<p>Skill Acquisition</p><p>Skill Acquisition Signature Phenomena Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition Overview of Various Classes of Models Episodic Memory Based Rule Based Schema Based</p><p>Page 1 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Signature Phenomena Power Law of Practice R T  a  b N c Automaticity Details of Skill Acquisition Process Deliberate Practice 10 Years to World Class Expertise Transfer of Training Common Elements Description of Transfer Use Specificity of Knowledge</p><p>Page 2 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Power Law</p><p>Page 3 Skill Acquisition</p><p>On Log-Log Scale</p><p>Page 4 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Stages of Skill Acquisition (Fitts, 1954, VanLehn, 1996) Cognitive Stage (Early Phase) Understand the domain knowledge without yet trying to apply it. Phase is dominated by reading and discussion. Associative Stage (Intermediate Phase) Attempted Use of Declarative Knowledge Problem Solving Guided By Examples Elimination of Errors and Misunderstandings Ends With Initial Mastery of Skill Autonomous Stage (Late Phase) Continue to improve in speed and accuracy as they practice, End point: Automaticity</p><p>Page 5 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Problem Solving and Skill Acquisition Knowledge and Skills Required for Problem Understanding Episodic Memory Plans or Schema Search Control Knowledge!!! Situation-Action Knowledge Episodic Memory Rules Schema Plans or Schema</p><p>Page 6 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Overview of Various Classes of Models</p><p>Models That Just Use Episodic Memory Logan, Ross Central role of episodic memory in skill acquisition Models at Assume Special Representation For Procedural Knowledge (Rules) Anderson, Newell Need to store knowledge in form that can be accessed very accurately and rapidly If-Then Rules Schema-Based Models Norman, Reason Highly integrated representations of complex skills Like Schema or Scripts</p><p>Page 7 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Lifting the Limits (Erickson) Acquisition of Cognitive Skills Reading Writing Mathematics Programming Design Limits in Human Information Processing Attention Memory Problem Solving Changes in Performance with Instruction and Practice Automaticity Skilled Memory Cognitive Skills Lifting the Limits</p><p>Page 8 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Development of Expertise Acquisition of Cognitive Skills Relationships to the Acquisition of Athletic Skills Two Kinds of Knowledge Declarative Procedural Rules and Production Systems Relationships between problem solving and skill acquisition</p><p>Page 9 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Two Kinds of Representations Declarative Knowledge Images, Linear Orders, Propositions, Schemas Knowledge of What Facts, recipes, etc...... Procedural Knowledge Productions Knowledge of How Riding a bicycle</p><p>Page 10 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Productions IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first gear and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour THEN shift the car into second gear</p><p>Automaticity</p><p>Description of IF (Goal and a specific situation) THEN (do actions) IF condition THEN action Condition- Action Pair</p><p>Recognize-Act Cycle Test Working Memory Fire Rule Whose Condition is Satisfied</p><p>Page 11 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Sequences of Rules IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car in neutral and the car is standing still and the road is clear THEN shift the car into first gear and accelerate IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first gear and the car is going more than 10 miles per hour THEN shift the car into second gear and accelerate IF the goal is to drive a standard transmission car and the car is in first second and the car is going more than 25 miles per hour THEN shift the car into third gear and accelerate</p><p>Page 12 Skill Acquisition</p><p>LEARNING IF have rule that fires, THEN do action OTHERWISE problem solving</p><p>Successful Problem Solving Episodes are Saved in the Form of Rules CONDITION Goal of Problem Solving Episode and Current Situation ACTION Action that Successfully Solved Problem</p><p>Page 13 Skill Acquisition</p><p>The Declarative-Procedural Distinction Declarative Knowledge: Flexible use of knowledge Not committed to a particular use Easily acquired and forgotten Procedural Knowledge: Efficient use of knowledge Optimized for specific use Acquired by doing, role of practice Production rules tend to carve up a task at its natural joints One rule for each natural unit Rules are the units in which the skill is acquired Goal Structuring Production rule conditions not only make reference to certain external situations but also specify certain goal conditions. </p><p>Page 14 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Experimental Evidence for Two Long- Term Memories 1) Reportability: declarative knowledge 2) Associative Priming: declarative knowledge 3) Retrieval Asymmetry: procedural knowledge 4) Acquisition: Declarative knowledge comes from direct encoding of the environment Procedural knowledge is compiled from declarative knowledge through practice. 5) The retention functions for the two types of memories are independent. 6) There have been a number of recent demonstrations of dissociations of declarative and procedural memory in amnesiacs and other populations.</p><p>Implicit memory Skill acquisition in HM</p><p>Page 15 Skill Acquisition</p><p>Factors Effecting Practice Spacing! Part vs Whole Learning Independence Necessary Subskills Knowledge of Results More is not necessarily better Human tutors vs the class room Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction</p><p>Page 16 Skill Acquisition</p><p>TESTS OF ASSUMPTION THAT PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IS REPRESENTED AS RULES Speed Up From First to Second Correct Action Look at A Given Step In A Problem Measure Time to Complete Step Assume Store Rule After First Successful Attempt Second Attempt is Much Faster Time to Learn A New Procedure Function of Number of Rules Transfer a Function of Number of Shared Rules</p><p>Page 17 Skill Acquisition</p><p>METHOD Polson, Muncher, and Engelbeck (1986) TASKS - Word Processor Utility Tasks * change default and document format parameters * check spelling * duplicate diskette - Perform Task by: * make series of menu selections * fill in parameter on menu for task * exit menu to perform task DESIGN * 3 pairs of similar task * vary training orders of pairs PROCEDURE - Learn Each Task to a Strict Criterion - Very Constrained Training Procedure - Anticipation Method</p><p>Page 18 Skill Acquisition</p><p>MODEL FITS INDIVIDUAL DATA POINTS (n = 1079) TRAINING Time = </p><p>Learning Time + {20 sec per New Rule}</p><p>Execution Time + {3.1 sec per Rule}</p><p>Individual Differences in Learning and Performance</p><p>Accounts for 85.2% Variance In Training Times</p><p>Page 19 Skill Acquisition</p><p>1000 Group 1 </p><p>800</p><p>600 Mean Time To Criterion (Sec) 400</p><p>200</p><p>0 1 2 3 4 5 6</p><p>Page 20 Skill Acquisition</p><p>1800</p><p>1600</p><p>1400</p><p>1200</p><p>1000</p><p>800</p><p>600</p><p>400</p><p>200</p><p>0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 New Rules Mean Time = 168.737 + 19.701 * New Rules; R^2 = .812</p><p>Page 21</p>