Fsh 2509.25 Watershed Conservation Practices Handbook

2509.25_zero_code Page 1 of 25

FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION (REGION 2) DENVER, CO

FSH 2509.25 – WATERSHED CONSERVATION PRACTICES HANDBOOK

CHAPTER – ZERO CODE

Amendment No.: 2509.25-2006-1

Effective Date: May 5, 2006

Duration: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Approved: RICK D. CABLES Date Approved: 04/20/2006 Regional Forester

Posting Instructions: Amendments are numbered consecutively by Handbook number and calendar year. Post by document; remove entire document and replace with this amendment. Retain this transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. The last amendment to this Handbook was 2509.25-2001-1 to 2509.25_10.

New Document(s): 2509.25_zero_code 25 Pages

Superseded Document(s) by 2509.25_0_code_contents (Amendment 2509.25- 1 Page Issuance Number and 96-1, 12/26/1996) Effective Date 2509.25_zero_code (Amendment 2509.25-99-1, 13 Pages 3/22/1999)

Digest:

Zero Code – Incorporates direction previously contained in interim directive 2509.25-2005-1 that removes verbiage that the handbook takes effect as each Forest Plan is revised; adds direction requiring that watershed conservation practices also meet or exceed Best Management Practices; removes requirement for standards to be incorporated into each Forest Plan, and cannot be deviated from without an amendment to the Forest Plan; and removes verbiage that the design criteria carry the same weight and must be followed to the same degree as Forest Plan guidelines.

Deletes the term “standard” from the direction and replaces it with “management measure”. Defines management measure as an environmental goal to be attained by using design criteria R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 2 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

FSH 2509.25 – WATERSHED CONSERVATION PRACTICES HANDBOOK CHAPTER – ZERO CODE

and that attainment of the management measure ensures compliance with applicable federal and state laws and regulations. Adds direction that alternative management measures can be used.

Adds direction that project level monitoring and restoration are guided by the Forest Plan or project level plans, not the WCP Handbook.

01.1 – Revises caption from “MAJOR LAWS” to “KEY LAWS”. Revises description of requirements of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 to be consistent with current regulations (36 CFR 219). Revises description of requirements of Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 to to be consistent with current legal interpretations. Removes reference to Forest Service as a Designated Management Agency per the Clean Water Act.

01.2 – Adds “Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980”, “Resource Conservation and Recovery Act”, “Oil Pollution Act of 1990”, and “Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996” to the list of Other Laws and Regulations.

02 – Revises paragraph 2 from “Soil Productivity” to “Soil Quality”.

03 – Adds direction to “Cooperate with state, tribal, and local governments, other federal agencies, holders of water rights, and other interested parties to manage water resources”.

04.2 – Removes direction to Forest Supervisors to incorporate this handbook into all Forest Plans. Adds direction to implement the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this Handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements, in all projects.

04.3 – Revises direction from implementing “Standards and Design Criteria from this Handbook” to “the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this Handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements,” in all projects.

05 – Removes definitions for: feasible, harden, landscape, land unit, soil productivity, stream, and viable population. Revises definitions for: aquatic ecosystem, connected disturbed areas, desired condition, detrimental soil compaction, detrimental soil displacement, detrimental soil erosion, inner gorge, plan period, rill, riparian areas, riparian ecosystem, road, robust stream health, severely burned soil, stream health, stream health class, stream type, swale, trail, travelway, unstable soils, upland site, water influence zone, and wetlands. Adds definitions for: activity area, antidegradation, armor, at-risk stream health, bankfull/bankfull discharge, best management practice, cross drain, diminished stream health class, effective ground cover, ephemeral stream, fen, grazing response index, hummocky landform, intermittent stream, perennial stream, platy surface soil, practicable, proper functioning condition, reference condition, sensitive stream reach, soil displacement, soil quality, stable bank, stream channel integrity, stream order, valley bottom, watershed condition, and watershed conservation practice. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 3 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

06.1 – Revises “soil productivity” to “soil quality”.

06.2 – Revises discussion of Dynamic Equilibrium to include biological processes as well as physical landform processes.

06.4 – Revises discussion of designing stream crossings to clarify concept of design and risk and to remove direction to design crossings to have 80% chance of remaining stable against floods during their expected life.

07 – Removes references not cited elsewhere in the handbook. Adds references to current literature, research and policy relevant to the handbook direction. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 4 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Table of Contents

01 – AUTHORITY...... 6 01.1 – Key Laws...... 6 01.2 - Other Laws and Regulations...... 8 02 - OBJECTIVES...... 10 03 - POLICY...... 10 04 - RESPONSIBILITY...... 10 04.1 - Regional Forester...... 10 04.2 - Forest Supervisors...... 10 04.3 - District Rangers...... 10 05 - DEFINITIONS...... 11 06 - SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES...... 18 06.1 - Watershed Processes...... 18 06.2 - Dynamic Equilibrium...... 19 06.3 - Land and Stream Types...... 19 06.4 - Design and Risk...... 20 07 - REFERENCES...... 20 R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 5 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

This handbook contains proven watershed conservation practices to protect soil, aquatic, and riparian systems. If used properly, the watershed conservation practices will meet applicable Federal and State laws and regulations, including State Best Management Practices (BMPs). The watershed conservation practices translate legal provisions and scientific principles into solid, common sense stewardship actions that support continued sustainable resource use. The watershed conservation practices cover five areas: hydrologic function, riparian areas and wetlands, sediment control, soil quality, and water purity. Each watershed conservation practice consists of a management measure, a set of design criteria used to achieve the specific management measure, and guidance for monitoring and restoration.

Maintaining the physical and chemical integrity of watersheds and water bodies through these watershed conservation practices is necessary to provide quality habitat for aquatic, riparian and wetland flora and fauna. This handbook does not, however, provide all necessary direction for aquatic resource management on NFS lands in Region 2, particularly as related to biological aspects of species management (that is, species conservation, population viability, invasive species, and so forth).

1. The management measures are environmental goals to be attained using one or more design criteria (EPA, 2005). The management measures are performance expectations consistent with applicable laws and regulations. Attainment of the management measure will ensure that management actions comply with applicable federal and state laws and regulations. Alternative management measures can be proposed for a project, however, the project NEPA document must demonstrate that the alternative management measure will ensure compliance with applicable federal and state laws and regulations.

2. The design criteria are specific practices to be used in project design and implementation to attain the management measure using current knowledge and technology. They may be revised as knowledge and technology improve. Other methods may be used if they result in the same outcome directed by the management measure, but the project NEPA document must tell why these other methods will be as effective.

3. The monitoring guides give advice on where to focus monitoring efforts to measure achievement of the associated management measure, as part of the project activity. Site specific monitoring efforts (amount, intensity, location, and responsible party) are directed by Forest Plan or project monitoring plans.

4. The restoration guides give examples of how to attain the management measure if it is not currently being met. Site specific restoration efforts (activity, location, and responsible party) are directed by the Forest Plan or project implementation plans.

The application of restoration measures often depends on availability of funds that the Forest Service does not control. Failure to keep up with restoration schedules due to lack of proper R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 6 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

funds may not be avoidable, but new actions must maintain existing watershed conditions or contribute to long-term restoration.

01 – AUTHORITY

01.1 – Key Laws

Forest Service watershed conservation is based on six key federal laws that set a consistent land- and-water stewardship vision. These laws direct Forest Service actions to protect watersheds through sound management.

Brief summaries of these laws and their direction for management related to watersheds are included below. Federal regulations contain the current interpretations and direction specific to these laws.

1. Organic Administration Act of 1897 (16 U.S.C. 475). This law defines original National Forest purposes to improve and protect the forest, secure favorable conditions of water flows, and furnish a continuous supply of timber. Years of concern about watershed damage led to creation of the National Forest System. Watersheds must be cared for to sustain their hydrologic function as "sponge-and-filter" systems that absorb and store water and naturally regulate runoff. The goals are good vegetation and ground cover, streams in dynamic equilibrium with their channels and flood plains, and natural conveyance of water and sediment.

2. Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (16 U.S.C. 528). This law amplifies National Forest purposes to include watershed, wildlife and fish, outdoor recreation, range, and timber. Renewable surface resources are to be managed for multiple use and sustained yield of the several products and services that they provide. The principles of multiple use and sustained yield include the provision that the productivity of the land shall not be impaired.

3. Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531-1536, 1538-1540). This law was written to conserve endangered and threatened species of wildlife, fish, and plants and the ecosystems on which they depend. Federal agencies must conserve endangered and threatened species and cooperate with State and local agencies to resolve resource issues (Section 2). Conservation means the use of all means needed to recover any endangered or threatened species to the point where the measures provided pursuant to this law are no longer needed (Section 3).

Each Federal agency shall, with the consultation and help of the Secretary of Interior, ensure that any action authorized, funded, or done by the agency is unlikely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in adverse modification of their critical habitat (Section 7). The Forest Service is required to consult with the Fish and Wildlife Service and to prepare biological assessments.

4. National Forest Management Act of 1976 (16 U.S.C. 1600-1602, 1604, 1606, 1608- 1614). The Forest Service must be a leader in conserving natural resources (Section 2). R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 7 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Programs must protect and, where appropriate, improve the quality of soil and water (Section 5). Timber must be harvested only where soil, slope, and watershed conditions are not irreversibly damaged; the land can be adequately restocked within five years after harvest; and streams, lakes, wetlands, and other water bodies are protected from detrimental impacts (Section 6g).

The overall goal of managing the National Forest System is to sustain the multiple uses of its renewable resources in perpetuity while maintaining the long-term productivity of the land. Maintaining or restoring the health of the land enables the National Forest System to provide a sustainable flow of uses, benefits, products, services and visitor opportunities (36 CFR 219.1 (2005)). The overall goal of the ecological element of sustainability is to provide a framework to contribute to sustaining native ecological systems by providing ecological conditions to support a diversity of native plant and animal species (36 CFR 219.10 (2005)). Ecological conditions are the components of the biological and physical environment that can affect diversity of plant and animal communities and the productive capacity of ecological systems. These components could include the abundance and distribution of aquatic and terrestrial habitats, roads and other structural developments, human uses, and invasive, exotic species (36 CFR 219.16 (2005)).

5. Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1752). Rights-of-way for water diversion, storage, and/or distribution systems, and other uses must include terms and conditions to protect the environment and otherwise comply with the requirements of Section 505.

6. Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 U.S.C. 1251, 1254, 1323, 1324, 1329, 1342, 1344). This series of laws was written to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters (Section 101). Congress sought to sustain the integrity of water quality and aquatic habitat so that waters of the United States will support diverse, productive, stable aquatic ecosystems with a balanced range of aquatic habitats. All issues are framed by the intent of Congress to improve and preserve the quality of the Nation's waters (540 F2.d 1023; 543 F2.d 1198; 612 F2.d 1231; 97 S.Ct 1340; 97 S.Ct 1672). States have authority over water rights (Section 101g).

The Forest Service must comply with federal, state and local water quality laws and rules, coordinate actions that affect water quality with States, and control nonpoint source pollution like anyone else (Section 313).

The Forest Service must apply BMPs, considering local factors, to control nonpoint source pollution and meet water quality standards (Sections 208, 303, and 319). State-classified water uses, and the water quality they need, must be sustained to comply with the antidegradation R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 8 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

policy, unless States decide that vital economic and social development justify impacts (40 CFR 131.12).

Waters of the United States include perennial and intermittent streams, lakes, wetlands, and their tributaries. Aquatic ecosystems are waters of the United States that serve as habitat for interrelated and interacting communities and populations of plants and animals (40 CFR 230.3).

Section 404, in concert with other provisions, provides rigorous criteria to control discharges of pollutants, by direct placement or runoff, into waters of the United States (40 CFR 230.11). The Forest Service must strongly pursue options that avoid crossing, coming near, or discharging material into special aquatic sites before choosing a course of action that does so (40 CFR 230.10a). Special aquatic sites are sanctuaries and refuges, wetlands, mud flats, vegetated shallows, coral reefs, and riffle-pool complexes (40 CFR 230.3).

Section 404 sets a no-impairment rule for waters of the United States. This rule is met if mandatory BMPs (33 CFR 323.4) are applied and stream health is not degraded beyond that allowed by applicable nationwide permits. Roads that meet conditions of nationwide or regional general 404 permits or qualify for exemption from a permit must use mandatory BMPs to protect water quality, extent of waters, and aquatic ecosystems (Section 404(f)(1); 33 CFR 330, Appendix A; 40 CFR 230.7). If such permit conditions and exemption criteria are not met, an individual permit is required (40 CFR 230).

Impacts to flow patterns, temperature, dissolved oxygen, sediment, and pollutant levels must be controlled (33 U.S.C. 1311 and 1314; 843 F2.d 1194; 753 F2.d 759). Compliance is based on standards and protection of uses, not BMPs (Anderson 1987; Whitman 1989). Physical features needed to support existing uses for antidegradation include substrate, cover, flow, depth, pools, and riffles (40 CFR 131.10, 230.10, and 230.11).

01.2 - Other Laws and Regulations

Additional laws and regulations complement the land-and-water stewardship vision of the six key federal laws.

1. Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 (7 U.S.C. 1010). This law mandates conservation of land to correct land abuse, control erosion, mitigate floods, conserve soil moisture, and protect watersheds.

2. Sustained Yield Forest Management Act of 1944 (16 U.S.C. 583). This law ties the goal of sustained yield to maintaining water supply, regulating stream flow, preventing soil erosion, and preserving wildlife.

3. Anderson-Mansfield Reforestation and Revegetation Act of 1949 (16 U.S.C. 581j). This law recognizes good forest and other vegetation cover to be vital for watershed protection R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 9 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

and provides for reforestation and revegetation on NFS lands to protect watersheds, reduce flood damages, and sustain water supplies.

4. Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954 (16 U.S.C. 1001). This law authorizes watershed improvement works to prevent floods, conserve ground water recharge and water quality, and protect aquatic life (16 U.S.C. 1004).

5. Granger-Thye Act of 1950 (16 U.S.C. 5801). This law authorizes issuance of grazing permits having terms that preserve land and resources from erosion and flood damage. The Forest Service may reduce livestock numbers (608 F.2d 803) and cancel grazing permits (696 F2.d 712) if land is overgrazed.

6. Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (43 U.S.C. 1903). This law directs that range condition and productivity be improved to protect watershed function, soil, water, and fish habitat (43 U.S.C. 1901-1902).

7. Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1502). This law requires land and resources to be protected from erosion and pollution.

8. Pipelines Act of 1920 (30 U.S.C. 185). This law mandates erosion control and reclamation on oil-gas pipelines.

9. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (30 U.S.C. 1269). This law mandates erosion control and reclamation on surface coal mines.

10. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986 (16 U.S.C. 3921). This law recognizes key wetland functions and directs the USDA to cooperate in a national wetlands priority conservation plan.

11. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA; 42 U.S.C. 9601 et seq.). This law provides for liability, compensation, cleanup and emergency response for hazardous substances released into the environment. It also provides for the cleanup of inactive waste disposal sites.

12. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA 42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.). This law establishes the guidelines for solid waste management mandatory for all federal agencies and directs federal agency compliance with all federal, state and local requirements, both substantive and procedural.

13. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA; 33 U.S.C. 2701 et seq.). This law establishes a fund, and concomitant liability, for the removal of discharged oil and for the assessment and restoration of natural resource injuries caused by discharges of oil into ocean and inland waters. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 10 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

14. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 (SDWA; 42 U.S.C. 300f et seq.). This law establishes standards for public drinking water systems, well-head protection, and source area assessments.

15. Executive Orders 11988 (Floodplain Management) and 11990 (Protection of Wetlands) intend to preserve the natural and beneficial values of floodplains and wetlands (flood moderation, water quality protection, ground water recharge, wildlife habitat, and so forth).

02 - OBJECTIVES

1. Hydrologic Function: Conserve the ability of watersheds and riparian areas to absorb water, filter sediment, and sustain stream channel integrity.

2. Soil Quality: Restore and maintain the long-term inherent productive capacity of the soil.

3. Aquatic Systems: Sustain water quality and aquatic habitat in each aquatic ecosystem, unless excepted by law.

03 - POLICY

Apply watershed conservation practices to sustain healthy soil, riparian, and aquatic systems. Adopt a stewardship ethic that treats land and resources as public assets for long-term benefits. Temper land and resource use to conserve limited resources for future generations. Cooperate with state, tribal and local governments, other federal agencies, holders of water rights, and other interested parties to manage water resources.

04 - RESPONSIBILITY

04.1 - Regional Forester

It is the responsibility of the Regional Forester to ensure that sound and consistent watershed stewardship is achieved on each national forest and grassland.

04.2 - Forest Supervisors

Forest Supervisors have the authority and responsibility to incorporate this handbook into all management programs. The Forest Supervisors are also responsible for implementing the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this Handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements, in all projects.

04.3 - District Rangers R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 11 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

District Rangers are responsible for implementing the applicable Management Measures and Design Criteria from this handbook, or acceptable alternatives that meet applicable legal and regulatory requirements, in all projects.

05 - DEFINITIONS

Activity Area. An area of land impacted by a management activity ranging from a few acres to an entire watershed depending on the type of monitoring being conducted. It is commonly a timber sale cutting unit, a prescribed fire burn unit or an allotment pasture. (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).

Antidegradation. Policy designed to preserve water quality in outstanding water resources; keep clean waters clean where possible, given important social and economic development; and prevent loss of existing uses through degradation.

Aquatic Ecosystem. The stream channel, lake or estuary bed, water and biotic communities and the habitat features that occur therein. (FSM 2526.05).

Armor. 1) To apply rock, mulch, or vegetation to damaged areas to serve as protective covering. 2) To use rock, concrete, asphalt, gravel, riprap, gabions, or equivalent for protection of a ditch, channel, or low water crossing. 3) Any natural-occurring quality, characteristic, situation or thing that serves as a protective covering. (EPA, 1980).

At-risk Stream Health Class. Stream exhibits moderate geomorphic, hydrologic and/or biotic integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference condition). For a quantitative analysis, moderate integrity is indicated by conditions that are 59 – 73 % of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al, 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002). Physical, chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality (beneficial, designated or classified) uses are at risk and may be threatened.

Bankfull/Bankfull Discharge. The bankfull stage corresponds to the discharge at which channel maintenance is the most effective, that is, the discharge at which moving sediment, forming or removing bars, forming or changing bends and meanders, and generally doing work that results in the average morphological characteristics of channels. Bankfull discharge is associated with a momentary maximum flow which, on the average, has a recurrence interval of 1.5 years as determined using a flood frequency analysis. (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).

Best Management Practice. 1) “BMP” means a practice or a combination of practices that is determined by a governmental agency after a problem assessment, examination of alternative practices, and appropriate public participation, to be the most effective, practicable (including technological, economic, and institutional considerations) means of preventing or reducing the amount of pollution generated by nonpoint sources to a level compatible with quality goals (CDPHE, 2001; WY DEQ, 2001). 2) Methods, measures, or practices selected by an agency to meet its nonpoint source control needs. BMPs include, but are not limited to, R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 12 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

structural and nonstructural controls and operation and maintenance procedures. BMPS can be applied before, during and after pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate the introduction of pollutants into receiving waters (40 CFR 130.2(m)). 3) Schedules of activities, prohibitions of practice, maintenance procedures, and other management practices to prevent or reduce the pollution of surface waters of the State on a voluntary basis, including treatment requirements, operating procedures, and practices to control site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge, waste disposal, or drainage from raw material storage (SD DENR; NE DEQ, 2005).

Concentrated-Use Sites. Areas designed and managed for high density of people or livestock, such as developed recreation sites and livestock watering areas.

Connected Disturbed Areas. (CDAs) High runoff areas like roads and other disturbed sites that have a continuous surface flow path into a stream or lake (USFS, 1999). Hydrologic connection exists where overland flow, sediment or pollutants have a direct route to the channel network. CDAs include roads, ditches, compacted soils, bare soils, and areas of high burn severity that are directly connected to the channel system. Ground disturbing activities located within the water influence zone should be considered connected unless site-specific actions are taken to disconnect them from streams (USFS, 1999; Furniss et. al., 2000).

Cross Drain. A ditch or relief culvert or other structure or shaping of the traveled way designed to capture and remove surface water from the traveled way or other road surfaces (USFS, 1998).

Desired Condition. The land and resource conditions within the project area which are expected to result if goals and objectives are fully achieved.

Detrimental Soil Compaction. 1) A 15 % increase in bulk density from the average undisturbed bulk density, or 2) 1.25 g/cc – silt and clay, 1.30 g/cc – silty clay, silty clay loam, silt loam, 1.40 g/cc – loam and clay loam, 1.50 g/cc – sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay, 1.60 g/cc – sand, loamy sand (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).

Detrimental Soil Displacement. The removal of the forest floor and the surface soil from a continuous area of 100 square feet or more. (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement). See definition of Soil Displacement.

Detrimental Soil Erosion. 1) Sheet erosion – the general loss of soil from the soil surface. Indicators include pedestalled rocks and plants, deposition of soil on the uphill side of rocks and plants, and/or erosion pavement, 2) Rills and Gullies (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).

Diminished Stream Health Class. Stream exhibits low geomorphic, hydrologic and/or biotic integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference condition). For a quantitative analysis, low integrity is indicated by conditions that are less than 58% of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al., 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002). Physical, R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 13 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality (beneficial, designated or classified) uses may not be supported.

Dynamic Equilibrium. The continual adjustment of land-and-stream forms and processes within a natural range of conditions, interrupted only by extreme disturbance (reset) events (Dunne and Leopold 1978).

Effective Ground Cover. All living and dead herbaceous and woody materials in contact with the ground and all rocks greater than ¾ inch diameter (FSH 2509.18, R-2 supplement).

Ephemeral Stream. A stream that flows only in direct response to precipitation in the immediate locality (watershed or catchment basin), and whose channel is at all times above the zone of saturation (Briggs, 1996).

Fen. Geographically restricted wetlands where perennial groundwater discharge occurs on the time scale of millennia and where little erosion or mineral sediment deposition occurs. Fens are generally characterized by their stable presence on the landscape for thousands of years and associated plant and animal communities that may be relics from historic glaciation periods (Cooper, 1990).

Filter Strip. A strip of land next to streams, lakes, and wetlands whose ground cover traps sediment coming from upslope. Its width depends on climate, soil type, landform, ground cover and roughness, and nature of soil disturbances.

Geomorphic Floodplain. The flat area adjoining a river channel constructed by the river in the present climate and overflowed at times of high discharge (Dunne and Leopold 1978).

Grazing Response Index. An evaluation tool used to assess the effects of annual grazing pressure, and effects of repeated defoliations during the growing season in terms of frequency, intensity and opportunity (USFS, 1996).

Gully. An erosion channel greater than one foot deep (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).

Hummocky Landform. Area consisting of round or conical knoll, mound or other small elevation. Also a slight rise of ground above a level surface. Commonly in alpine areas and areas prone to frost action and in aquic (wet) soil conditions (USFS, 1998).

Humus. The organic layer lying immediately beneath the litter layer from which it is derived and consisting of partly to well decomposed litter (USFS, 1966).

Inner Gorge. A geomorphic feature that consists of channel side slope situated immediately adjacent to the stream channel, below the first break in slope above the stream channel. Debris sliding and avalanching are the dominant mass wasting processes associated with the inner gorge (USFS, 2000). R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 14 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Intermittent Stream. A stream or reach of stream channel that flows, in its natural condition, only during certain times of the year or in several years. Characterized by interspersed, permanent surface water areas containing aquatic flora and fauna adapted to the relatively harsh environmental conditions found in these types of environments. (Briggs, 1996).

Lake. An inland body of standing water, perennial or intermittent occupying a depression in the earth's surface, and too deep to permit vegetation to take root completely across the expanse of water.

Land Treatments. Human actions that disturb vegetation, ground cover, or soil.

Land Type. A category of land having a unique combination of soils, geology, geomorphology, and vegetation (USFS, 1993).

Litter. Loose, undecomposed leaves, needles, twigs, bark, and other organic debris on the ground surface (USFS, 1966).

Long-Term. A period of five years or longer.

Organic Ground Cover. All living and dead plant matter, litter, and humus in contact with the ground, measured in both areal extent and depth (USFS, 1966).

Perennial Stream. A stream or reach of a channel that flows continuously or nearly so throughout the year and whose upper surface is generally lower than the top of the zone of saturation in the areas adjacent to the stream. (Briggs, 1996).

Plan Period. The time period between regularly-scheduled revisions of a forest plan. Unless otherwise specified by law, a plan must be revised at least every 15 years (36 CFR 219.2(d)(3)).

Plastic Limit. The water content at which soil begins to break apart and crumble when rolled by hand into threads 3 mm in diameter (Sowers 1979).

Platy Surface Soil Structure. Arrangement of soil particles that have developed predominantly along horizontal axes; laminated, flaky (SSSA, 1996).

Practicable. Available and capable of being done after taking into consideration cost, existing technology, and logistics in light of overall project purposes (40 CFR 230.3). Resource objectives should also be considered when determining practicable alternatives to meet a project’s overall purposes.

Proper Functioning Condition (PFC) Protocol. An interagency protocol developed to provide a consistent approach for considering hydrology, vegetation and erosion/deposition (soils) attributes and processes to assess the condition of riparian-wetland areas. It focuses on R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 15 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

assessing the ability of vegetation, landform or large woody debris to dissipate stream energy associated with high water flows, thereby reducing erosion and improving water quality; filter sediment, capture bedload and aid floodplain development; improve flood-water retention and groundwater recharge; develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action; develop diverse ponding and channel characteristics to provide the habitat and the water depth, duration and temperature necessary for fish production, waterfowl breeding, and other uses; and support greater biodiversity. The functioning condition of riparian-wetland areas is a result of interaction among geology, soil, water and vegetation. (BLM, 1993; 1994; 1998).

Reclaim. Stabilize disturbed sites by restoring soil structure and establishing permanent drainage and vegetation cover.

Reference Condition. The set of selected measurements and/or conditions used as representative of the natural potential condition of a stream. The selected measurements and/or conditions describe a minimally impaired watershed or reach characteristic of a stream type in an ecoregion. Minimally impaired sites are those with the least anthropogenic influences and represent the best range of conditions that can be achieved by similar streams within an ecoregion. Reference conditions can be established using a combination of methods: a single or multiple reference sites; historical data; simulation models; and/or expert opinion/professional judgment (from EPA, 1996).

Rill. An erosion channel less than one foot deep (Dunne and Leopold, 1978).

Riparian Areas. Geographically delineable areas with distinctive resource values and characteristics that are comprised of the aquatic and riparian ecosystems (FSM 2526.05).

Riparian Ecosystem. A transition area between the aquatic ecosystem and the adjacent terrestrial ecosystem; identified by soil characteristics or distinctive vegetation communities that require free or unbound water (FSM 2526.05).

Road. A motor vehicle route over 50 inches wide, unless identified and managed as a trail. A road may be a forest road, a temporary road or an unauthorized road (36 CFR 212.1).

Robust Stream Health. Stream exhibits high geomorphic, hydrologic and/or biotic integrity relative to its natural potential condition (as represented by a suitable reference condition). For a quantitative analysis, high integrity is indicated by conditions that are 74 – 100% of a reference condition (after Plafkin et. al., 1989; EPA, 1999; CDPHE, 2002). Physical, chemical and/or biologic conditions suggest that State assigned water quality (beneficial, designated or classified) uses are supported.

Sediment Traps. Structures such as slash windrows, weed-free straw bales, sediment pits, log steps, and silt fences keyed into the ground below roads, trails, and similar soil disturbances to disperse runoff energy, trap sediment, and assist filter strips in keeping sediment out of water bodies. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 16 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Sensitive Stream Reach (Response Reach). A stream reach where changes in flow amount and timing, sediment supply, bank stability or other stressors is most likely to become evident. Sensitivity of stream reaches may change depending on the metric of concern. For example, low gradient reaches may be sensitive to changes in sediment supply, and non-forested reaches may be sensitive to changes is stream temperature.

Severely Burned Soil. Soil is in a condition where most woody debris and the entire forest floor is consumed down to bare mineral soil. Soil may have turned red due to extreme heat. Also, fine roots and organic matter are charred in the upper one-half inch of mineral soil. (FSH 2509.18).

Soil Displacement. The movement of forest floor (litter, duff and humus layers) and surface soil from one place to another by mechanical forces such as a blade used in piling or windrowing. Mixing of the surface soil layers by disking, chopping, bedding or conventional timber harvest operations is not considered displacement (FSH 2509.18). See definition of Detrimental Soil Displacement.

Soil Quality. Soil Quality refers to the inherent capacity of a specific soil, as determined by its inherent physical, chemical and biological characteristics, to perform its biologic, hydrologic and ecologic functions.

Stable Bank. A streambank that shows no evidence of the following: breakdown (clumps of bank are broken away and banks are exposed); slumping (banks have slipped down); tension cracking or fracture (a crack visible on the bank); or vertical and eroding (the bank is mostly uncovered, less than 50 percent covered by perennial vegetation, roots, rocks of cobble size or larger, logs of 0.1 meter diameter or larger, and the bank angle is steeper than 80 degrees from the horizontal) (EPA, 1993). Undercut banks are considered stable unless tension fractures show on the ground surface at the back of the undercut (USFS, 1992).

Stock Crossing. A place where livestock prefer or are forced to cross a stream.

Stock Driveway. Expanded stock trails used to move large numbers of livestock to new pastures, handling facilities, feed, or water.

Stream Channel Integrity. A condition of the stream system where channel characteristics (width, depth, roughness, velocity/slope) mutually adjust to accommodate changes in discharge and load of debris, where there is equilibrium between erosion and deposition, and the form of the channel cross-section is relatively stable – more or less constant, but the position of the channel may not be. (Gordon et. al., 1992; Leopold, 1994; Montgomery and Buffington, 1998; Montgomery and MacDonald, 2002).

Stream Health. The condition of a stream versus reference conditions for the stream type and geology, using metrics such as channel geometry, large woody debris, substrate, bank stability, flow regime, water chemistry, and aquatic biota. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 17 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Stream Health Class. A category of stream health. Three classes are recognized in the Rocky Mountain Region: robust, at-risk and diminished. These classes are recommended to be used for assessing long-term stream health and impacts from management activities.

Stream Order. A method of numbering streams as part of a drainage basin network. The smallest unbranched mapped tributary is called first order, the stream receiving the tributary is called second order, and so on (EPA, 1980).

Stream Type. A class of stream reach having a discrete combination of valley geomorphology and climate, flow regime, stream size, and channel morphology; and differing from other stream types in its ability to support aquatic biota and respond to management. Rosgen classification (Rosgen, 1996) is the Regional/Agency accepted/recognized stream typing system.

Swale. A landform feature lower in elevation than adjacent hillslopes, usually present in headwater areas of limited areal extent, generally without display of a defined watercourse or channel that may or may not flow water in response to snowmelt or rainfall. Swales exhibit little evidence of surface runoff and may be underlain by porous soils and bedrock that readily accepts infiltrating water. These are areas where soil moisture concentrates that often do not exhibit pedalogic or botanic evidence of saturated conditions (Random House, 1967; Dunne and Leopold, 1978).

Trail. A route 50 inches or less in width or a route over 50 inches wide that is identified and managed as a trail (36 CFR 212.1).

Travelway. The portion of the trail or roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders.

Unstable Soils. Those soils that have properties that make them susceptible to dislodgement and downslope transport of soil and rock material under direct gravitational stress. The process includes slow displacement such as creep and rapid movements such as landslides.

Upland Site. The higher ground of a region, in contrast with a valley, plain or other low- lying land; or the elevated land above the low areas along a stream or between hills; any elevated regions from which rivers gather drainage (Gary et. al., 1972).

Valley Bottom. The gently sloping or flat area surrounding a stream channel that effectively decouples the geomorphic processes operating on the hillslopes or uplands from those operating in stream channels. This unique landform creates a suitable environment for dynamic processes that directly influence the establishment of riparian and wetland ecosystems and associated aquatic species. The valley bottom width is dependent upon the relief of the surrounding hillslopes and the channel gradient, with the boundary of the valley bottom being characterized by a sharp break of ground slope. R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 18 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

Water Budget. An accounting of the inflow to, outflow from and storage in, a watershed, aquifer, lake, or wetland (USGS 1960).

Water Gap. An opening or fenced area providing access to a developed or natural water supply (SRM 1974).

Watershed. Drainage basin or catchment (USGS 1960).

Water Influence Zone. The land next to water bodies where vegetation plays a major role in sustaining long-term integrity of aquatic systems. It includes the geomorphic floodplain (valley bottom), riparian ecosystem, and inner gorge. Its minimum horizontal width (from top of each bank) is 100 feet or the mean height of mature dominant late-seral vegetation, whichever is most.

Watershed Condition. The state of a watershed based on physical and biological characteristics and processes affecting hydrologic and soil functions.

Watershed Conservation Practice (WCP). WCPs are stewardship actions based upon scientific principles and legal requirements to protect soil, aquatic and riparian resources. Each watershed conservation practice consists of a management measure, a set of design criteria used to achieve the management measure, and guidance for monitoring and restoration.

Wetlands. Those areas that are inundated by surface or groundwater with a frequency sufficient to support and that, under normal circumstances, do or would support a prevalence of vegetation or aquatic life that requires saturated or seasonally saturated soil conditions for growth and reproduction. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas such as sloughs, potholes, wet meadows, river overflows, mud flats, and natural ponds. (FSM 2527.05).

06 - SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

Watershed conservation practices are based on key scientific principles. Comprehension of these principles is needed to better understand the practices.

06.1 - Watershed Processes

Watersheds are drained by a stream network of perennial streams that flow year-round, intermittent streams that flow seasonally, and ephemeral streams (including swales) that flow only during runoff events. The stream network expands during runoff events. Most material that enters any part of the network will eventually reach an aquatic ecosystem.

Most material that enters streams comes from an adjacent source zone whose width depends on land form, stability, and ground cover. Sediment is natural, but roads and other disturbed sites R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 19 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

can act as channels that multiply sediment loads to the stream network during runoff events. Such "connected disturbed areas" can be a major source of damage to aquatic ecosystems.

If organic ground cover in a watershed is reduced enough to markedly increase the magnitude or duration of high flows, stream channels may erode their banks to damage their stability and aquatic habitat. Direct bank damage may add large amounts of sediment directly into streams. Soil quality depends on soil structure, organic matter, nutrient pools, and biotic processes. Soil quality is impaired when these qualities are markedly degraded for a period of years. Severe disturbances can impair soil quality by heating, displacing, compacting, or eroding the soil.

Historic ranges of native aquatic biota were determined by physiographic and hydrologic boundaries and biotic behavior. These patterns have been changed by fishing pressures, introduction of exotics, and migration barriers such as dams and diversions, as well as by habitat impacts. Biotic strategies that address these relationships are needed as well as watershed conservation practices in order to sustain vigorous populations of desired aquatic communities.

06.2 - Dynamic Equilibrium

A healthy watershed operates in dynamic equilibrium. Soil and water quality, flow regimes, and aquatic and riparian habitats vary within a certain range of conditions. Large natural disturbance events shift a watershed out of equilibrium. Recovery then begins. Poor land management practices can shift a watershed out of equilibrium.

Laws and common sense direct us to maintain equilibrium conditions between large natural disturbance events, avoid actions that may shift a watershed out of equilibrium or worsen major events, and assist watershed recovery. The natural resilience of the system must be conserved in order to sustain ecosystem health.

Some disturbance can occur and still sustain watershed health. If runoff and sediment regimes, soil and channel conditions, water quality, and aquatic and riparian habitats are maintained between large natural disturbance events, watershed health is conserved.

The concept of dynamic equilibrium can be applied to biological processes as well as physical landform processes. Natural processes are not static or absolutely stable, but there is a tendency for the form to maintain relatively stable characteristics. Natural perturbations influence these natural processes, which then begin the process of moving toward pre-event characteristics. Dynamic equilibrium can be both ‘short-term’ such as life-history changes of fish associated with the annual hydrograph or ‘long-term’ such as the stream channel adjustments following natural fire events.

06.3 - Land and Stream Types R2 AMENDMENT 2509.25-2006-1 2509.25_zero_code EFFECTIVE DATE: 5/5/2006 Page 20 of 25 DURATION: This amendment is effective until superseded or removed.

The goal of watershed conservation is to sustain and restore watershed health in each watershed. Land and water conditions must be kept within the dynamic equilibrium ranges for the local landscape. Land and stream types, and their dynamic equilibrium ranges, vary within and among landscapes due to variations in climate and geology. This variation must be taken into account. In each landscape, dynamic equilibrium conditions vary by land types and stream types. These ranges can be defined by sampling reference land and stream types in that landscape. The efficacy of watershed conservation practices is assessed by comparing each land type and stream type with its own capability.

Land factors reflecting soil and stream health include ground cover, soil bulk density, connected disturbed areas, and slope stability. Water factors include channel widths-depths, large woody debris, substrate, bank stability, flow regime, and water chemistry. Other factors may also be locally important.

06.4 - Design and Risk

Watersheds experience periodic disturbance events that vary in their size, duration, and frequency. The randomness of such events implies some level of risk with any design. This risk is a product of the probability of an event occurring and its consequences. Watershed conservation practices are designed to control runoff damage from at least a 10-year storm of any duration. The Environmental Protection Agency and many States use a 10-year, 24-hour event for storm runoff design.

Designing stream crossings and other instream structures to remain stable against expected high flow events during their design life will reduce the risk of adverse effects to watershed function. Probability can be used to determine the chance of success or failure of a structure remaining stable. For example, a structure with a desired 20 year design life would need to be able to pass a 100-year flood in order to have an 80% chance of remaining stable during those 20 years (Schmidt, 1978). The chance of success or failure for a structure provides the margin of safety for capital investments and resources. Tailings dams and reservoirs that involve health or safety risks need an increased margin of safety (that is, greater chance of success). Other factors that need to be considered in the design are the potential for blockage by debris, recreational uses of the stream and the need to allow desired movement of aquatic life.

07 - REFERENCES

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