Progressivism in the Cities and States

Progressivism in the Cities and States A. Progressive cities either used expert-staffed commissions to manage urban affairs or the city-manager system which was designed to take politics out of municipal administration B. Urban reformers tackled “slumlords,” juvenile delinquency, and wide-open prostitution C. In Wisconsin, Governor Robert M. La Follette wrestled control from the trusts and returned power to the people, becoming a Progressive leader in the process 1) Other states also took to regulate railroads and trusts, such as Oregon and California, which was led by Governor Hiram W. Johnson 2) Charles Evans Hughes, governor of New York, gained fame by investigating the malpractices of gas and insurance companies

Battling Social Ills A. Progressives also made major improvements in the fight against child labor, especially after a 1911 fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in NYC burned up 146 workers, mostly young women 1) The landmark case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) found attorney Louis D. Brandeis persuading the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws that protected women workers 2) On the other hand, the case of Lochner v. New York invalidated a New York law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers 3) Yet, in 1917, the Court upheld a similar law for factory workers B. Alcohol also came under the attack of Progressives, as prohibitionist organizations like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, founded by Frances E. Willard, (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League was formed 1) Finally, in 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the sale and drinking of alcohol Progressivism – Liberal Reform or Conservative Reaction?

- In the last forty years of the nineteenth century, the Republican Party, with financial backing from conservative businesspersons dominated the government - Legislation contrary to business interests rarely received a hearing in the chambers of Congress - Despite their initial suspicion of the Republican Roosevelt, business interests took his cooperation for granted when he became president - The powerful finance capitalist, J.P. Morgan, expected to do business as usual when, in 1902, President Roosevelt threatened to take action against Northern Securities Company: o “If we have done anything wrong, send you man to my man and they can fix it up.” - However, rising discontent with business practices demanded new approaches, Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle pointed to socialist solutions - The Socialist Party, organized in 1901, attracted increasingly large numbers of supporters o In 1912, Eugene V. Debs garnered six percent of the vote o The government could not afford to ignore this trend - Just how thoroughgoing was the resulting reform is a question that historians still debate o Some view Progressivism as the fulfillment of the Populist agenda and the forerunner of New Deal reforms o Others question its impact - One historian, Peter Filene, even suggested that perhaps the time had come to write an obituary for the Progressive Movement

Part A

National - Political: 17th Amendment; 19th Amendment - Economic: 16th Amendment; “Trust-busting”; Hepburn Act; Tariff reduction; Federal Reserve Act; Federal Trade Commission - Social: Meat Inspection Act; Pure Food and Drug Act; 18th Amendment

State - Political: Direct primaries; Australian ballot; initiative; referendum; recall; corrupt practices law; civil service tests - Economic: regulation of public utilities; intrastate regulation of railroads - Social: consumer protection laws – honest weights, unadulterated foods; child labor laws; workman’s compensation; labor laws to protect women

National - Political: commission governments; city managers; “reform” mayors; civil service tests - Economic: reduced transit fares; regulation of public utilities - Social: city beautiful movement; settlement houses Directions: Answer the following questions on the Progressive Era.

1) In what respects did Progressivism accomplish the Populist agenda? - Populist demands, such as the graduated income tax, secret ballot, and direct election of Senators, became law during the Progressive era

2) To what extent did Progressivism set the stage for later reforms in the New Deal of the 1930s? - The development of new bureaucracies paved the way for the programs of the New Deal. Progressive failures, for example, trust-busting, forced the New Deal to deal differently with big business

3) To what extent is there recognition of a new role of government during the Progressive Era? - Theodore Roosevelt, a Progressive president, introduced modern presidency where the chief executive sets an agenda and lobbies public support to secure enactment. The government, during the Progressive era, struggled to remove special privileges so that all had equal access to opportunity

4) Did Progressive reforms restore democracy to America? - A variety of democratic reforms, such as direct election of Senators, woman suffrage, initiative, referendum, recall, and the Australian ballot, became law during this period. It quickly became clear that democratic procedures do not guarantee democracy

5) How effective were Progressive efforts to regulate big business? To protect consumers? - Trust-busting did not affect most businesses. The Federal Trade Commission and Clayton Acts likewise did little to restrain businesses, but they set a precedent for more government regulation. The Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act also put the government in a position to regulate businesses more later to protect consumer interests

6) What advantages might businesses gain from government regulation? - Government regulation often removed the reason for costly bribes to secure advantages over competitors

7) How successful were Progressive attempts to effect social and moral reform? - Progressive attempts to control morality ran into major public opposition, as is the case of Prohibition. More recent legislatures have therefore been reluctant to enact laws regulating morality

8) What groups might have good reason to feel abandoned by the movement? - African-Americans, immigrants, and farmers were conspicuously absent from the protective legislation

9) How did the Amendments 16, 17, 18, and 19 reflect the goals and ideals of the movement? - They reflect goals of making government more democratic, taxes more fair, and society more moral 10) What evidence do you suppose prompted historian Peter Filene to consider writing an obituary for Progressivism? The Progressive Era, 1901-1918 A. Industrialization, immigration, and urban expansion were the major elements in the dramatic growth that the United States experienced during the last quarter of the 19th century B. Accompanying this growth were both old and new concerns and problems about the lives of many Americans C. By the turn of the century, a reform movement had developed that included a wide range of groups and individuals with a common desire to improve life in the industrial age D. Their ideas and work became known as progressivism, because they wanted to build on existing society, making moderate political changes and social improvements through government action E. Most Progressives were not revolutionaries but shared the goals of limiting the power of big business, improving democracy for the people, and strengthening social justice F. The Progressives improved the quality of life, provided a larger role for the people in their democracy, and established a precedent for a more active role for the federal government

Origins of Progressivism A. Although the Progressive movement had its origins in the state reforms of the early 1890s, it acquired national momentum only with the dawn of a new century and the unexpected swearing into office of a young president, Theodore Roosevelt, in 1901 B. So enthusiastic did middle-class Americans become about the need to adjust to changing times that their reformist impulse gave a name to an era: the Progressive era 1) It lasted through the Republican presidencies of Roosevelt (1901-1909) and William Howard Taft (1909-1913), and the first term of Democrat, Woodrow Wilson (1913-1917) C. U.S. entry into World War I in 1917 diverted public attention away from domestic issues and brought the era to an end – but not before major regulatory laws had been enacted by Congress and various state legislatures

Attitudes and Motives A. Entering a new century, most Americans were well aware of how their country was rapidly changing B. A once relatively homogeneous, rural society of independent farmers was becoming an industrialized nation of mixed ethnicity centered in the growing cities C. For decades, middle-class Americans had been alarmed by: 1) the rising power of big business 2) the increasing gap between rich and poor 3) the violent conflict between labor and capital 4) the dominance of corrupt political machines in the cities D. Most disturbing to minorities were the racist, Jim Crow laws in the South that relegated African Americans to the status of second-class citizens E. Crusaders for women’s suffrage added their voices to the call for political reform and greater democracy F. The groups participating in the Progressive moment were extremely diverse 1) Protestant church leaders who championed one set of reforms 2) African Americans proposing other reforms 3) Union leaders seeking public support for their goals 4) Feminist lobbying their state legislatures for votes for women G. Loosely linking their reform efforts under a single label, Progressive, was a belief that changes in society were badly needed and that government was the proper agency for correcting social and economic ills

Who were the Progressives? A. Unlike the Populists of the 1890s, whose strength came from rural America, citizens active in the Progressive movement were chiefly middle-class residents of U.S. cities 1) The urban middle class had steadily grown in the final decades of the 19th century B. In addition to doctors, lawyers, ministers, and storekeepers (the heart of the middle class in an earlier era), there were now thousands of white-collar office workers and middle-managers employed in banks, manufacturing firms, and other businesses C. Members of this business and professional middle class took their civic responsibilities seriously 1) They were disturbed about what might happen to American democracy from such conditions as unrest among the poor, excesses of the rich, corruption in government, and an apparent decline in morality D. A missionary spirit inspired certain aspects of middle-class progressivism 1) Protestant churches preached against vice and taught a code of social responsibility, which included caring for the poor and the less fortunate and insisting on honesty in public life 2) The Social Gospel popularized by Walter Rauschenbusch was an important element in Protestant Christians’ response to the problem of urban poverty E. Without strong leaders, the diverse forces could not have overcome conservatives’ resistance to change F. Fortunately for the Progressives, a number of dedicated and able leaders entered politics at the turn of the century to challenge the status quo 1) Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette in the Republican Party and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson in the Democratic Party demonstrated a vigorous style of political leadership that had been sorely lacking from national politics during the Gilded Age

What was the Progressives’ philosophy? A. The reform impulse was hardly new 1) In fact, many historians see progressivism as just one more phase in a reform tradition going back to the Jeffersonians in the early 1800s, the Jacksonians in the 1830s, and the Populists in the 1890s B. Without doubt, the Progressives – like American reformers before them – were committed to democratic values and shared in the belief that honest government and just laws could improve the human condition C. A revolution in thinking occurred at the same time as the Industrial Revolution 1) Charles Darwin, in his Origins of Species, presented the concept of evolution, which had an impact well beyond simply justifying the accumulation of wealth D. They way people thought and reasoned was challenged, and the prevailing philosophy of romantic transcendentalism in America gave way to a balanced pragmatism 1) In the early 20th century, William James and John Dewey were two leading American advocates of this new philosophy 2) They defined “truth” in a way that many Progressives found appealing 3) James and Dewey argued that “good” and the “true” could not be known in the abstract as fixed and changeless ideals 4) They said, people should take a pragmatic, or practical, approach as morals, ideals, and knowledgeable 5) They should experiment with ideas and laws and test them in action until they found something that seemed to work well for the better ordering of society E. Progressive thinkers adopted the new philosophy of pragmatism because it enabled them to challenge fixed notions that stood in the way of reform 1) They rejected laissez-faire theory as impractical 2) The old standard of rugged individualism no longer seemed viable in a modern society dominated by impersonal corporations

Scientific Management A. Another idea that gained widespread acceptance among Progressives came from the practical studies of Frederick W. Taylor B. By using a stopwatch to time the output of factory workers, Taylor discovered ways of organizing people in the most efficient manner – the scientific management system C. Many Progressives believed that government too could be made more efficient if placed in the hands of experts and scientific managers D. They objected to the corruption of political bosses partly because it was antidemocratic and partly because it was an inefficient way to run things

The Muckrakers A. Before the public could be roused to action, it first had to be well informed about the “dirty” realities of party politics and the scandalous conditions in factories and slums B. Newspaper and magazine publishers found that their middle-class readers loved to read about underhanded schemes in politics C. Therefore, in-depth, investigative stories came to characterize much of the journalistic reporting of the era D. Writers specializing in such stories were referred to as muckrakers by President Theodore Roosevelt

Origins A. One of the earliest muckrakers was Chicago reporter Henry Demarest Lloyd, who in 1881 wrote a series of articles for the Atlantic Monthly attacking the practices of the Standard Oil Company and the railroads B. Published in book form in 1894, Lloyd’s Wealth Against Commonwealth fully exposed the corruption and greed of the oil monopoly but failed to suggest how to control it

Magazines A. An Irish immigrant, Samuel Sidney McClure, founded McClure’s Magazine in 1893, which became a major success by running a series of muckraking articles by Lincoln Steffens (Tweed Days in St. Louis, 1902) and another series by Ida Tarbell (The History of the Standard Oil Company, 1902) B. Combining careful research with sensationalism, these articles set a standard for the deluge of muckraking that followed C. Popular 10 – and 15 – cent magazines such as McClure’s, Collier’s, and Cosmopolitan competed fiercely to outdo their rivals with shocking exposes of political and economic corruption

Books A. The most popular series of muckraking articles were usually collected and published as best-selling books B. Articles on tenement life by Jacob Riis, one of the first photojournalists, were published as How the Other Half Lives (1890) C. Lincoln Steffens’ The Shame of the Cities (1904) also caused a sensation by describing in detail the corrupt deals that characterized big-city politics from Philadelphia to Minneapolis D. Many of the muckraking books were novels E. Two of Theodore Dreiser’s novels, The Financier and The Titan, portrayed the avarice and ruthlessness of an industrialist F. Fictional accounts such as Frank Norris’ The Octopus (on the tyrannical power of railroad companies) and The Pit (grain speculators) were more effective than many journalistic accounts in stirring up public demands for government regulations

Decline of Muckraking A. The popularity of muckraking books and magazine articles began to decline after 1910 for several reasons B. First, writers found it more and more difficult to top the sensationalism of the last story C. Second, publishers were expanding and faced economic pressures from banks and advertisers to tone down their treatment of business D. Third, by 1910 corporations were becoming more aware of their public image and developing a new specialty: the field of public relations E. Muckraking had a lasting effect of the Progressive era 1) It exposed inequities, educated the public about corruption in high places, and prepared the way for corrective action

Political Reforms in Cities and States A. The cornerstone of Progressive ideology was faith in democracy 1) Progressives believed that, given a chance, the majority of voters would elect honest officials instead of the corrupt officials handpicked by boss- dominated political machines B. Progressives advocated a number of methods for increasing the participation of the average citizen in political decision-making C. Australian, or secret ballot – Political parties could manipulate the intimidate voters by printing lists (or “tickets”) of party candidates and watching voters drop them into the ballot box on election day 1) In 1888, Massachusetts was the first state to adopt a system successfully tried in Australia of issuing ballots printed by the state and requiring voters to mark their choices secretly within the privacy of a curtained booth 2) By 1910, voting in all states was done this way D. Direct primaries – In the late 19th century, it was the common practice of Republicans and Democrats to nominate candidates for state and federal offices in state conventions dominated by party bosses 1) In 1903, the Progressive governor of Wisconsin, Robert La Follette, introduced his state to a new system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters 2) This method for nominating party candidates by majority vote was known as the direct primary 3) By 1915, some form of the direct primary was used in every state 4) The system’s effectiveness in overthrowing boss rule was limited, as politicians devised ways of confusing the voters and splitting the anti- machine vote 5) Some southern states even used the primary system to exclude African Americans from voting E. Direct election of senators – Before the Progressive era, U.S. senators had been chosen not by the people but by majority vote of the state legislatures 1) Progressives believed this was a principal reason that the Senate had become a millionaires’ club dominated by big business 2) Nevada in 1899 was the first state to give the voters the opportunity to elect U.S. senators directly 3) By 1912, a total of 30 states had adopted this Progressive reform, and in 1913, adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment required that all U.S. senators be elected by popular vote 4) Less successful were the Progressives’ efforts to reform the state legislatures, which largely remained under the control of political bosses and machines F. Initiative, Referendum, and Recall – If politicians in the state legislatures balked at obeying the “will of the people,” than Progressives proposed two methods for forcing them to act 1) Amendments to state constitutions offered voters: i. The initiative – a method by which voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill ii. The referendum – a method that allowed citizens to vote on proposed laws printed on their ballots 2) A third Progressive measure, the recall, enabled voters to remove a corrupt or unsatisfactory politician from office by majority vote before that official’s term had expired 3) Between 1889, when South Dakota adopted the initiative and referendum, and 1918 (the end of World War I), a total of 20 states – most of them west of the Mississippi – offered voters the initiative and the referendum, while 11 states offered the recall Social Welfare A. Urban life in the Progressive era was improved not only by political reformers but also by the efforts of settlement house workers and other civic-minded volunteers B. Jane Addams, Frances Kelly, and other leaders of the social justice movement found that they needed political support in the state legislatures for meeting the needs of immigrants and the working class C. They lobbied vigorously and with considerable success for better schools, juvenile courts, liberalized divorce laws, and safety regulations for tenements and factories D. Believing that criminals could learn to become more effective citizens, reformers fought for such measures as a system of parole, separate reformatories for juveniles, and limits on the death penalty

Municipal Reform A. City bosses and their corrupt alliance with local businesses (trolley lines and utility companies) were the first target of Progressive leaders B. In Toledo, Ohio, in 1897, a self-made millionaire with strong memories of his origins as a workingman became the Republican mayor C. Adopting a “golden rule” as both his policy and his middle name, Mayor Samuel M. “Golden Rule” Jones delighted Toledo’s citizens by introducing a comprehensive program of municipal reform, including free kindergarten, night schools, and public playgrounds D. Another Ohioan, Tom L. Johnson, devoted himself to the cause of tax reform and three-cent trolley fares for the people of Cleveland 1) As Cleveland’s mayor from 1901-1909, Johnson fought valiantly – but without success – for public ownership and operation of the city’s public utilities and services (water, electricity, and trolleys)

Controlling Public Utilities A. Reform leaders arose in other cities throughout the nation seeking to break the power of the city bosses and take utilities out of the hands of private companies B. By 1915 fully two-thirds of the nation’s cities owned their own water systems C. As a result of the Progressives’ efforts, many cities also came to own and operate gas lines, electric power plants, and urban transportation systems

Commissions and City Managers A. New types of municipal government were another Progressive innovation B. In 1900, Galveston, Texas was the first city to adopt a commission plan of government, in which voters elected the heads of city departments (fire, police, and sanitation), not just the mayor C. Ultimately proving itself more effective than the commission plan was a system first tried in Dayton, Ohio, in 1913, in which an expert manager was hired by an elected city council to direct the work of the various departments of city government D. By 1923, more than 300 cities had adopted the manager-council plan of municipal government

State Reform A. At the state level, reform governors battled corporate interests and championed such measures as the initiative, the referendum, and the direct primary to give the common people control of their own government B. In New York, Charles Evans Hughes battled fraudulent insurance companies C. In California, Hiram Johnson successfully fought against the economic and political power of the Southern Pacific Railroad D. In Wisconsin, Robert La Follette established a strong personal following as the governor (1900-1904) who won passage of the “Wisconsin Idea” – a series of Progressive measures that included a direct primary law, tax reform, and regulation of railroad rates

Battling Social Ills A. Whether or not to shut down saloons and prohibit the drinking of alcohol was one issue over which the champions of reform were sharply divided 1) While urban Progressives recognized that saloons were often the neighborhood headquarters of political machines, they generally had little sympathy for the temperance movement 2) Rural reformers, on the other hand, thought they could clean up morals and politics in one stroke by abolishing liquor B. The drys (prohibitionists) were determined and well organized C. By 1915, they had persuaded the legislatures of two-thirds of the states to prohibit the sale of alcoholic beverages D. Progressives also made major improvements in the fight against child labor, especially after a 1911 fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in NYC burned up 146 workers, mostly young women 1) The landmark case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) found attorney Louis D. Brandeis persuading the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws that protected women workers 2) On the other hand, the case of Lochner v. New York invalidated a New York law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers 3) Yet, in 1917, the Court upheld a similar law for factory workers Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal A. Following President McKinley’s assassination in September 1901, Theodore Roosevelt went to the White House at the age of 42, the youngest president in U.S. history and also the most athletic B. He was unusual not simply because of his age and vigor but also because he believed that the president should do much more than lead the executive departments 1) “Bully Pulpit” 2) He thought it was the president’s job to set the legislative agenda for Congress C. Thus, by the accident of McKinley’s death, the Progressive movement suddenly shot into high gear under the dynamic leadership of an activist, reform-minded president

TR’s Square Deal for Labor A. The Progressivism spirit touched President Roosevelt, and his “Square Deal” embraced the three Cs: control of corporations, consumer protection, and the conservation of the United States’ natural resources B. In 1902, a strike broke out in the anthracite coalmines of Pennsylvania, and some 140,000 workers demanded a 20% pay increase and the reduction of the workday to nine hours 1) Finally, after the owners refused to negotiate and a lack of coal was getting to the freezing schools, hospitals, and factories during that winter, TR threatened to seize the mines and operate them with federal troops if he had to in order to keep it open and the coal coming to the people 2) As a result, the workers got at 10% pay increase and a 9-hour workday, but their union was not officially recognized as a bargaining agent C. In 1903, the Department of Commerce and Labor was formed, a part of which was the Bureau of Corporations, which was allowed to probe businesses engaged in interstate commerce; it was highly useful in “trust-busting”

TR Corrals the Corporations A. TR furthered his popularity by being the first president since the passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890 to enforce that poorly written law B. TR decided that there were “good trusts” and “bad trusts,” and set out to control the “bad trusts,” such as the Northern Securities Company, which was organized by J.P. Morgan and James J. Hill 1) In 1904, the Supreme Court upheld TR’s antitrust suit and ordered Northern Securities to dissolve, a decision that angered Wall Street but helped TR’s image C. TR did crack down on over 40 trusts, and he helped dissolve the beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvesters trusts, but in reality, he was not as big of a trustbuster as he has been portrayed 1) He had no wish to take down the “good trusts,” but the trusts that did fall under TR’s big stick felt symbolically, so that other trusts would reform themselves D. TR’s successor, William Howard Taft, crushed more trusts than TR, and in one incident, when Taft tried to crack down on U.S. Steel, a company that had personally been allowed by TR to absorb the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, the reaction from TR was hot

Railroad Regulation A. President Roosevelt took the initiative in persuading a Republican majority in Congress to pass laws that significantly strengthened the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission B. In 1903, Congress passed the Elkins Act, which heavily fined railroads that gave rebates and the shippers that accepted them E. The Hepburn Act (1906), commission could fix “just and reasonable” rates for railroads

Caring of the Consumer A. The Jungle, a muckraking book by Upton Sinclair, described in horrifying detail the conditions in the Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry B. The public outcry following the publication of Sinclair’s novel caused Congress to enact two regulatory laws in 1906: 1) The Meat Inspection Act, provided that federal inspectors visit meatpacking plants to ensure that they met minimum standards of sanitation 2) The Pure Food and Drug Act, forbade the manufacture, sale, and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled foods and drugs

Earth Control A. Americans were vainly wasting their natural resources, and the first conservation act, the Desert Land Act of 1877, did not help much 1) More successful was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which authorized the president to set aside land to be protected as natural parks a. Under this statute, some 46 million acres of forest were rescued B. Roosevelt, a sportsman in addition to all the other things he was, realized the values of conservation and helped initiate massive conservation projects C. The Newlands Act of 1902 initiated irrigation projects for the western states while the giant Roosevelt Dam, built on the Arizona River, was dedicated in 1911 D. In 1908, the president publicized the need for conservation by hosting a White House conference on the subject 1) Following this conference, a National Conservation Commission was established under Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania, whom Roosevelt had earlier appointed to be the first director of the U.S. Forest Service E. Concern about the disappearance of the national frontier led to the success of such books like Jack London’s Call of the Wild and the establishment of the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club, a member of which was naturalist John Muir

The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907 A. TR had widespread popularity (the “Teddy” bear), but conservatives branded him as a dangerous rattlesnake, unpredictable in his Progressive motives B. However, in 1904, TR announced that he would not seek presidency in 1908, since he would have, in effect, served two terms by then, thus demising he power C. In 1907, a short but sharp panic on Wall Street placed TR at the center of its blame, with conservatives criticizing him, but he lashed back, and besides all, the panic died down D. In 1908, congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, which authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral 1) This would lead to the momentous Federal Reserve Act of 1913

The Rough Rider Thunders Out A. In the 1908 campaign, TR chose William Taft as his “successor,” hoping that the corpulent man would continue his policies, and Taft easily defeated William Jennings Bryan; a surprise came from Socialist Eugene V. Debs, who garnered 420,793 votes B. TR left the presidency to go on a lion hunt, survived, and returned, still with much energy 1) He had established many precedents and had helped ensure that the new trusts would fit capitalism and have healthy adult lives helping the American people C. TR protected against socialism, was a great conservationist, expanded the powers of the presidency, shaped the progressive movement, launched the Square Deal, a precursor to the New Deal that would come later, and opened American eyes to the fact that America shared the world with other nations, so it couldn’t be isolationist Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole A. William Howard Taft was a mild progressive, quite jovial, quite fat, and passive, but he was also sensitive to criticism and not as liberal as Roosevelt B. In his four years of office, Taft ordered the prosecution of almost twice the number of antitrust cases as his predecessor C. Among the these cases was one against U.S. Steel, which included a merger approved by then President Theodore Roosevelt 1) An angry Roosevelt viewed Taft’s action as a personal attack on his integrity D. As a conservationist, he established the Bureau of Mines, added large tracts in the Appalachians to the national forest reserves, and also set aside federal oil lands (the first president to do so E. Two other Progressive measures were at least equal in importance to legislation enacted under Roosevelt 1) The Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 gave the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to suspend new railroad rates and oversee telephone, telegraph, and cable companies 2) The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified by the states in 1913, authorized the US government to collect an income tax F. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company

Taft Spoils the Republican Party A. Progressives in the Republican party were unimpressed with Taft’s achievements 1) They became so disenchanted with his leadership that they accused him of betraying their causing and joining the conservative wing of the party B. Payne-Aldrich Tariff 1) Taft promised a lower tariff during the campaign 2) The House passed a moderately reductive bill, but the Senate, led by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, raised the tariff on most imports 3) Taft angered Progressives by signing the bill and calling it “the best bill that the Republican Party ever passed C. Pinchot-Ballinger Controversy 1) Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development and was criticized by Gifford Pinchot (chief of the Forest Service), who was then fired by Taft D. House Speaker Joe Cannon 1) Progressive Republicans became angrier with Taft when he failed to support their effort to reduce the dictatorial powers of Congress’ leading conservative, Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon E. In the spring of 1910, the Republican Party was split between the Progressives and the Old Guard that Taft supported, and Democrats emerged with a landslide in the House 1) Socialist Victor L. Berger was elected from Milwaukee

Rise of the Socialist Party A. A third party dedicated to the welfare of the working class B. Originally called the Socialist Labor Party in 1897, it changed its name in 1901 to the Socialist Party of America C. The Socialist platform called for more radical reforms than the Progressives favored: public ownership of the railroads, utilities, and even of major industries such as oil and steel D. Eugene V. Debs was the party’s candidate for president in five elections – the first in 1900, the last in 1920 1) Debs was an outspoken critic of business and a champion of labor

The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture A. In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed, with La Follette as its leader, but in February 1912, TR began dropping hints that he wouldn’t mind being nominated by the Republicans, his reason being that he had meant no third consecutive term, not third term overall B. Rejected by the Taft supporters of the Republicans, TR became a candidate on the Progressive ticket, shoving La Follette aside C. In the Election of 1912, it would be Theodore Roosevelt versus William H. Taft versus the Democratic candidate, whoever that was to be

The Emergence of Dr. Thomas Woodrow Wilson A. With the Republican Party split wide open, the Democrats sensed that they could win the presidency for the first time in 16 years B. One possible candidate was Dr. Woodrow Wilson, a once-mild conservative but now militant progressive who had been the president of Princeton University, governor of New Jersey (where he didn’t permit himself to be controlled by the bosses, and had attacked trusts and passed liberal measures) 1) In 1912, in Baltimore, the Democrats nominated Wilson on the 46th ballot after William Jennings Bryan swung his support over to Wilson’s side C. The Democratic ticket would run under a platform called “New Freedom,” which would limit both big business and big government, bring about reform by ending corruption, and revive competition by supporting small business

The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912 A. At the Progressive convention, Jane Addams put Theodore Roosevelt’s name on the nomination, and as TR spoke, he ignited an almost-religious spirit in the crowd 1) TR got the Progressive nomination, and entering the campaign, TR said that he felt “as strong as a bull moose,” making that animal the unofficial Progressive symbol B. Republican William Taft and TR tore into each other, as the former friends now ripped every aspect of each other’s platforms and personalities C. Meanwhile, TR’s New Nationalism and Wilson’s New Freedom became the key issues 1) Roosevelt’s New Nationalism was inspired by Herbert Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1910), and it stated that the government should control the bad trusts, leaving the good trusts alone and free to operate 2) TR also campaigned for woman suffrage and a broad program of social welfare, such as minimum-wage laws and “socialistic” social insurance D. The campaign was stopped when Roosevelt was shot in the chest in Milwaukee, but he delivered his speech anyway, was rushed to the hospital, and recovered in two weeks

Woodrow Wilson: Minority President A. Woodrow Wilson easily won with 435 Electoral votes, while TR had 88 and Taft only had 8, but the Democrat did not receive the majority of the popular vote (only 41%) B. Socialist Eugene V. Debs racked up over 900,000 popular votes, while the combined popular totals of TR and Taft exceeded Wilson 1) Had the Republican Party not been split in 1910, it still could have won C. William Taft would later become the only U.S. president to be appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as well, when he did so in 1921

Wilson: The Idealist in Politics A. Woodrow Wilson was a sympathizer with the South, a fine orator, a sincere and morally appealing politician, and a very intelligent man 1) He was also cold, personality-wise, austere, intolerant of stupidity, and very idealistic B. When convinced he was right, Wilson would break before he would bend, unlike TR C. Like Roosevelt, he believed that a president should actively lead Congress and, when necessary, appeal directly to the people to rally their support for his legislative program D. In his inaugural address in 1913, he attacked “the triple wall of privilege” – tariffs, banking, and trusts

Wilson Tackles the Tariff A. Wilson called a special session of Congress to lower the tariff 1) Wilson broke the longstanding tradition of writing to Congress by speaking to them in person B. Passage of the Underwood Tariff of 1913, substantially reduced import fees for the first time in 50 years 1) To compensate for the reduced tariff revenues the bill included a graduated income tax 2) 1913 – Sixteenth Amendment

Wilson Battles the Bankers A. The nation’s financial structure, as created under the Civil War National Banking Act had proven to be glaringly ineffective, as shown by the Panic of 1907 1) Wilson was persuaded that the gold standard was inflexible and that banks, rather than serving the public interest, were too much influenced by stock speculators on Wall Street B. Wilson went directly to Congress in 1913 to propose a plan for building both stability and flexibility into the U.S. financial system C. The result was the epochal 1913 Federal Reserve Act, which created the new Federal Reserve Board, which oversaw a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank, and had the power to issue paper money (“Federal Reserve Notes”)

The President Tames the Trusts A. In 1914, Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act 1) New regulatory agency was empowered to investigate and take action against any “unfair trade practice” in every industry except banking and transportation B. The 1914 Clayton Anti-Trust Act 1) Greatly strengthened the provisions in the Sherman Antitrust Act for breaking up monopolies 2) Most important for organized labor, the new law contained a clause for exempting unions from being prosecuted as trusts

Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide A. After tackling the triple wall of privilege and leading progressive victory after victory, Wilson proceeded with further reforms B. Federal Farm Loan Act in 1916 1) 12 regional federal farm loan banks were established to provide farm loans at low interest rates D. Child Labor Act in 1916 1) Long favored by the settlement house workers and labor unions 2) Prohibited the shipment in interstate commerce of products manufactured by children under 14 years old 3) The Supreme Court founds this act to be unconstitutional in the 1918 case of Hammer v. Dagenhart E. The Workingmen’s Compensation Act of 1916 granted assistance of federal civil-service employees during periods of instability but was invalidated by the Supreme Court F. The 1916 Adamson Act established an eight-hour workday with overtime pay G. Wilson even nominated Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—making him the first Jew ever in that position—but stopped short of helping out Blacks in their civil rights fight H. Wilson appeased the business by appointing a few conservatives to the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Trade Commission, but he used most of his energies for progressive support

African Americans in the Progressive Era A. In championing greater democracy for the American people, leaders of the Progressive movement thought only in terms of the white race B. African Americans were, for the most, ignored by Progressive presidents and governors C. President Wilson, with a strong southern heritage and many of the racist attitudes of the times, acquiesced to the demands of southern Democrats and permitted the segregation of federal workers and buildings D. The status of African Americans had declined steadily since the days of Reconstruction E. The Progressive era coincided with years when thousands of blacks were lynched by racist mobs. Progressives did nothing about segregation and lynching for two reasons: 1) They shared in the general prejudice of their times 2) They considered other reforms to more important than anti-lynching laws because such reforms benefited everyone in American society, not just one group

Two Approaches: Washington and Du Bois A. Booker T. Washington and his philosophy of accommodation failed to stem the rising tide of racism, and a number of young and well-educated blacks broke away from his leadership B. W.E.B. Du Bois, the first American black to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard, called upon blacks to reject Washington’s accommodationism C. He urged to take pride in their racial and cultural heritage and demanded that blacks take their rightful place in society without waiting for whites to give it to them 1) He recognized that environment, not racial factors, caused problems of poverty and crime D. Du Bois was not, however, an admirer of the ordinary black American 1) Frankly elitist in approach, Du Bois contended that a “talented tenth” of blacks would lead the way to their race’s success E. In 1905, he and other like-minded blacks founded the Niagara Movement 1) While it failed to attract mass support, it did stir some white consciences F. A group comprised largely of white liberals founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 1) The NAACP was dedicated to the eradication of racial discrimination from American society 2) The leadership of the NAACP was largely white in its early years, but Du Bois became a national officer and editor of the organization’s journal 3) More important, after the founding of the NAACP, virtually every leader in the struggle for racial equality rejected Washington’s approach