Skill and Expertise

Skill Acquisition

Skill Acquisition Signature Phenomena Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition Overview of Various Classes of Models Episodic Memory Based Rule Based Schema Based

Skill Acquisition

Signature Phenomena Power Law of Practice R T  a  b N c Automaticity Details of Skill Acquisition Process Deliberate Practice 10 Years to World Class Expertise Transfer of Training Common Elements Description of Transfer Use Specificity of Knowledge

Skill Acquisition

Power Law

Skill Acquisition

On Log-Log Scale

Skill Acquisition

Stages of Skill Acquisition (Fitts, 1954, VanLehn, 1996) Cognitive Stage (Early Phase) Understand the domain knowledge without yet trying to apply it. Phase is dominated by reading and discussion. Associative Stage (Intermediate Phase) Attempted Use of Declarative Knowledge Problem Solving Guided By Examples Elimination of Errors and Misunderstandings Ends With Initial Mastery of Skill Autonomous Stage (Late Phase) Continue to improve in speed and accuracy as they practice, End point: Automaticity

Skill Acquisition

Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition Knowledge and Skills Required for Problem Understanding Episodic Memory Plans or Schema Search Control Knowledge!!! Situation-Action Knowledge Episodic Memory Rules Schema Plans or Schema

Skill Acquisition

Overview of Various Classes of Models

Models That Just Use Episodic Memory Logan, Ross Central role of episodic memory in skill acquisition Models at Assume Special Representation For Procedural Knowledge (Rules) Anderson, Newell Need to store knowledge in form that can be accessed very accurately and rapidly If-Then Rules Schema-Based Models Norman, Reason Highly integrated representations of complex skills Like Schema or Scripts

Skill Acquisition

Lifting the Limits (Erickson) Acquisition of Cognitive Skills Reading Writing Mathematics Programming Design Limits in Human Information Processing Attention Memory Problem Solving Changes in Performance with Instruction and Practice Automaticity Skilled Memory Cognitive Skills Lifting the Limits

Skill Acquisition

Development of Expertise Acquisition of Cognitive Skills Relationships to the Acquisition of Athletic Skills Two Kinds of Knowledge Declarative Procedural Rules and Production Systems Relationships between problem solving and skill acquisition

Skill Acquisition

Two Kinds of Representations Declarative Knowledge Images, Linear Orders, Propositions, Schemas Knowledge of What Facts, recipes, etc...... Procedural Knowledge Productions Knowledge of How Riding a bicycle

Skill Acquisition

Productions IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first gear and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour THEN shift the car into second gear

Automaticity

Description of IF (Goal and a specific situation) THEN (do actions) IF condition THEN action Condition- Action Pair

Recognize-Act Cycle Test Working Memory Fire Rule Whose Condition is Satisfied

Skill Acquisition

Sequences of Rules IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car in neutral and the car is standing still and the road is clear THEN shift the car into first gear and accelerate IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first gear and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour THEN shift the car into second gear and accelerate IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first second and the car is going more than 25 miles per hour THEN shift the car into third gear and accelerate

Skill Acquisition

LEARNING IF have rule that fires, THEN do action OTHERWISE problem solving

Successful Problem Solving Episodes are Saved in the Form of Rules CONDITION Goal of Problem Solving Episode and Current Situation ACTION Action that Successfully Solved Problem

Skill Acquisition

The Declarative-Procedural Distinction Declarative Knowledge: Flexible use of knowledge Not committed to a particular use Easily acquired and forgotten Procedural Knowledge: Efficient use of knowledge Optimized for specific use Acquired by doing, role of practice Production rules tend to carve up a task at its natural joints One rule for each natural unit Rules are the units in which the skill is acquired Goal Structuring Production rule conditions not only make reference to certain external situations but also specify certain goal conditions.

Skill Acquisition

Experimental Evidence for Two Long- Term Memories 1) Reportability: declarative knowledge 2) Associative Priming: declarative knowledge 3) Retrieval Asymmetry: procedural knowledge 4) Acquisition: Declarative knowledge comes from direct encoding of the environment Procedural knowledge is compiled from declarative knowledge through practice. 5) The retention functions for the two types of memories are independent. 6) There have been a number of recent demonstrations of dissociations of declarative and procedural memory in amnesiacs and other populations.

Implicit memory Skill acquisition in HM

Skill Acquisition

Factors Effecting Practice Spacing! Part vs Whole Learning Independence Necessary Subskills Knowledge of Results More is not necessarily better Human tutors vs the class room Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction

Skill Acquisition

TESTS OF ASSUMPTION THAT PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IS REPRESENTED AS RULES Speed Up From First to Second Correct Action Look at A Given Step In A Problem Measure Time to Complete Step Assume Store Rule After First Successful Attempt Second Attempt is Much Faster Time to Learn A New Procedure Function of Number of Rules Transfer a Function of Number of Shared Rules

Skill Acquisition

METHOD Polson, Muncher, and Engelbeck (1986) TASKS - Word Processor Utility Tasks * change default and document format parameters * check spelling * duplicate diskette - Perform Task by: * make series of menu selections * fill in parameter on menu for task * exit menu to perform task DESIGN * 3 pairs of similar task * vary training orders of pairs PROCEDURE - Learn Each Task to a Strict Criterion - Very Constrained Training Procedure - Anticipation Method

Skill Acquisition

MODEL FITS INDIVIDUAL DATA POINTS (n = 1079) TRAINING Time =

Learning Time + {20 sec per New Rule}

Execution Time + {3.1 sec per Rule}

Individual Differences in Learning and Performance

Accounts for 85.2% Variance In Training Times

Skill Acquisition

1000 Group 1

600 Mean Time To Criterion (Sec) 400

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Skill Acquisition

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 New Rules Mean Time = 168.737 + 19.701 * New Rules; R^2 = .812