The Everything Book AP English III

1. A Vocabulary for Describing Language ...... 2 Tone Words by Category...... 2 Verbs...... 3 Adjectives...... 4 Nouns...... 5 The Language of Argument...... 6 Thematic Language...... 6 2. Figures of Speech...... 7 Tropes...... 7 Schemes...... 7 Rhetorical Devices ...... 8 3. Syntax as a Component of Style...... 12 4. Anthropological Pentad (IPSEA) ...... 15 5. Archetype Definitions...... 17 6. AP Essay Rubric (for timed writings)...... 18

“Find the Gold Box!”

- Page 1 - [NOTE: used by permission; created by Beth Priem, et al – Westwood High School] A VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING LANGUAGE T O N E T O N E P O S I T I V E H a p p i n e s s amiable contented ecstatic elevated exuberant jubilant blithe delightful effusive enthusiastic gleeful sprightly cheery ebullient elated euphoric joyful

P l e a s u r e amused cheerful laudatory playful satisfied appreciative enraptured peaceful pleasant whimsical

F r i e n d l i n e s s , C o u r t e s y accommodating compassionate easy indulgent polite tolerant admiring complimentary empathetic interested sociable trusting approving conciliatory encouraging intimate solicitous benevolent confiding forgiving kindly soothing caressing cordial gracious obliging sympathetic comforting courteous helpful pitying tender

A n i m a t i o n ardent crisp energetic expectant hopeful passionate breathless eager exalted feverish impassioned rapturous brisk earnest excited hasty inspired vigorous celebratory ecstatic exhilarated hearty lively

R o m a n c e adoring amorous fanciful ideal sensual worshipful affectionate erotic fervent lustful tender

T r a n q u i l i t y calm laid back meditative reassuring serene dreamy light optimistic relaxed soothing hopeful lyrical placid sanguine spiritual

T O N E N E U T R A L G e n e r a l authoritative conversational familiar insistent reminiscent stern baffled detached forceful learned restrained unambiguous ceremonial direct formal matter-of-fact sentimental understated clinical disbelieving indirect nostalgic shocked urgent colloquial emotional informal objective somber venerative complex factual informative questioning stable

R a t i o n a l / L o g i c a l admonitory deliberate impartial instructive pleading sincere argumentative didactic incredulous introspective preoccupied speculative candid doubting incisive oracular probing studied coaxing eloquent indignant pensive puzzled thoughtful critical explanatory innocent persuasive reflective uncertain curious frank insinuating pithy scholarly unequivocal

S e l f - C o n t r o l cautious gentle motivated reticent simple subdued cool imperturbable nonchalant serene sober temperate forthright mild prudent serious solemn wary

A p a t h y blasé defeated feeble inert resigned sophisticated bored dispassionate helpless languid sluggish vacant casual dry hopeless lethargic stoical colorless dull indifferent monotonous stolid

T O N E H U M O R / I R O N Y / S A R C A S M amused cynical insolent mischievous ribald taunting bantering disdainful insulting mirthful ridiculing teasing belittling droll ironic mock-heroic risible uproarious bemused facetious irreverent mocking sarcastic whimsical bitter flippant jocund mock-serious sardonic wry caustic giddy joking patronizing satiric comical haughty jovial playful scornful condescending hilarious ludicrous pompous sharp contemptuous humorous malicious quizzical silly - Page 2 - T O N E N E G A T I V E G e n e r a l abhorring audacious cold disliking irritated surly accusing belligerent condemnatory embarrassed manipulative testy acerbic biting condescending evasive obnoxious threatening aggravated bitter contradictory furious passive uninterested agitated blunt critical harsh quarrelsome vitriolic ambiguous brash desperate hateful shameful ambivalent brusque disappointed hurtful sinister angry childish disgruntled indignant skeptical arrogant choleric disgusted inflammatory sly artificial coarse disinterested insulting superficial

S a d n e s s bleak despondent foreboding lugubrious regretful depressing dreary ghoulish melancholy sepulchral desolate elegiac gloomy maudlin tragic despairing eulogistic grim mournful

P a i n annoyed disappointed irritable plaintive sour uneasy biter disgusted miserable querulous sulky vexed bored dismal mournful sore sullen worried crushed fretful pathetic sorrowful troubled

U n f r i e n d l i n e s s accusing contentious derogatory impudent scolding unsociable antagonistic curt difficult pitiless severe uncaring belittling cutting disparaging reproachful spiteful unconcerned boorish derisive impatient reproving suspicious unsympathetic

A n g e r belligerent furious indignant outraged wrathful enraged hostile livid savage

P a s s i o n diabolic hysterical jealous powerful tense fierce insane nervous reckless voracious frantic impetuous outspoken ridiculous wild greedy impulsive psychotic strident zealous

A r r o g a n c e / S e l f - I m p o r t a n c e assured condescending disrespectful knowing proud smug boastful confident domineering lofty resolute stately bold contemptuous egotistical pedantic saucy stiff bombastic defiant grand peremptory self-assured supercilious bossy demanding holier-than-thou pompous selfish terse commanding didactic imperious pretentious self-righteous conceited dignified impressive profound sententious

S o r r o w / F e a r / W o r r y aggravated concerned embarrassing hollow paranoid staid anxious confused enigmatic morose pessimistic apologetic depressed fatalistic nervous poignant apprehensive disturbed fearful numb remorseful bewildered doubtful grave ominous serious

S u b m i s s i o n / T i m i d i t y abashed awed ingratiating resigned submissive tremulous aghast contrite insecure respectful surprised unpretentious alarmed diffident meek reverent sycophantic willing ashamed docile modest self-deprecatory terrified astonished fawning obedient servile timid astounded groveling obsequious shy timorous

V E R B S These verbs will be especially effective when the subject is the author or a character. They are excellent replacements for "be" verbs and instrumental in the formulation of thesis and theme statements. Careful use of these verbs can result in precise identification of an author's purpose. V E R B S F O R L I T E R A R Y A N A L Y S I S accentuates advocates alludes argues attacks bases accepts affects alters ascertains attempts believes achieves alleviates analyzes assesses attributes challenges adopts allows approaches assumes avoids changes - Page 3 - characterizes despises excludes infers permits rejects chooses details expands inspires personifies represents chronicles determines experiences intends persuades results claims develops explains interprets ponders reveals comments deviates expresses interrupts portrays ridicules compares differentiates extends inundates postulates satirizes compels differs extrapolates justifies prepares seems completes directs fantasizes juxtaposes presents sees concerns disappoints focuses lambasts presumes selects concludes discovers forces laments produces specifies condescends discusses foreshadows lampoons projects speculates conducts displays functions lists promotes states conforms disputes generalizes maintains proposes strives confronts disrupts guides makes provides suggests considers distinguishes heightens manages qualifies summarizes contends distorts highlights manipulates questions supplies contests downplays hints minimizes rationalizes supports contrasts dramatizes holds moralizes reasons suppresses contributes elevates honors muses recalls symbolizes conveys elicits identifies notes recites sympathizes convinces emphasizes illustrates observes recollects traces defines encounters illuminates opposes records understands defies enhances imagines organizes recounts vacillates demonstrates enriches impels overstates reflects values depicts enumerates implies outlines refers verifies describes envisions includes patronizes regards delineates evokes indicates performs regrets

V E R B S T O U S E I N S T E A D O F E X E M P L I F I E S appears corroborates elucidates exposes relates validates asserts defines endorses intimates shows attests to demonstrates establishes manifests substantiates certifies denotes. evinces points to suggests confirms depicts exhibits proves typifies connotes discloses expounds ratifies upholds

A D J E C T I V E S FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION

D E S C R I B I N G T H E A U T H O R cultured analytical spiritual conservative shallow narrow-minded intellectual imaginative orthodox liberal superficial sentimental erudite perceptive unorthodox progressive bigoted skeptical well-read visionary sympathetic radical opinionated cynical sagacious prophetic sophisticated reactionary intolerant sensible optimistic original unprejudiced hypocritical rational broad-minded whimsical realistic fanatical philosophic idealistic humorous romantic provincial

D E S C R I B I N G S T Y L E / C O N T E N T lucid allusive glib obscure vulgar credible graphic metaphorical natural vague formal recondite intelligible poetic restrained diffuse artificial controversial explicit prosaic smooth verbose utilitarian mystical precise plain polished pedantic humanistic improbable exact simple classical ponderous pragmatic absurd concise homespun artistic ungraceful naturalistic trivial succinct pure bombastic harsh impressionistic commonplace condensed vigorous extravagant abrupt subjective heretical pithy forceful rhetorical labored melodramatic piquant eloquent turgid awkward fanciful aphoristic sonorous pompous unpolished authentic syllogistic fluent grandiose crude plausible

D E S C R I B I N G D I C T I O N high or formal simple symbolic neologistic vulgar proper low or informal homespun picturesque inexact jargon pretentious neutral esoteric sensuous euphemistic emotional old-fashioned precise learned literary trite obtuse exact cultured provincial obscure moralistic concrete literal colloquial pedantic ordinary abstract figurative slang bombastic scholarly plain connotative idiomatic grotesque insipid

- Page 4 - D E S C R I B I N G S Y N T A X loose declarative epigrammatic austere musical flowery periodic interrogative emphatic unadorned lilting erudite balanced imperative incoherent jumbled lyrical grating interrupted exclamatory rambling chaotic elegant staccato simple telegraphic tortuous obfuscating solid abrupt compound antithetic jerky journalistic thudding sprawling complex inverted cacophonic terse dry hortative compound- euphonic monotonous laconic ornate complex rhythmical spare mellifluous elaborate

D E S C R I B I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N I S T R U C T U R E spatial chronological flashback flash forward in media res step-by-step

D E S C R I B I N G C H A R A C T E R S P h y s i c a l Q u a l i t i e s (Great substitutions for pretty and ugly!) manly comely immaculate weak course repellent virile handsome adroit feeble unkempt repugnant robust dainty dexterous sickly slovenly repulsive hardy delicate adept frail awkward odious sturdy graceful skillful decrepit clumsy invidious strapping elegant agile emaciated ungainly loathsome stalwart shapely nimble cadaverous graceless muscular attractive active effeminate bizarre brawny winsome lively unwomanly grotesque lovely ravishing spirited hideous incongruous fair dapper vivacious homely ghastly

M e n t a l Q u a l i t i e s (Great substitutions for smart and stupid! Which comments would you like to see on your papers?) educated capable shrewd crafty inane thick-skulled erudite competent prudent wily irrational idiotic scholarly gifted observant unintelligent puerile imbecilic wise apt clever ingenious unschooled foolish witless astute rational inventive unlettered fatuous deranged intellectual reasonable subtle ignorant vacuous demented precocious sensible cunning illiterate simple

M o r a l Q u a l i t i e s (Great substitutions for good and bad!) idealistic. pure trustworthy incorrigible vulgar vile innocent undefiled straightforward dissembling intemperate foul virtuous temperate decent infamous sensual recalcitrant faultless abstentious respectable immoral dissolute philandering righteous austere wicked unprincipled deceitful guileless ascetic corrupt reprobate dishonest upright puritanical degenerate depraved unscrupulous exemplary truthful notorious indecent dishonorable chaste honorable vicious ribald base

S p i r i t u a l Q u a l i t i e s (More great substitutions for good and bad!) religious faithful angelic irreligious sacrilegious diabolic reverent regenerate skeptical impious materialistic fiendlike pious holy agnostic irreverent carnal blasphemous devout saintly atheistic profane godless unregenerate

S o c i a l Q u a l i t i e s (terrific substitutions for nice and mean!) civil affable urbane impolite churlish waspish amicable hospitable suave insolent fawning taciturn contentious gracious anti-social ill-bred obsequious reticent unpolished amiable acrimonious ill-mannered sniveling gregarious sullen cordial quarrelsome unrefined grumpy garrulous tactful congenial antagonistic rustic fractious courteous convivial misanthropic provincial crusty cooperative jovial discourteous boorish peevish genial jolly impudent brusque petulant

N O U N S FOR USE IN LITERARY /RHETORICAL DISCUSSION A N A L Y Z I N G C H A R A C T E R S foil adversary antagonist doppelganger nemesis protagonist confidante narrator(unknown, reliable, naive)

- Page 5 - A N A L Y Z I N G S T R U C T U R E / O R G A N I Z A T I O N / P O I N T O F V I E W foreshadowing parallel structure juxtaposition categorization perspective: epiphany comparison/contrast anecdote placement (chronological, analogy transition frame story person: (first, second, geographic, extended metaphor sequence arrangement third) emotional, political) shifts definition classification

A N A L Y Z I N G S Y N T A X repetition infinitive emphatic concrete noun dash parallelism participle appositive dialogue active voice anaphora gerund semicolon apostrophe passive voice asyndeton modifier colon chiasmus tense polysyndeton dependent clause rhetorical question parenthetical catalogue subject independent clause noun expression compound predicate subordinate clause comma footnote nouns/adjectives object preposition pronoun capitalization for direct object conjunction proper noun effect indirect object interjection common noun inversion phrase deliberate fragment collective noun antecedent clause appositive abstract noun hyphen

I D E N T I F Y I N G G E N R E / P U R P O S E novel treatise essay review monologue novella abstract diatribe assessment portrayal autobiography précis polemic eulogy archetype memoir synopsis commentary elegy fable biography critique farce parody argument letter personal narrative conceit allegory verse sermon journey editorial apology speech travelogue tirade soliloquy

I D E N T I F Y I N G S O U N D D E V I C E S alliteration repetition feminine rhyme slant rhyme assonance rhyme masculine rhyme incremental rhyme consonance end rhyme meter

THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT

V E R B S attack challenge validate answer grant assert charge qualify confirm agree/disagree generalize claim counter affirm verify specify propose repudiate argue resolve debate defend allege assume concede dispute

N O U N S warrant accountability counterargument audience circular proponent validity vested premise purpose reasoning assertion plausibility interest syllogism message bandwagon adherent practicality conflict of deduction precedent refutation red herring proposal interests induction testimonial slippery slope qualifier solution enthymeme fallacy rebuttal anecdote begging the resolution pathos ad hominem antithesis advocacy question bias ethos exigence non sequitur rhetoric justification credibility logos speaker invective cause/effect

THEME VOCABULARY Brendan Kenny's List of Abstract Ideas for Forming Theme Statements: alienation instinct war family/parenthood ambition heaven/paradise/Utopia women/feminism patriotism appearance v. reality home children game/contests/sports betrayal illusion/innocence law/justice escape bureaucracy initiation custom/tradition prejudice chance/fate/luck identity materialism ritual/ceremony cruelty/violence courage/cowardice mob psychology poverty loyalty/disloyalty loneliness/solitude dreams/fantasies free will/will power journey (literal or defeat/failure duty prophecy psychological) memory/the past exile falsity/pretence despair/discontent/ music/dance education repentance disillusionment social status (class) guilt greed domination/suppression the supernatural persistence/perseverance revenge/retribution heart v. reason time/eternity faith/loss of faith scapegoat/victim - Page 6 - [NOTE: used by permission; created by Beth Priem, et al – Westwood High School] FIGURES OF SPEECH Figures of speech are often used and crafted for emphasis and freshness of expression. As an example of the figurative use of a word, consider the sentence, I am going to crown you. It may mean:  I am going to place a literal crown on your head.  I am going to symbolically exalt you to the place of kingship.  I am going to put a second checker piece on top of your checker piece to signify that it has become a king (as in the game of checkers).  I am going to punch you in the head with my clenched fist. Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. Schemes (from the Greek schēma, form or shape) are figures of speech in which there is a deviation from the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as apposition. Tropes (from the Greek tropein, to turn) involve changing or modifying the general meaning of a term. An example of a trope is the use of irony, which is the use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So, are they all, honorable men"). During the Renaissance, a time when scholars in every discipline had a passion for classifying all things, writers expended a great deal of energy in devising all manner of classes and sub-classes of figures of speech. Henry Peacham, for example, in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577) enumerated 184 different figures of speech. For the sake of simplicity, this glossary divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not attempt further sub-classification (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Some of those listed may be considered rhetorical devices, which are similar in many ways. SCHEMES  accumulation: summarization of previous arguments in a forceful manner  alliteration: a series of words that begin with the same letter or sound alike  anaphora: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses  anastrophe: inversion of the usual word order  anticlimax: the arrangement of words in order of decreasing importance  antimetabole: repetition of words in successive clauses, in reverse order  antithesis: the juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas  apostrophe: directing the attention away from the audience and to a personified abstraction  apposition: the placing of two elements side by side, in which the second defines the first  assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse  asyndeton: omission of conjunctions between related clauses  cacophony: the juxtaposition of words producing a harsh sound  chiasmus: reversal of grammatical structures in successive clauses  climax: the arrangement of words in order of increasing importance  consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse  ellipsis: omission of words  enjambment: in poetry, meaning of a single idea runs over one line into the next rather than finishing in one line  enthymeme: informal method of presenting a syllogism  euphony: the opposite of cacophony - i.e. pleasant sounding  internal rhyme : using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence  kenning: a metonymic compound in which the terms together form a sort of synecdoche  non sequitur: a statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding  parallelism: the use of similar structures in two or more clauses  parenthesis: insertion of a clause or sentence in a place where it interrupts the natural flow of the sentence  polyptoton: repetition of words derived from the same root  polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions  pun: when a word or phrase is used in two different senses  spoonerism: jumbling of the letters in words by a funny way  tautology: redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice

TROPES  allegory: an extended metaphor in which a story is told to illustrate an important attribute of the subject  allusion: an indirect reference to another work of literature or art  aphorism: a tersely phrased statement of a truth or opinion, an adage  apostrophe: addressing a thing, an abstraction or a person not present  archaism: use of an obsolete, archaic, word(a word used in olden language, e.g. Shakespeare's language)  catachresis: a mixed metaphor (sometimes used by design and sometimes a rhetorical fault)  circumlocution: "talking around" a topic by substituting or adding words, as in euphemism or periphrasis  commiseration: evoking pity in the audience.  double negative: grammar error that can be used as an expression and it is the repetition of negative words

- Page 7 -  euphemism: substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another  hyperbole: use of exaggerated terms for emphasis  innuendo: having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not  invocation: an apostrophe to a god or muse  irony: use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning  litotes: emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite  malapropism: using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar  metaphor: an implied comparison of two unlike things  metonymy: substitution of a word to suggest what is really meant  onomatopoeia: words that sound like their meaning  oxymoron: using two terms together, that normally contradict each other  parable: an extended metaphor told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson  parradox: use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth  parallel irony: conveys a meaning same in an expression  pathetic fallacy: using a word that refers to a human action on something non-human  personification/prosopopoeia/anthropomorphism: attributing applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena  proverb: a succinct or pithy expression of what is commonly observed and believed to be true.  rhetorical question: asking a question as a way of asserting something. Or asking a question not for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as for in a poem for creating a poetic effect).  simile: an explicit comparison between two things  syllepsis: a form of pun, in which a single word is used to modify two other words, with which it normally would have differing meanings  synecdoche: a form of metonymy, in which a part stands for the whole  synesthesia: the description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another.  truism: a self-evident statement  zeugma: a figure of speech related to syllepsis, but different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies

RHETORICAL DEVICE In rhetoric, a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to evoke an emotional response in his audience (his reader(s) or listener(s)). These emotional responses are central to the meaning of the work or speech, and should also get the audience's attention. This list contains both rhetorical devices per se, as well as other tools of spoken and written language that may be prominently used for rhetorical purposes.  Analogy  Antithesis  Bildungsroman, a novel showing the development of its central character from childhood to maturity  Chiastic structure, in which attention is drawn to a main idea or complete thought  Conceit, an extended metaphor – two very unlike things are compared in several different ways  Deus ex machina, an unexpected, artificial, or improbable character, device, or event introduced suddenly to resolve or untangle the story  Diction, the choice of words based on their connotation and precise meaning  Doppleganger, an alter-ego; two sides of one personality  Epithet, a descriptive word or phrase that has become a fixed formula  Existentialism, an emphasis on existence rather than the essence, seeing the inadequacy of human reason to explain the universe  Frame story  Foil  Imagery  Irony: situational, dramatic, verbal, Cosmic, Socratic  Malapropism  Metaphor, a direct comparison between seemingly unrelated subjects  Motif  Parallelism  Personification, giving human qualities to an inanimate object.  Polysyndeton, the use of several conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted, as in "he ran and jumped and laughed for joy".  Rhetorical organization, a division of a work into components, either explicitly or subtly, used for rhetorical purposes.  Rhetorical question, a question to which an answer is not expected in response  Simile  Synecdoche, in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa, as in "New York won by six runs" (meaning "New York's baseball team won by six runs").  Symbolism, in which a (usually recurrent) object or character represents an idea.

- Page 8 -  Syntax, also known as sentence structure, may be used as a rhetorical device.

Rhetorical Theory is a subject rife with jargon and special terminology. This page explains commonly used rhetorical terms in alphabetical order. The brief definitions here are intended to serve as a quick reference rather than an in-depth discussion.

A  Accumulation. The emphasis or summary of previously made points or inferences by excessive praise or accusation.  Adjunction. When a verb is placed at the beginning or the end of a sentence instead of in the middle. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "At the beginning, as follows: 'Fades physical beauty with disease or age.' At the end, as follows: 'Either with disease or age physical beauty fades.'"  Amplification. The act and the means of extending thoughts or statements to increase rhetorical effect, to add importance, or to make the most of a thought or circumstance.  Analogy. The use of a similar or parallel case or example to reason or argue a point.  Anaphora. From the Greek ἀναφέρω, "I repeat". A succession of sentences beginning with the same word or group of words.  Anastrophe. Inversion of the natural word order.  Anecdote. A brief narrative describing an interesting or amusing event.  Antithesis. The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, or grammatical structures; the second stage of the dialectic process.  Apostrophe. From Greek ἀποστροφή, a figure of speech consisting of a sudden turn in a text towards an exclamatory address to an imaginary person or a thing.  Appeals. Rhetorical devices used to enhance the plausibility of one's argument; Aristotle's appeals included ethos, logos, and pathos.  Arete. Virtue, excellence of character, qualities that would be inherent in a "natural leader," a component of ethos.  Argument. Discourse characterized by reasons advanced to support conclusions.  Argumentum ad hominem. Using what you know about your opponent's character as a basis for your argument.  Arrangement. See dispositio.  Artistic proofs. Rhetorically-produced methods for persuasion. For Aristotle, three possibilities would be ethos, pathos, and logos.  Asyndeton. The deliberate omission of conjunctions that would normally be used.  Audience. Real, imagined, invoked, or ignored, this is a concept that seems to be at the very center of the intersections of composing and rhetoric.  Axioms. The point where scientific reasoning starts. Principles that are not questioned. B  Backing. Supporting an argument's merit.  Barbarism. Mispronunciation or unnatural word-usage.  Bathos. An emotional appeal that inadvertently evokes laughter or ridicule.  Bombastic speech. a rhetorical technique wherein the speaker brags excessively  Burden of proof. Theory of argument giving the obligation of proving a case to the challenging party. C  Canon. A term often used to discuss significant literary works in a specific field, used by Cicero to outline five significant parts of the rhetorical composition process.  Charisma. An attribute that allows a speaker's words to become powerful.  Chiasmus. From the name of the Greek letter "χ", a figure of speech consisting of the contrasting of two structurally parallel syntactic phrases arranged "cross-wise", i.e. in such a way that the second is in reverse order from the first.  Claim 1. A primary point being made to support an argument. 2. Stephen Toulmin: the resulting conclusion to an argument.  Climax. Climax occurs when words or sentences are used to increase weight by mounting degrees in parallel construction.  Constraints. Referring to "persons, events, objects, and relations which are parts of the situation because they have the power to constrain decision and action needed to modify the exigence." Originally used by Lloyd Bitzer.  Contingency. In rhetoric, it relates to the contextual circumstances that do not allow an issue to be settled with complete certainty.  Context. The circumstances surrounding an issue that should be considered during its discussion.  Cookery. Plato believed rhetoric was to truth as cookery was to medicine. Cookery disguises itself as medicine and appears to be more pleasing, when in actuality it has no real benefit.  Critical theory. Systematically analyzing any means of communication for hidden assumptions and connotations.  Concession. Acknowledgment of objections to a proposal D  Deconstruction. Analyzing communication artifacts by scrutinizing their meanings and related assumptions, with the goal of determining the social and systemic connotations behind their structure.  Deduction. Moving from an overall hypothesis to infer something specific about that hypothesis.  Delectare, To delight; viewed by Cicero as one of the three goals of rhetoric.  Delivery. Canon #5 in Cicero's list of rhetorical canons; traditionally linked to oral rhetoric, refers to how a speech is given (including tone of voice and nonverbal gestures, among others).  Dialectic. A rhetorical term that has been defined differently by Aristotle and Ramus, among others; generally, it means using verbal communication between people to discuss topics in order to come to an agreement about them.

- Page 9 -  Dispositio. In the classical theory of the production of speech Pronuntiatio dispositio refers to the stage of planning the structure and sequence of ideas. Often referred to as arrangement, the second of Cicero's five rhetorical canons.  Distribution. Dividing a whole subject into its various parts.  Docere. To teach; viewed by Cicero as one of the three goals of rhetoric. E  Ellipse. The suppression of ancillary words to render an expression more lively or more forceful.  Enthymeme. A type of argument that is grounded in assumed commonalities between a rhetor and the audience. (For example: Claim 1: Bob is a person. Therefore, Claim 3: Bob is mortal. The assumption (unstated Claim 2) is that People are mortal.) A type of syllogism. Started by Aristotle.  Enumeratio. Making a point more forcibly by listing detailed causes or effects; to enumerate: count off or list one by one.  Epanalepsis. A figure of speech in which the same word or phrase appears both at the beginning and at the end of a clause.  Epanaphora. In rhetoric, repeating the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases for emphasis. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'To you must go the credit for this, to you are thanks due, to you will this act of yours bring glory.'"  Epistemology. Philosophical study directed at understanding how people gain knowledge.  Epistrophe. A succession of clauses, phrases or sentences that all end with the same word or group of words.  Epithet. A term used as a descriptive and qualifying substitute for the name of a person, place or thing.  Ethos. A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer's credibility.  Ethopoeia. The act of putting oneself into the character of another to convey that person’s feelings and thoughts more vividly (also known as a rhetorical mask or persona)  Euphemism. An innocuous, inoffensive or circumlocutory term or phrase for something unpleasant or obscene.  Evidence. In rhetoric, facts or testimony used to strengthen a claim.  Exigence. A rhetorical call to action; a situation that compels someone to speak out. F  Fable. A short allegorical story.  False consciousness. Jurgen Habermas, a distorted view of reality, people, and the world.  Feminist Rhetoric. Rhetorical theory concerned with feminism and its critique of social structures.  Figure. Unusual arrangement of language that tries to achieve unique meaning for ideas.  Forensic Oratory. speaking in a courtroom. G H  Hyperbole. A figure of speech where emphasis is achieved through exaggeration, independently or through comparison. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'His body was as white as snow, his face burned like fire.'"  Hypophora. When a speaker asks aloud what his/her adversaries have to say for themselves or against the speaker, and then proceeds to answer the question. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'When he reminded you of your old friendship, were you moved? No, you killed him nevertheless, and with even greater eagerness. And then when his children grovelled at your feet, were you moved to pity? No, in your extreme cruelty you even prevented their father's burial.'"  Hypothesis. An educated guess. I  Icon. Using imagery to create resemblance.  Identification. Connecting with a larger group through a shared interpretation or understanding of a larger concept; Kenneth Burke was one of the first people to use the term in this way.  Ideology. A way of understanding one's external surroundings.  Induction. Rhetorical method for coming to general conclusions through specific examples.  Interlacement. Combining the figures Antistrophe and Epanaphora for rhetorical style and emphasis. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'Who are they who have often broken treaties? The Carthaginians. Who are they who have waged ware with severest cruelty? The Carthaginians.'"  Invention. Described by Cicero as the process of determining "valid or seemingly valid arguments;" the first of his five rhetorical canons.  Irony. A deliberate contrast between indirect and direct meaning to draw attention to the opposite.  Isocolon. A string of phrases of corresponding structure and equal length. J  Jargon. Highly technical language used by specific group. K  Kairos. From the Greek word καιρος. Generally means, "timing" or "the right circumstances." L  Litotes. Stating a positive by negating the negative — a form of understatement. ("I am not unaware of your difficulties.")  Logical Fallacy. Misconceptions resulting from faulty reasoning.  Logical Proof. Arguments used to persuade audience. Reasoned.  Logos. Rhetorical appeals based on logic or reasoning. M  Major Premise. Statement in a syllogism. Generalization.  Magnanimity. Doing good to others, "its opposite is meanness of spirit" (from Aristotle's Rhetoric).  Material Fallacy. False notion concerning the subject matter of an argument.

- Page 10 -  Maxim. "A saying drawn from life, which shows concisely either what happens or ought to happen in life, for example: 'Every beginning is difficult.'" (from Rhetorica ad Herennium)  Memory. Described by Cicero as the "firm mental grasp of matter and words;" the fourth of his five rhetorical canons.  Meta-narratives. Universal theories positing to know all aspects of humanity.  Metaphor. A figure of speech where a word that normally applies to one thing is used to designate another for the sake of creating a mental picture. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'...he lightly breathed a favoring breath'".  Metonymy. A figure of speech which substitutes one word or phrase for another with which it is closely associated. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "one should say 'wine' for 'Liber', 'wheat' for 'Ceres'." In UK, people speak of "Crown property" meaning prooperty belonging to the Sovereign. Similarly: "The White House had no comment to make." (= the President's representatives)  Minor Premise. Statement in an argument.  Moral Reasoning. Reasoning employed in rhetoric that determines a conclusion based on evidence. Used in issues of ethics, religion, economics, and politics.  Motive. Something that plays a role in one's decision to act.  Movere. To persuade; viewed by Cicero as one of the three goals of rhetoric. N  Narration. Story telling, involving the elements of time, place, actor, action, cause and manner.  Non Sequitur. A statement bearing no relationship to the preceding context. O  Onomatopoeia. Words that imitate the sounds, objects, or actions they refer to. (ex. "buzz", "hullabaloo," "bling")  Opening. First part of discourse. Should gain audiences' attention.  Oxymoron. A condensed paradox. P  Paralipsis. When a rhetor refuses to continue with their current discussion, or passes over the rest of the conversation, or admits that they do not know what else to say. For example, (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'Your boyhood, indeed, which you dedicated to intemperance of all kinds, I would discuss, if I thought this the right time. But at the present I advisedly leave that aside. This too I pass by, that the tribunes have reported you as irregular in military service.'"  Parallel Syntax. repetition of similar sentence structures.  Particular audience. In Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, the actual audience the orator addresses.  Pathos. Greek, the emotional appeal to an audience in an argument. One of Aristotle's three proofs.  Periphrasis. The substitution of many or several words where one would suffice; usually to avoid using that particular word.  Personification. A figure of speech that gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, or represents an absent person as being present. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'But if this invincible city should now give utterance to her voice, would she not speak as follows?'"  Petitio. Latin, in a letter, an announcement, demand, or request.  Phallogocentrism. Assumption that the masculine is accepted as the central point of reference of validity and authority for a society.  Plausibility. Rhetoric that is believable right away due to its association with something that the audience already knows or has experienced.  Pleonasm. The use of more words than necessary to express an idea.  Polyphonic. Having multiple voices.  Polyptoton. The repetition of a word or root in different cases or inflections within the same sentence.  Polysyndeton. The repeated use of conjunctions within a sentence, particularly where they do not necessarily have to be used.  Position. The stance taken by a rhetor that s/he is attempting to prove through argumentation.  Postmodernism. Related to rhetoric, a field of inquiry concerned with the ideological underpinnings of commonly held assumptions.  Presence. In Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, choosing to emphasize certain facts and ideas instead of others, leading the audience along that path.  Presumption. An idea is reasonable or acceptable only until it is sufficiently challenged.  Prolepsis. A literary device in which a future state is spoken of in the present; for example, a condemned man may be called a "dead man walking".  Psyche. Greek for the mind or soul.  Public Sphere. Place where individuals can engage in discussion without the political or state interests interfering.  Purpose. What are we trying to do with our uses of language? Q R  Reasoning by Contraries. Where the first statement of two opposite statements directly proves the second. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'Or how should you expect a person whose arrogance has been insufferable in private life, to be agreeable and not forget himself when in power...?'"  Rebuttal. Stephen Toulmin's term, conditions on the acceptability of a claim.  Rhetor. A person who is in the course of presenting or preparing rhetorical discourse.  Rhetoric. The study and practice of good effective expression. Also a type of discourse – focusing on goals of the speech or piece of writing that attempts to sway the mind of the audience.  Rhetorical Situation. A term made popular by Lloyd Bitzer; describes the scenario that contains a speech act, including the considerations (purpose, audience, author/speaker, constraints to name a few) that play a role in how the act is produced and perceived by its audience. The counterargument regarding Bitzer's situation-rhetoric relationship was made by Richard E. Vatz in "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation." He argued for a salience-meaning (or now, agenda-framing-spin) model of persuasion, which emphasized rhetoric as a creative act with

- Page 11 - increased agent or persuader responsibility for the situation his or her rhetoric creates. He maintained this added to the importance of rhetorical study.  Rhetoric of Fiction. Wayne Booth's idea "the author's judgement is always present" in a narrative. S  Scientific Method. A system of observing and analyzing data through induction; prominent school of thought since the 1600s whose proponents are often critical of rhetoric.  Scientific Reasoning. Moving from axioms to actual conclusions. Also Syllogistic logic.  Semantics. Philosophical study of language that deals with its connection to perceptions of reality.  Semiotics. Branch of semantics concerning language and communication as a system of symbols.  Sign. Term from semiotics that describes something that has meaning through its connection to something else, like words.  Simile. A figure of speech that compares unlike things, implying a resemblance between them. For example (from Rhetorica ad Herennium), "'He entered the combat in body like the strongest bull, in impetuosity like the fiercest lion.'"  Skepticism. Type of thought that questions whether universal truth exists and is attainable by humans.  Status quo. Latin: The generally accepted existing condition or state of affairs.  Straw man. An argument that is a logical fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position.  Syllepsis. A word modifying others in appropriate, though often incongruous ways. This is a similar concept to zeugma.  Syllogism. A type of valid argument that states if the first two claims are true, then the conclusion is true. (For example: Claim 1: People are mortal. Claim 2: Bob is a person. Therefore, Claim 3: Bob is mortal.) Started by Aristotle.  Syllogistic Logic. See Scientific Reasoning.  Symbol. A visual or metaphorical representation of an idea or concept.  Synecdoche. A rhetorical device where one part of an object is used to represent the whole. e.g., "All hands on deck!" (hands = all workers). Or "There are fifty head of cattle." (Head is substituting for the whole animal). "Show a leg!" (naval command to get out of bed = show yourself) T  Taste. A learned admiration for things of beauty.  Tautologia. The same idea repeated in different words.  Thesis. The major claim or premise made in an argument to be proved or dis-proved.  Tone. The author's voice in an essay through use of figurative language or a style of enunciation in writing (also known as a diction). The way the author expresses himself out loud or through a character.  Toulmin Model. A method of diagraming arguments created by Stephen Toulmin that identifies such components as backing, claim, data, qualifier, rebuttal, and warrant.  Tropes. Figure of speech that uses a word aside from its literal meaning. U V  Validity. Apprehension over the structure of an argument.  Visual rhetoric. A theoretical framework describing how visual images communicate, as opposed to aural or verbal messages. W  Warrant. term used by Stephen Toulmin to establish a link between data and a claim.  Ways and Means. One of the five main matters that Aristotle claims political speakers make speeches on. It consists of the speaker's country's revenue and sources, as well as the expenditures of the country. X Y Z  Zeugma. From the Greek word "ζεύγμα", meaning "yoke". any of several similar rhetorical devices, all involving a grammatically correct linkage (or yoking together) of two or more parts of speech by another part of speech This is a similar concept to syllepsis.

S Y N T A X S E N T E N C E S T R U C T U R E , A C O M P O N E N T O F S T Y L E When considering style, it is important to note the syntax or sentence structure of a piece of prose or poetry. What to look for in syntax: length/type/complete or fragment; pace; inversion; odd element.

W h a t k i n d o f s e n t e n c e i s u s e d a n d w h y ? Declarative Sentence: makes a statement. The man died. This type of sentence is common in both narration and description. You need to note the difference (Is the sentence narrative or descriptive?) Imperative Sentence: gives a command. Don’t die. Interrogative Sentence: asks a question. Did he die? This type of sentence and piece of punctuation often mark a questioning state of mind which may be troubled, curious, or confrontational. It seeks answers which it does not have. Exclamatory Sentence: makes an exclamation. Oh, please don’t die! This type of sentence and piece of punctuation often mark an emotional state which may be angry, fearful, pleading, etc. It emphasized the emotional response.

W h a t l e n g t h o f s e n t e n c e i s u s e d a n d w h y ? Telegraphic: shorter than five words in length. Short: between five and eight words in length. Medium: approximately eighteen words in length. - Page 12 - Long and Involved: thirty words or more in length.

Short sentences often tend to be emotional ones. Long ones tend to be intellectual, contemplative, or descriptive. Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? How? What is the effect of the sentence length? Does it vary? Why? Where?

Sentence Patterns: Do the sentence types fit the subject matter? How? What is the effect of the sentence types?

Simple Sentence: contains one independent clause. It may contain a compound subject or verb. The actors and the musicians bowed to the audience. Compound Sentence: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction, or by a semicolon. The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. Complex Sentence: contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. You said that you would tell the truth. Compound-Complex Sentence: contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses. The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores. Simple and compound sentences work best with children as subjects or simple concepts. Complex ones need to match complex characters and ideas. Why are the patterns what they are? How do they match the subject matter? What is their effect? Do they change? When? Where? Why?

Sophisticated Syntax Ideas and words gain emphasis if they are placed in strong positions within the sentence. In normal word order of English sentences, the opening and the closing positions are usually the most emphatic. The end position is stronger, however, because words and ideas in that position are the last ones the reader sees.

Loose Sentence: (also called cumulative) one in which the main clause comes first, followed by further dependent grammatical units. These are especially useful when you want to provide both immediate understanding of the main idea and a great deal of supporting detail. James slowly rose from his seat with a sly smile, determined to show the class that he could, for once, answer the instructor’s question. His words still linger on the lips – eloquent and cunning, yes, vindictive and sarcastic in political debate, rippling and ribald in jokes, reverent in the half-formed utterance of prayer. From boyhood to manhood, I have remembered him in a single image – seated, asleep on the sofa, his head thrown back in a hideous corpselike grin, the evening newspaper spread out before him (Richard Rodriguez, “My Parents”).

Periodic Sentence: one in which the main clause is withheld until the end. They build suspense to gain emphasis for the main idea. If the main idea is held to the last sentence, and modifying elements are built up in the first part of the sentence, real suspense can be achieved that makes the main idea hit the reader with force. For instance, a simple sentence of this type makes little impact on the reader. The old woman fainted. But we can add dependent elements before this sentence to heighten the impact: As the band blared louder, as the laughing crowd swirled around her, and as confetti showered around her head, the old woman fainted.

In formal writing, the periodic sentence is used for structural variety and rhetorical emphasis. The loose sentence, however, a more relaxed construction, is more frequently used in informal writing (creative pieces) and in conversation. Further, the periodic sentence is used to create the effect of suspense as it propels the reader’s attention forward to the end. It is also used in ironic or satiric prose as well as when the writer wants either to delay the meaning to first create an impression, or to suggest that things are not what they seem. While he was declaring the ardour of his passion in such terms, as but too often make vehemence pass for insincerity. Adeline, to whom this declaration, if honourable, was distressing, and if dishonourable, was shocking, interrupted him and thanked him for the offer of a distinction, which, with a modest, but determined air, she said she must refuse. (Ann Radcliffe)

Hypotactic Sentence: marked by the use of connecting words between clauses or sentences, explicitly showing the logical or other relationships between them. I am tired because it is hot. Such use of syntactic subordination of one clause to another is known as hypotaxis.

Paratactic Sentence: simply juxtaposes clauses or sentences. I am tired; it is hot.

Natural Order of Sentences: the subject comes before the verb and is often followed by an object. Poets often invert this normal order for effect.

Inversion: of sentence or word order. This involved putting the verb before the subject or the object before the subject. In California grow oranges. This creates an emphasis the writer wishes or a rhythmic effect.

Anastrophe (fancy term for inversion): inversion of the usual or normal or logical order of the parts of a sentence. Anastrophe in Greek means ‘turning back.’ The purpose is rhythm or emphasis or euphony as in the following lines by Pope:

Nor fierce Othello in so loud a strain Roar’d for the handkerchief that caus’d him pain.

Split Order of a Sentence: this often divides the verb into two parts with the subject coming in the middle.

Juxtaposition: is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit. The apparition of these faces in the crowd;/ Petals on a wet, black bough. (Ezra Pound) Juxtaposition is also a form of contrast by which writers call attention to dissimilar ideas or images or metaphors. Contrast is a major technique of syntax.

B A L A N C E In the following schemes of balance, the syntactic structure of each sentence supports its meaning. Similar ideas are expressed in similar grammatical structure, contrasting ideas in contrasting grammatical structure, or a series of ideas in climactic order.

Parallelism: refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased. It shows that the ideas or words are parallel or similar. It evokes a comparison. He tried to make the law clear, precise, and equitable. “It was neither elated by the ambition of fame, nor depressed by the apprehension of contempt.” (Edward Gibbon) It can be used in poetry as well. I’ll give my jewels for a set of beads, - Page 13 - My gorgeous palace for a hermitage, My gay apparel for an almsman’s gown, My figured goblets for a dish of wood… (Shakespeare: Richard II) Notice the repetition of “my” which has the effect of making this a highly personal and subjective piece.

Antithesis: where the elements arranged in parallel are sharply opposed. The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas. “Our knowledge separates as well as unites; our orders disintegrate as well as bind; our art brings us together and sets us apart.”

Climax: writer arranges ideas in order of importance. I spent the day cleaning house, reading poetry, and putting my life in order.

Chiasmus: (Chi-as-mus) a type of rhetorical balance in which the second part is syntactically balanced against the first but with the parts reversed (sometimes repeating the same words). “Flowers are lovely, love is flowerlike.” (Coleridge) “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” (John F. Kennedy)

R E P E T I T I O N The general purpose is for enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis. What is the purpose of the repetition in this piece? How does it contribute to meaning? “…government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth.” (Abraham Lincoln: Address at Gettysburg) Notice the emphasis on “people,” the key ingredient in a democracy and in preserving that democracy. Look for repetition of key words, phrases, and sentence patterns. The repetition means the writer wants to emphasize the idea, image, or metaphor.

Epanalepsis: (ep-an-a-lep-sis) repetition at the end of a clause of the word or words that occurred at the beginning. Common sense is not so common. (Voltaire) “Blood hath bought blood, and blows answer blows: Strength match’d with strength, and power confronted power.” (Shakespeare: King John)

Epistrophe: repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses, lines, or sentences (opposite of anaphora). For truth is one, and right is ever one. (Spenser) Shylock: I’ll have my bond! Speak not against my bond! I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond! (Shakespeare: Merchant of Venice)

Anaphora: the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of two or more successive clauses, lines, or sentences. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds. We shall fight in the fields and in the streets… (Winston Churchill: to the House of Commons: June, 1940) This is a form of parallelism and repetition.

As I ebb’d with the ocean of life, As I wended the shores I know, As I walk’d where the ripples continually wash you Paumanok. (Walt Whitman)

Antimetabole: the repetition of words in successive clauses in reverse grammatical order. “One should eat to live, not live to eat.” (Moliere)

O M I S S I O N Not only can words be added in stylistically effective ways, they can also be omitted for emphasis.

Asyndeton: (a-syn-de-ton) a condensed form of expression in which words, phrases, or clauses customarily joined by conjunctions are presented in series without conjunctions (producing a fast-paced and rapid prose). “I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Caesar; translation: “Veni, vidi, vici”) This technique is the omission of an expected conjunction. In a list of two or more items, we expect an ‘and.’ When it is not there, it calls attention to the phrase and the words in the phrase. In Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, we expect an ‘and’ before “for the people” which is not there. “That government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

Polysyndeton: choosing to have too many conjuctions. This device slows the pace and gives an almost Biblical quality to the tone. When you are old and gray and full of sleep, And nodding by the fire, take down this book, (William Butler Yeats)

…pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies (Milton, speaking of Satan)

Ellipsis: the omission of one or more words which, while essential to the grammatical structure or line, are easily supplied by the reader. The effect of ellipsis is rhetorical; it makes for emphasis of the statement. The device often traps the reader into difficulties, since carelessness will result in impossible constructions. Ellipses are also used to indicate words left out or ideas left out. This is a common device used in stream of consciousness to separate ideas.

A D D I T I O N Apposition: the placing next to a noun another noun or phrase that explains it. The placing in immediately succeeding order of two or more coordinate elements, the latter of which is an explanation, qualification, or modification of the first. This syntactical unit is often set off by a colon. Pollution, the city’s primary problem, is an issue. John, my brother, is coming home.

- Page 14 - Parenthesis: the insertion of words, phrases, or a sentence that is not syntactically related to the rest of the sentence. It is an explanatory remark thrown into the body of a statement and frequently separated from it by parenthesis (). However, any comment which is an interruption of the immediate subject is spoken of as a parenthesis whether it be a word, phrase, clause, sentence, or a paragraph. This device is used to show a casual, familiar style, or it can be a form of authorial intrusion (when you hear the author’s comment inserted into the story). He said it was going to rain – I could hardly disagree – before the game was over.

Rhetorical Question: a question which expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point (often to guide the reader) and is generally stronger than a direct statement. Such a device also varies the monotony of a series of statements or requests. “For what can war by endless war still breed?” (John Milton)

Rhetorical Shifts: the AP exam writers love to ask where the rhetorical shifts take place, what the shift indicates, and why the shift was made. To find rhetorical shifts in both prose and poetry, the reader must be sensitive to turn words (strophe and antistrophe). Such words as but, yet, now, and then often indicate a change in mood, tone, effect, and meaning. This change is called a rhetorical shift. The shift is also often indicated by a change in paragraphs, a change in prose form say from description to dialogue, or a change in speaker which signals a change in tone.

Pace: pace is a function of not only rhythm, sound devices, but also of length of words, number of conjunctions used, and length of sentence. What is the pace of the sentence(s)? Why does the pace quicken in some parts of the passage? Why and where does it slow down?

Sentence Beginnings: examine sentence beginnings. Does the sentence or line begin with a prepositional phrase, a participle, etc? Is there a pattern?

Punctuation: examine the punctuation which is often a clue to both meaning and effect. Dashes are used to separate ideas and are indicative of conversational and personal style. The important thoughts are often in the dashes as they are more revealing. Note the use of colons. What follows the colon is often not a list but a restatement or a further explanation of the prior unit of meaning. Note in poetry whether the lines are end- stopped or enjambed (their meaning runs over into the next line). Note exclamation marks and question marks. Hyphens join ideas.

Source of interesting reading: Arthur Quinn, Figures of Speech (Sixty Ways to Turn a Phrase). 1882, Peregrine Smith Books, Salt Lake City.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PENTAD (IPSEA – shorthand)  a way to access a comparison of different literary periods or competing influences within a period  a way to compare cultures (or culture clashes or sub-cultures) within a literary work or a contemporary issue  a way to get students thinking on a reading quiz that can’t be duplicated by Pink Monkey, Spark Notes, etc. HA!  NOTE: These systems overlap frequently but can still be used as a somewhat separate discussion independently from one another.

IDEOLOGICAL SYSTEM: (controlling ideas, values, morality, beliefs) This system is made up of beliefs, ideas and values of a civilization, culture, or subculture. These items influence and control the thoughts, feelings, and actions of a people or a group. Included in this system are all the ideas that guide the behavior of a people, determining the type of education, government, and social structure of a people. This system is the “chicken,” and the other systems are the “egg.” This system is the “cause” and the others are the “effect.” Consider such things as the nature of reality, God/gods, humans, life, morality, authority, importance of self/group. This system is dynamic, as are the other systems. In fact, the concept of “change” would be part of this system.

Questions to ask about this system: 1. What is the worth of an individual? The group? The relationship between the two? 2. What are the ideas about the unknowable, the mysterious, and/or the universe? 3. What principles/thoughts govern behavior, both solitary and group? 4. How are humans to treat themselves, each other, nature? 5. What is the priority of value: things, people, ideas, friendship, etc? 6. Are their superior beings to whom individuals and/or groups are accountable? God, gods, universal principles? 7. What basic guidelines go through an individual in this culture on a basic, day-to-day basis? 8. How does this culture determine what it means to be sane and insane?

Examples of Ideological Statements: (religious statements, core beliefs, what you think, what drives your behavior) 1. Use things and love people, not the other way around. 2. A man’s gotta do what a man’s gotta do. 3. All truth is relative, and morality is really what is culturally appropriate. 4. The survival of the tribe is paramount; I am unimportant. 5. Man is created in the image of God; no other creature has this distinction. 6. I must and will follow the code of the Samurai. 7. I am simply a highly evolved primate; my behavior is governed by my needs and drive for survival.

POLITICAL SYSTEM: All cultures develop unique ways to make and enforce rules (laws) that affect all members. This governing structure is the political system. All societies develop methods to select leaders, to arrive at public decisions, to make their laws and enforce them. Thus, all political systems deal with government, laws, courts, politicians, public leaders, and enforcement agents such as the police or military (in some societies). The defense of a society against outside, or inside, enemies who threaten its existence is also part of this system. Usually, those responsible for government are also responsible for public safety. This system may change rather frequently – peacefully or violently (relates to ideology).

Questions to ask about this system: 1. What type of government do these people have? Authoritarian, dictatorship, oligarchy, theocracy, republic, democracy, tribal? 2. Who is/are the leader/leaders, and how is/are he/she/they chosen? - Page 15 - 3. How are public decisions made and enforced? 4. What sort of punishment(s) is/are permitted/ accepted by the culture? 5. Who has the power? 6. What is the relationship between formal and informal power? 7. Is there a way to change the governing structure? 8. What is the attitude of the people in relation to the power structure? 9. How is legal cohesion maintained?

Examples of Political Statements: 1. Silence! The chief has spoken, and his word is law. 2. Since the Civil War, the executive branch has obtained too much power. 3. The available candidates are a clear example of the power and insanity of the media. 4. I am sick of all the time it takes to get legislation passed; we need a good king. 5. If the issues were clearer, I might understand the election better. 6. To get the scepter, you must prove your worth, my eldest son. 7. I am the Duke, and I will decide when, and if, you are to marry!

SOCIAL SYSTEM: When two or more individuals share similar interests or objectives, and interact in the same activities, they form a social system. All societies have a social system. This is often the most complex, richest, and most difficult to navigate of all the systems. In this system we see how people behave in groups and as individuals relating to a group. Social groups include but are not limited to being familial, peer, ethnic, religious, class-stratified, etc. What rules govern how we behave in a social setting, and how important is it to follow these rules? In this system the questions may be more helpful than definitions.

Questions to ask about this system: 1. What groups exist in this culture? 2. How are roles assigned by this society? 3. What rules govern interaction among different groups or individuals from different groups? 4. How does one obtain status? Earned? Occupational? Inherited? 5. Does gender govern behavior? 6. Who or what group has privileges? 7. Are there different social classes? Fixed? Mobile? Inherited? Protocol? 8. What happens if I break protocol? 9. What importance does this culture place on the idea of group? 10. How are members identified as being part of the “in” crowd or out of it? 11. Who is “winging” in this culture? What rules govern your popularity or success as an individual?

Examples of Social Statements: 1. Young man, take off your hat. You are inside my house. 2. Hey, don’t listen to him. He is, well, not “old money” like we are. 3. You are just a peasant, so don’t forget that when you first see the King, you must drop to your knees and touch your forehead to the floor. Do not rise until he speaks to you. 4. Oh, I want to see Tom Cruise come out of that café. I want his autograph soooooo bad. He might even speak to me, but I doubt it because I am just an English teacher. 5. I am a member of the Inner Sanctum. We have always only answered to the King. 6. I am father, husband, teacher, friend, and sometimes I just don’t know how to act when I have to be all at once. 7. You idiot, you will never be a Knight. You were born a peasant, are a peasant, and will die a peasant. If you are lucky, some rich Knight might allow you to shine his armor. 8. Oh, no, I have never been to a military ball; I have no idea what to do or how to act. 9. Ok, don’t forget, were are the Windmills, and even though we are better than the Ditch Diggers, be nice, smile, and don’t say anything that will offend them. We are better than that.

ECONOMIC SYSTEM: In every society the members depend on each other for physical survival. Members develop the use of their natural environment to produce necessities required for survival as well as for things desired to mike life more comfortable and pleasant. The sum total of the attempts to satisfy these needs and wants is the economic system. Consider natural resources, goods and services, tools and equipment, labor, production methods, distribution wealth, scarcity, and various decisions relating to the aforementioned. The primary question is how do I get what I need/want?

Questions to ask about this system: 1. How do I get what I need/want? Money? Government distribution? Chief decides? 2. Who controls production and distribution? Free market? Government? Dictator? 3. Is there a black or gray market? 4. Barter? Currency? Is a currency backed by anything? 5. What things have worth? Why? 6. How does the culture obtain things it cannot produce? 7. Does money relate to class, ability, inheritance, etc.? Who has “buying power”? 8. What is the relationship between this culture’s resources and power?

Examples of Economic Questions: 1. Teachers don’t make nearly enough money, especially when you consider what they do. 2. I get some great deals on books at garage sales. 3. I had to stand in line for three hours for a loaf of bread and a half pound of cheese. You won’t see the party leaders doing that. 4. We all know that oil in the Middle East has influenced foreign policy. 5. A dollar an hour is a great wage compared to the salary my workers in the factory in Peru were making prior to this job. 6. When there is a crisis, will you be able to eat your stored diamonds? 7. The tax on foreign fruit is unfair to the South American farmer. - Page 16 - AESTHETIC SYSTEM: This system involves the search for beauty, fun, and artistic expression. Consider elements such as dance, drama, folklore, graphic arts, literature, sculpture, etc. Some cultures even see tools as part of this system. The Japanese have seen sword crafting as both a martial art and an aspect of beauty. If a culture goes into survival mode, this system is the quickest to suffer. Some see the richness of this system as a way of gauging the “health” of a civilization.

Questions to ask for this system: 1. What do they do for fun? 2. How do they define beauty? Physical? Cognitive? Both? Neither? 3. What types of art do they have? 4. What value do they place on art? 5. How does beauty/art reflect the values of the culture?

Examples of Aesthetic Statements: 1. I can’t get enough of theatre-going. I wish more people supported live theatre. 2. I really enjoy playing the guitar in my spare time. 3. I have never seen a painting in a museum that equals a West Texas sunset. 4. I wish Fort Bend spent as much on fine arts as they do on ______(you fill in the blank).

A R C H E T Y P E S

S I T U A T I O N A L A R C H E T Y P E S · The Quest This motif describes the search for someone or some talisman which, when found and brought back, will restore fertility to a wasted land, the desolation of which is mirrored by a leader’s illness and disability. · The Task This refers to what possibly superhuman feat must be accomplished in order to fulfill the ultimate goal. · The Journey The journey sends the hero in search for some truth of information necessary to restore fertility, justice, and/or harmony to the kingdom. The journey includes the series of trials and tribulations the hero faces along the way. Usually the hero descends into a real or psychological hell and is forced to discover the blackest truths, quite often concerning his faults. Once the hero is at this lowest level, he must accept personal responsibility to return to the world of the living. · The Initiation This situation refers to a moment, usually psychological, in which an individual comes into maturity. He or she gains a new awareness into the nature of circumstances and problems and understands his or her responsibility for trying to resolve the dilemma. Typically, a hero receives a Calling, a message or signal that he or she must make sacrifices and become responsible for getting involved in the problem. Often a hero will deny and question the calling and ultimately, in The Initiation, will accept responsibility. · The Ritual Not to be confused with The Initiation, the Ritual refers to an organized ceremony which involves honored members of a given community and an Initiate. This situation officially brings the young man or woman into the realm of the community’s adult world. · The Fall Not to be confused with the awareness in The Initiation, this archetype describes a descent in action from a higher to a lower state of being, an experience which might involve defilement, moral imperfection, and/or loss of innocence. This fall is often accompanied by expulsion from a kind of paradise as penalty for disobedience and/or moral transgression. · Death and Rebirth The most common of all situational archetypes, this motif grows out of the parallel between the cycle of nature and the cycle of life. It refers to those situations in which someone or something, concrete and/or metaphysical dies, yet is accompanied by some sign of birth or rebirth. · Nature vs. Mechanistic World Expressed in its simplest form, this refers to situations which suggest that nature is good whereas the forces of technology are bad. · Battle Between Good and Evil These situations pit obvious forces which represent good and evil against one another. Typically, good ultimately triumphs over evil despite great odds. · The Unhealable Wound This wound, physical or psychological, cannot be healed fully. This would also indicate a loss of innocence or purity. Often these wounds’ pain drives the sufferer to desperate measures of madness. · The Magic Weapon Sometimes connected with the Task, this refers to a skilled individual hero’s ability to use a piece of technology in order to combat evil, continue a journey, or to prove his or her identity as a chosen individual.

S Y M B O L I C A R C H E T Y P E S · Light vs. Darkness Light usually suggests hope, renewal, OR intellectual illumination; darkness implies the unknown, ignorance, or despair. · Water vs. Desert Because water is necessary to life and growth, it commonly appears as a birth or rebirth symbol. Water is used in baptism services, which solemnizes spiritual births. Similarly, the appearance of rain in a work of literature can suggest a character’s spiritual birth. · Heaven vs. Hell Humanity has traditionally associated parts of the universe not accessible to it with the dwelling places of the primordial forces that govern its world. The skies and mountaintops house its gods; the bowels of the earth contain the diabolic forces that inhabit its universe. · Haven vs. Wilderness Places of safety contrast sharply against the dangerous wilderness. Heroes are often sheltered for a time to regain health and resources. · Supernatural Intervention The gods intervene on the side of the hero or sometimes against him.

- Page 17 - · Fire vs. Ice Fire represents knowledge, light, life, and rebirth while ice like desert represents ignorance, darkness, sterility, and death.

C H A R A C T E R A R C H E T Y P E S · The Hero In its simplest form, this character is the one ultimately who may fulfill a necessary task and who will restore fertility, harmony, and/or justice to a community. The hero character is the one who typically experiences an initiation, who goes the community’s ritual (s), et cetera. Often he or she will embody characteristics of YOUNG PERSON FROM THE PROVINCES, INITIATE, INNATE WISDOM, PUPIL, and SON. · Young Person from the Provinces This hero is taken away as an infant or youth and raised by strangers. He or she later returns home as a stranger and able to recognize new problems and new solutions. · The Initiates These are young heroes who, prior to the quest, must endure some training and ritual. They are usually innocent at this stage. · Mentors These individuals serve as teachers or counselors to the initiates. Sometimes they work as role models and often serve as father or mother figure. They teach by example the skills necessary to survive the journey and quest. · Father-Son Conflict Tension often results from separation during childhood or from an external source when the individuals meet as men and where the mentor often has a higher place in the affections of the hero than the natural parent does. Sometimes the conflict is resolved in atonement. · Hunting Group of Companions These loyal companions are willing to face any number of perils in order to be together. · Loyal Retainers These individuals are like the noble sidekicks to the hero. Their duty is to protect the hero. Often the retainer reflects the hero’s nobility. · Friendly Beast These animals assist the hero and reflect that nature is on the hero’s side. · The Devil Figure This character represents evil incarnate. He or she may offer worldly goods, fame, or knowledge to the protagonist in exchange for possession of the soul or integrity. This figure’s main aim is to oppose the hero in his or her quest. · The Evil Figure with the Ultimately Good Heart This redeemable devil figure or servant to the devil figure is saved by the hero’s nobility or good heart. · The Scapegoat An animal or more usually a human whose death, often in a public ceremony, expiates some taint or sin that has been visited upon the community. This death often makes theme more powerful force to the hero. · Innate Wisdom vs. Educated Stupidity Some characters exhibit wisdom and understanding intuitively as opposed to those supposedly in charge. · The Outcast This figure is banished from a community for some crime (real or imagined). The outcast is usually destined to become a wanderer. · The Earth Mother This character is symbolic of fruition, abundance, and fertility; offer spiritual and emotional nourishment to those who she contacts; often depicted in earth colors, with large breasts and hips. · The Temptress Characterized by sensuous beauty, she is one whose physical attraction may bring about the hero’s downfall. · The Platonic Ideal This source of inspiration often is a physical and spiritual ideal for whom the hero has an intellectual rather than physical attraction. · The Unfaithful Wife This woman, married to a man she sees as dull or distant, is attracted to a more virile or interesting man. · The Damsel in Distress This vulnerable woman must be rescued by the hero She also may be used as a trap, by an evil figure, to ensnare the hero. · The Star-Crossed Lovers These two character are engaged in a love affair that is fated to end in tragedy for one or both due to the disapproval of society, friends, family, or the gods. · The Creature of Nightmare This monster, physical or abstract, is summoned from the deepest, darkest parts of the human psyche to threaten the lives of the hero/heroine. Often it is a perversion or desecration of the human body. AP Essay Rubric: Timed Writing English III – Language & Composition 1=55%; 2=65%; 3=72%; 4=77%; 5=82%; 6=86%; 7=90%; 8=94%; 9=100%

9- Meets all the criteria of an “8” paper, but is also particularly apt in analysis (thorough/insightful) and/or creative in its approach or presentation. A “9” paper demonstrates admirable stylistic control.

8- Accomplishes the task quite well, with a complete analysis and treatment of the prompt; essay achieves an effective stylistic control, but is not quite flawless.

7- Meets all the criteria of a “6” paper, but is additionally well-articulated or well-presented

6- Presents an adequate analysis and treatment of the prompt; essay demonstrates some stylistic control with only a few lapses in diction or control

5- Begins to present an adequate treatment of the prompt and almost manages to accomplish that but fails to fully complete the task because of lapses in diction, control, organization, or thought

4- Attends to the prompt, but ultimately builds an inferior treatment of the due to superficial or obvious observations, demonstrated lapses in diction, control, organization, and/or content that are detrimental to the argument

- Page 18 - 3- Attempts to attend to the prompt, but only achieves a brief attention to the task; essay is marked by likely inability to present even a superficial argument because of serious lapses in diction, control, organization and/or content

2- Is generally marked by major errors or lack of control in regards to diction, organization, and content; essay is inaccurate and/or incomplete in regards to prompt to such an extent that it may not be described as well as those essays that earn a “3”

1- Essay does not indicate an understanding of the task at hand or an attempt to address the prompt, although it may include ideas from the prompt’s more simplistic aspects

0- completely off task in the attempt to address the prompt

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