Library’s claim to be gateway to the world’s knowledge. The idea of a collection of the world’s knowledge was developed in the 19th century with a vision of global brain (Gehirn der Welt). In 1931, Emanuel Goldberg proposed a statistical machine, which would function as a knowledge (finding) machine, with plans to atomize literature in the form of micro-thoughts: "facts" or "microthoughts" could then be arranged, rearranged and linked in multiple ways using the expanded decimal classification for the especially important and difficult task of linking each chunk with other chunks on the same topic and also those on related topics.73

With recent advances in computing this vision could be expanded. Each fact or microthought, ranging from a single letter or glyph to a word, keyword, concept, topic, or brief phrase, would have its own dictionary, encyclopedia entry, and in some cases articles and books which could be searched in terms of who, what where, when, how and why. In addition, each of these items would be linked to the claims concerning it. For instance, Great Flood would link not only to the story of Noah in the Old Testament, but also to the flood mentioned in Gilgamesh, the Rig Veda and elsewhere. Each such claim would be linked with a source whether it was a written text or a physical object: e.g. the alleged ruins of the ark on Mount Ararat. In many cases, there might be no way of proving in absolute terms the veracity/veridity of the statement,74 but the sources could be provided nonetheless. 13.3.1. Presorting There is a current fashion or at least rhetoric that all searches should be “on the fly”, even if search engines increasingly track which topics are being searched. It would be much more efficient to do a basic presorting such that every word, glyph, item had all the information arranged in terms of kinds of sources, media, chronologically, by location etc. In many cases, these facts, or microthoughts would be unequivocal: e.g. that an individual was born on a given day would be verified by their birth certificate. In older cases such as Zoroaster, where the precise date or even the year might be in question, alternative evidence would be gathered. This presorting would mean that any search of a fact or microthought could go directly to a given word or concept, rather than searching through 40,000 + exabyes of information. In cases where the term sought has a complex history, the system could offer parameters to limit the search. Today (26, 06, 2014), a user who types mechanics, receives 53,400,000 results in Google. In future, they could decide whether they wish mechanics in terms of persons (organizations, who), subjects (what), history, timelines (when), techniques, methods (how) or principles (theory, why). Hereby, the enormous number of potential answers would become focussed on specific answers which are useful. 13. Implications for Interfaces When the Internet began there was considerable interest in Human Computer Interfaces (HCI). This became Human Computer Interaction (HCI) and in the context of this conference Human-Computer Interaction, Tourism and Cultural Heritage (HCITOCH 2014). In the Internet of Everything vision, HCI becomes P2M. Logically one would expect that there might also be a M2P. P2P is in the section of the mobile domain, obviously requires communication devices but the interface dimensions of these interactions between people, and we hope individual persons, are not mentioned. M2M communication is obviously important. It requires no human dimension as long as the machines are working perfectly. But what if they break down? Then surely there must be a human interface dimension to see what the non-functioning machines cannot “see”? In any case there is a danger that the trends towards an Internet of Things and Internet of Everything, lead to interfaces where ``everything`` that is important qua humans, that which is beyond the material, namely the mental and spiritual, will be neglected or even omitted entirely. A scanned page of text may look exactly like a text, it may be transmitted, stored and retrieved as if it were a text and but it cannot be edited. Shannon’s theory of communication may indeed have taken the human out of humanities, but this seeming progress meant that it took the humanity out of texts. It produced new laws that transmitted the letters without the spirit, syntax without the meaning. Shannon’s theory of information and the WWW’s practice of a semantic web both follow the same shortcomings and flawed logic. Or, more precisely they follow a logic perfect for transmission, but useless for meaning, understanding, comprehension, knowledge, insight and wisdom. Scanning a page of hieroglyphs in high resolution may result in a beautiful image that can be transmitted and then stored efficiently, but if there is no comprehension of hieroglyphs in the original, the beautiful image thereof, the stored image and future retrieved images will all remain completely unintelligible. It promises an information highway but not an information society or a knowledge society. A history of media that speaks only of the triumph of machines, would ultimately point to an Internet of mechanical objects, dead things, rather than of language, art, music, culture, life. These limitations inspired Norbert Wiener to invent cybernetics. They were a topic in Fyermedal’s The Tomorrow makers (1986).75 Potential computer implications have been explored in a series of films from War Games (1993) to the Echelon Conspiracy (2009). For the year 2025, there are predictions of “thought recognition as everyday input means” 76 and “learning superseded by transparent interface to smart computers”77 It is true that George Orwell’s Time Machine (1895) describes a future civilization where people have lost their interest in learning and discovery, but such possible utopias need not limit a

27 possibly more interesting future, where we can learn and understand much more about ourselves and the world. Conclusions The history of media is a well-travelled subject. Momentous advances in media of the past century have led to dramatic reassessments. Whereas the 19th century remained fascinated by the history of manual and written media, the early 20 th century focussed increasing attention on a shift from oral to written media and to limitations in print media. The late 20th century reduced the value of print (elite media) and focussed on mass media and multimedia. Since 2000 there has been increasing attention to digital media also called infinite media, personal media, me media and social media. Some theorists (Innis, McLuhan, Carey), attempted to explain these changes as a shift from time-based media to space-shaped media, the one oral, tribal, and nomadic; the other written, linear, sedentary, linked with empire and imperialism. In parallel with these shifts, were changes in scopic media (e.g. telescopes and microscopes) which introduced new scales, new powers of 10 in both the positive and negative ranges to arrive at 10 26- 10-35 as boundaries of universe and measurement. Electric and analog electronic media were important early milestones. But it was the next stage, the introduction of the micro-level (10-6) that issued in the micro-revolution, with a new theory of communication (1948) and practical innovations such as the transistor (1948), the notion of an integrated circuit (1952) and a microchip (1958). This shift from analog to digital electronic media, and to the micro level, went hand in hand with a new theory of communication, which reduced communication to information transmission. The good news was enormous strides in tele-communication and the internet, which has led many to speak of a new age: Turing Age, Internet Age, Digital Age. The positive consequences of these advances are in terms of an ever-more interconnected world, with visions of an Internet of Things and an Internet of Everything. It has also generated unprecedented amounts of data and information, which are being described with new buzzwords such as big data. At the same time, this redefinition of communication as transmission: i.e. unidirectional (broadcasting) or bidirectional telecom(munication), focusses on things, motion, change and process and threatens to side-line traditional senses of communication in terms of sharing knowledge, ideas, understanding, insights, meaning, wisdom. Indeed, the new solution reveals that current ideas of an Internet of Everything (IoE) are not enough. A recent article posed the question: Has the Electronic Image Supplanted the Written Word?78 In light of this article, the answer is no. Electronic images can recognize, scan, capture, transmit, store and retrieve images, pictures, plans, drawings. But unless we understand their content and their meaning, we can only hope to the share their outer form. Words, spoken and written are unique to humans. Written words in a language that we speak and read, can communicate meaning. Hence, a full theory of communication requires an Internet or WWW of Letters, Words, Concepts and Knowledges and conversely. Appendix 1. 79 Subject Number of Publications First Publication Manual Media History of Letters 9228 1515

Language 20,911 1549

Writing 8640 1561

Communications 4602 1599

Alphabet 440 1615

Cuneiform 225 1858

Petroglyphs 35 1968 Mechanical Media History of Printing 6857 1517 Publishing 9530 1597 Media 7199 1640 Telegraph 3032 1795 Telephone 6376 1878 Radio 55,601 1906 New Media 2135 1646 Mass Media 2285 1646 Cinema 3374 1895 Television 27,186 1911 Electronics 307 1947 Social Media 1605 1961 Computers 727 1967 Video 625 1967 Personal Media 215 1994 Converged Media 4 2004 Nano-Media 1 2004

Appendix 2a. Metric Scales and Applications; b. Powers of 10 Basic and Bytes

1 Nanometre = 10–9 Hydrogen, Nano, Viral 1 Ångström = 10–10 Atomic, Large Molecular 1 Picometre = 10–12 Genomic, Small Molecular

29 10-14 Nucleus 1 Femtometre = 10–15 Nuclear, Proton, Quantum 10 -17 Particles 10-18 Quarks 1 Kilometre = 10 3 1 Hectometre = 10 2 1 Metre = 10 1 Manual, Mechanical 1 Centimetre = 10–2 Manual, Mechanical 1 Millimetre = 10–3 Mechanical, Microscopic Electronic (Analog) 1 Micrometre = 10–6 Micro-, Neuro, Bacteria, Microbes 10-7 to 10-8 Viruses 10-8 Proteins 1 Nanometre = 10–9 Hydrogen, Nano, Viral 1 Ångström = 10–10 Atomic, Large Molecular 1 Picometre = 10–12 Genomic, Small Molecular 10-14 Nucleus 1 Femtometre = 10–15 Nuclear, Proton, Quantum 10 -17 Particles 10-18 Quarks 1 Zeptometre = 10–21 1 Yoctometre = 10–24

01 = Byte 10 x 01 = Dekabyte 10 x 02 = Hectobye 10 x 03 = Kilobyte 10 x 06 = Megabyte 10 x 09 = Gigabyte 10 x 12 = Terabyte 10 x 15 = Petabyte 10 x 18 = Exabyte 10 x 21 = Zettabyte 10 x 24 = Yottabyte 10 x 27 = Xenottabyte 10 x 30 = Shilentnobyte 10 x 33= Domegemegrottebyte

List of Figures 1a. Primary Orality – Printing: http://terpsinoe.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/timeline-snap.jpg 1b. A (somewhat incomplete) Timeline of Social Media: http://www.hautlieucreative.co.uk/Media/wemedia/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/social-media-timeline1.jpg Cf. Rudnick; Communications Timeline: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/- 6xFUo2Wh3qU/T3WwldBA9QI/AAAAAAAAAM8/t_HOcQfk558/s1600/Rudnick_A16.jpg 2a. Mass-Media – 150 Year Bubble: http://www.inma.org/blogs/disruptive-innovation/history-of-media- page-001-1.jpg 2b. Media History: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qPmmIklhNV8/S9sB7LqTqyI/AAAAAAAAAEU/2Ozqk1hPUEI/s1600/Timeline.png 3a. Media History made Simple: http://prstudies.typepad.com/.a/6a00d834205d1853ef01156e8315ab970c- pi 3b. Publishing 1990-2009: http://barryhurd.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/smtimeline.jpg 4a-b. History of Printing Timelines: http://www.infographicszone.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/printing-history-timeline-1.jpg ; http://xsophiestimetravelblogx.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/screen-shot-2010-10-09-at-5-42-25-pm.png 5a. Margaret Riel: 19th Century. Capturing Information: http://mindmaps.typepad.com/.a/6a01127966ddfa28a4014e5f8ca61a970c-320wi 5b. Margaret Riel: 20th Century. Extending across Distances: http://mindmaps.typepad.com/.a/6a01127966ddfa28a4014e5f8caccc970c-320wi 6a. Electromagnetic spectrum: http://www.wirelesspowerconsortium.com/data/images/2/7/7/electromagnetic-spectrum.jpg 6b. Chart of Electromagnetic Spectrum: https://ascendingstarseed.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/electromagnetic_spectrum_full_chart.jpg 7a. Timeline: From Pong to PlayStation 3: http://theinstitute.ieee.org/img/12tiwhistoryLightbox- 1322842139839.jpg 7b.Home Video Game Systems: http://fc04.deviantart.net/fs71/i/2011/191/3/b/history_of_multimedia_timeline_by_autumleves-d3lljl3.jpg 8a. Rise of Social Media: http://brandswithfansblog.fandommarketing.com/files/2013/01/The-Rise-of-Social- Media-Infographic1.jpg 8b. Social Media Landscape: http://www.gcodelabs.com/css/fb-social-media.jpg 9a Powers of Ten: http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/inline/8AFC73BC-E7F2-99DF- 31FAE14B26815014_11.jpg 9b. Comparison of Nanomaterials Sizes: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology#mediaviewer/File:Comparision_of_nanomaterials_sizes.jpg 10a. Growth. a. Storage in optimally compressed MB: http://martinhilbert.net/10HilbertLopezGrowthStorage.PNG 10b. Digital Universe: http://www.emc.com/leadership/digital-universe/2012iview/executive-summary-a- universe-of.htm 11a Internet of Things: http://blog.atlasrfidstore.com/wp- content/uploads/2013/07/beecham_research_internet_of_things.jpg 11b. Internet of Everything: http://blogs.cisco.com/wp-content/uploads/Internet-of-Everything.png

31 1Notes Martin Hilbert: http://www.martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html

2 1b. History of Media : http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qPmmIklhNV8/S9sB7LqTqyI/AAAAAAAAAEU/2Ozqk1hPUEI/s1600/Timeline.png

3 See also Ong Timeline: Body Technologies: http://bodytechnologies.blogspot.nl/2011/01/3500-bc.html

4 Cf. Lewis Lapham introduction to the 1994, MIT Edition of Understanding Media: http://bin.sc/Readings/McLuhan/McLuhan_Marshall_Understanding_Media_The_Extensions_of_Man.pdf

5 Eric McLuhan: http://ericmcluhan.com/

6 The usual date is 1454/1455. For a standard study see Michael Giesecke, Der Buchdruck in der frühen Neuzeit. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986.

7 Sir Tim Berners-Lee wrote the proposal in 1989 and it began in 1990. Work on the Mosaic web browser, mentioned in the table, began in late 1992 but it was not released until 23 January 1993: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)

8 Blombos Cave: http://www.wits.ac.za/academic/research/ihe/archaeology/blombos/7106/blomboscave.html The engraved pieces of ochre are regarded as the oldest known artwork. The use of abstract symbolism on the engraved pieces of ochre and the presence of a complex tool kit suggests Middle Stone Age people were behaving in a cognitively modern way and had the advantages of syntactical language at least 80,000 years ago.

9 A site on early man spans the period 200,000 to 35,001 B.C.: http://www.telusplanet.net/dgarneau/euro2.htm

10 Genevieve von Petzinger: http://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/mar/11/cave-painting-symbols-language- evolution

11 More recent studies have suggested that this Tata tooth, now in the Smithsonian could be appromiately 100,000 years old: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v295/n5850/abs/295590a0.html Early Culture: http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18224421.100-is-this-the-earliest-sign-of-human-culture.html : The earliest uncontested evidence is from sites in Europe that are about 35,000 years old, and includes ornaments and cave paintings. But the beads were found in Africa and seem to be between 45,000 and 110,000 years old. Plants found at the site suggest the older end of that range.

12 Sumer Writing: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_important_advancement_did_the_sumerians_introduce_by_3200_BC_that_would_la ter_allow_historians_to_study_their_culture#slide=2&article=What_important_advancement_did_the_sumerians_intr oduce_by_3200_BC_that_would_later_allow_historians_to_study_their_culture

13 Jemdet Nasr: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr Jemdet Nasr is an archaeological site in Iraq's Babil Governorate, situated to the north-east of Babylon and Kish and east of Kutha. It may hold the earliest written account of any language

14 Of the 6,609 extant languages approximately 2,200 are written.

15 History of Printing in East Asia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia

16 Gutenberg Galaxy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gutenberg_Galaxy

17 Telegraph Key: http://www.zianet.com/sparks/timeline.html 18 Innis: Time-Biased Media: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innis %27s_communications_theories#Time_and_space : Time-biased media include clay or stone tablets, hand-copied manuscripts on parchment or vellum and oral sources such as Homer's epic poems. These are intended to carry stories and messages that last for many generations, but tend to reach limited audiences.

19 Harold Innis, A History of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, London: P. S. King & Son; Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1923: http://www.gutenberg.ca/ebooks/innis-historyofthecpr/innis-historyofthecpr-00-h.html

20 Kittler, Aufschreibesystem 1800: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufschreibesystem Cf. http://monoskop.org/images/b/b6/Kittler_Friedrich_Aufschreibesysteme_1800_1900.pdf

21 Kittler: Aufschreibesystem 1900 http://translate.google.com/translate? hl=en&sl=de&u=http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufschreibesystem&prev=/search%3Fq%3Daufschreibesystem %2B1800%2Bwikipedia%26hl%3Den%26gl%3Dus%26authuser%3D0%26biw%3D1440%26bih%3D752

22 Norbert Bolz: http://www.uibk.ac.at/voeb/texte/bolz.html

23 Electromagnetic spectrum: http://www.wirelesspowerconsortium.com/data/images/2/7/7/electromagnetic- spectrum.jpg Chart of Elecromagnetic Spectrum: https://ascendingstarseed.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/electromagnetic_spectrum_full_chart.jpg

24 Aufschreibesystem 2000: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufschreibesystem

25 Ibid: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufschreibesystem

26 Tesla Galaxy: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing-Galaxis

27 Ibid: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufschreibesystem

28 C.E. Shannon, A Mathematical Theory of Communication: http://cm.bell- labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf : The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected from a set of possible messages. The system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design.

29 Shannon and Weaver, A Mathematical Theory of Communication: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mathematical_Theory_of_Communication

30 Shannon, 5 Functions and 5 Elements of Communication: http://books.google.nl/books? id=t6UmcXUMil0C&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=shannon%27s+five+functions&source=bl&ots=-RDfMSzpc0&sig=- G2G1TL2UKgC9yQ3KVZt14cJSx4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BSKkU_zSNce- O92JgcAG&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=shannon's%20five%20functions&f=false

31 Friedrich Kittler: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Kittler

32 An Interview with Friedrich Kittler: http://monoskop.org/images/7/73/Armitage_John_2006_From_Discourse_Networks_to_Cultural_Mathematics_An_In terview_with_Friedrich_A_Kittler.pdf : The concept of discourse networks is essentially a free application of Claude E. Shannon’s (Weaver and Shannon, 1949) information theory. Hence Shannon’s theory, founded on information source, information channel and information receiver, that is, on informational inputs, transmission and outputs, is the engineering or technical model behind my literary experiment. Discourse Networks, 1800/1900 is, however, also deeply influenced by Michel Foucault. But at the time I was writing my book, and I do not think that this is a mistake, it occurred to me that what is wrong with Foucault’s The Order of Things (1970) is that it merely describes the production of discourses. There are, for example, no descriptions in Foucault’s book of the source of these discourses, of the channels or the receivers of discourse in the form of, let’s say, readers or consumers. So my idea was very simple. I just thought about the source of two discourse networks and not about any particular discourse networks in history.

33 Transportation Metaphor: http://faculty.georgetown.edu/bassr/lynn/transprt.htm

34 Multimedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia The term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein (later 'Bobb Goldsteinn') to promote the July 1966 opening of his "LightWorks at L'Oursin" show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of a British artist named Dick Higgins, who had two years previously discussed a new approach to art-making he called "intermedia."[1]

35 Evolution of Home Video Game systems: http://fc04.deviantart.net/fs71/i/2011/191/3/b/history_of_multimedia_timeline_by_autumleves-d3lljl3.jpg

36 Ibid: The Game Epidemic: http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=90198 “In June 2011, the global video game market was valued at US$65 billion.”

37 Video Game Industry: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_industry

38 The Game Epidemic: http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=90198

39 Destructive Education: http://www.biblebelievers.org.au/przion2.htm#PROTOCOL No. 2

40 MMO: http://www.uberchar.com/

41 Wikia: http://www.wikia.com/About

42 Digg: http://digg.com/

43 New Communications Age: http://connectedplanetonline.com/mag/telecom_new_communications_age/

44 Ed Fuller, Are we losing touch in this age of digital communications? : Social networking reportedly now eats up more than three hours of the average American’s day.Google GOOG +1.54% logs more than one billion searches each day. On YouTube, 60 hours of content gets uploaded every minute, and over at Facebook, more than 800 million updates are recorded daily. We are becoming so wired technologically 24/7 that before we know it we’ve lost track of time and, sadly for many of us, we learn we’ve lost touch with some of our most important relationships both personally and professionally. http://www.forbes.com/sites/edfuller/2014/03/20/are-we-losing-touch-in-this-age-of-digital-communications/

45 NBIC: http://hplusmagazine.com/2010/02/12/nano-bio-info-cogno-paradigm-future/ Another interpretation by Nova Spivack speaks of Web 2.0, which has been extended by others to Web 3.0, 4.0, 5.0.

46 CBET: http://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=cbet

47 UC Davis: http://www.nanosprint.com/events/index.php?id=355 Formerly at: http://www.research.ucdavis.edu/ncd.cfm?ncdid=644

48 Biosynthesis: http://biosynteza.cz/old/text.php?text=common_ground.html

49 CTEKS: http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/ntw-nordmann-presentation_en.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/ntw-report-alfred-nordmann_en.pdf

50 World’s Technological Capacity: http://highscalability.com/blog/2012/9/11/how-big-is-a-petabyte-exabyte- zettabyte-or-a-yottabyte.html For a more conservative estimate of growing storage capacity: Cf. http://www.jasonsavitt.info/articles/computing/worlds-technological-capacity

51 Kees Boeke, Cosmic View: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_View

52 Powers of 10 http://www.fastcodesign.com/1662461/how-to-apply-eamess-legendary-powers-of-10-to-real- life-problems Powers of 10 on Scratch: Powers of 10 http://scratch.mit.edu/projects/491065/

53 Op. cit.: Kees Boeke, Cosmic View: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_View

54 Cf. “Historical Interfaces for Cultures”: Fourth International Workshop on Human-Computer Interaction, Tourism and Cultural Heritage (HCITOCH 2013): Strategies for a Creative Future with Computer Science, Quality Design and Communicability, Rome, September 26 – 27, 2013.

55 World's technological capacity to handle information: http://www.martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html Cf. specifically: Martin Hilbert, Priscila López, The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information, Science Express, February 2011: http://www.ris.org/uploadi/editor/13049382751297697294Science-2011-Hilbert-science.1200970.pdf

56 1 exabyte: http://www.iod.com/MainWebSite/Resources/Document/Q3-The-future-of-the-Internet-you-aint- seen-nothin-yet.pdf

57 5 exabytes: http://highscalability.com/blog/2012/9/11/how-big-is-a-petabyte-exabyte-zettabyte-or-a- yottabyte.html

58Hilbert: http://www.martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacityPPT.html : the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has grown 6 % during the same period. This means that information (storage and telecommunication) grows 4 to 5 times faster than the economy, and computation more than 10 times faster. While the growth of information (storage and communication) has led to the often lamented “information overload”, the fact that computation grows twice as fast as information (storage and communication) allows us to create computational solutions to confront this overload (e.g. email spam filters to control telecommunication, or search algorithm to sort through storage). In this way, we use (computational) technologies to solve the problems produced by (informational) technologies… Hilbert: http://www.martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html; Communicate, Store, Transform: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIKPjOuwqHo

59 Curated Data: http://semanticabyss.blogspot.nl/2009/03/what-is-curated-data.html

60 Trinity Diagram: http://www.google.com/search? q=trinity+diagram&nord=1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=9jOsU_9uoYnMA8rsgNAH&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ& biw=1440&bih=752

61 Internet of Everything: http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ac79/docs/innov/IoE.pdf

62 Harold Innis’s Communication Theories: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innis's_communications_theories

63 Carey, James W. Communication As Culture: Essays on Media and Society. New York: Routledge, 1989.

64 Google Search Statistics: http://www.internetlivestats.com/google-search-statistics/ 65 World to have 3 billion Internet users by year end: UN: http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-05- 06/news/49661552_1_internet-subscriptions-itu

66 More Connected Than Ever: 6 Billion New Internet-Enabled Devices to be Produced This Year - See more at: http://press.ihs.com/press-release/design-supply-chain/more-connected-ever-6-billion-new-internet-enabled- devices-be-prod#sthash.8nFE9PDL.dpuf

67 10 Foolproof Predictions about the Internet for 2020: http://www.networkworld.com/article/2238913/wireless/10-fool-proof-predictions-for-the-internet-in-2020.html Cf. The Next 6 Billion: http://www.webdirections.org/blog/the-next-6-billion/

68 Wiktionary: List of Languages: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:List_of_languages

69 Dictionary of Knowledge: https://www.dictionaryproject.org/news/general-news/dictionary-knowledge

70 Knowledge Encyclopedia: http://www.amazon.com/Knowledge-Encyclopedia-DK-Publishing/dp/1465414177

71 Gemeinsamer Verbundkatalog: http://gso.gbv.de/DB=2.1/SET=1/TTL=1/CMD? MATCFILTER=N&MATCSET=N&NOSCAN=N&ACT0=&IKT0=&TRM0=&ACT3=*&IKT3=8183&ACT=SRCHA&IKT=1 016&SRT=YOP&TRM=knowledge+book&TRM3=

72 Knowledge Book in Google on 26 06 2014: http://www.google.com/webhp? nord=1#nord=1&q=knowledge+book

73 Buckland, 2006, p. 64: http://books.google.nl/books?id=MV-nL7IxmIcC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=Micro- thoughts+emanuel+goldberg&source=bl&ots=Y5SAFQ-O1R&sig=XMyY1P5BsHEioQdh- GQwwKQSUF4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qzUsUo7YDuWv0QXq8IHQBA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Micro-thoughts %20emanuel%20goldberg&f=false

74 For an earlier discussion of the problem and general approach see: 2005 Access, Claims and Quality on the Internet – Future challenges. Progress in Informatics, Tokyo, no. 2, November 2005, pp. 17-40. http://sumscorp.com/new_media/computers/internet/news_161.html

75 Grant Fjermedal, The Tomorrow Makers, Redmond, Tempus Books, 1986.

76 The Future: http://brendan.sdf-eu.org/downloads/the_future.pdf

77 Some claim that this will be later in the years 2026-2045: http://www.elon.edu/e- web/predictions/150/2026.xhtml

78 Electronic Image: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/books/review/what-would-marshall-mcluhan-have- made-of-the-internet-age.html?_r=0

79 The numbers in appendix 1 are based on searches using the German Gemeinsamer BibliotheksVerbund (GBV): http://gso.gbv.de/DB=2.1/?LNG=DU . In each case, a term such as History of Media was entered and the number of hits was recorded. Since the hits are arranged chronologically the last page was recorded to determine the oldest publication on the subject. The one exception is Nano-media where there were no hist for history of nano- media, but 1 for the subject on its own.

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