Combining Achievement and Well-Being in the Assessment of Education Systems

Combining achievement and well-being in the assessment of education systems

Supplementary tables

1 Table S1. List of variables used in the analysis Average % Average Total % missing by S.D. by Variable Description missing country Average mean by country country math Student mathematics performance 0.0% 0.0% 494.04 89.12 belong (^) Students' index of sense of belonging 35.1% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 female Student is a girl (dummy variable) 0.0% 0.0% 0.50 0.50 age Age of the student (in years and months) 0.0% 0.0% 15.77 0.29 Student immigrant status (dummy variables: native, first generation or 2.8% 2.9% 0.89 0.27 immig second generation immigrant student) Student speaks a language at home that is different from the language of 4.7% 4.7% 0.10 0.25 lngother the assessment (dummy variable) Student household composition (dummy variables: bi-parental home, only 5.1% 6.2% 0.96 0.18 housecomp mother, only father, lives with grandparents, other configuration). escs Students' PISA index of economic, social and cultural status 1.7% 2.1% 0.00 0.90 xescs School average PISA index of economic, social and cultural status 0.1% 0.1% 0.00 0.48 mother_isei Mother's occupational status (ISEI) 20.5% 19.1% 45.21 21.05 father_isei Father's occupational status (ISEI) 12.5% 13.8% 43.62 21.05 cultpos Students' index of cultural possessions at home 2.5% 2.7% 0.00 0.97 hedres Students' index of educatonal resources at home 1.5% 1.7% 0.00 0.94 homepos Students' index of home possessions 1.3% 1.5% 0.00 0.89 icthome Students' index of ICT resources at home 20.3% 18.8% 0.00 0.90 ictres School ICT resources 1.5% 1.6% 0.00 0.84 pared Highest parent educational attainment (in years) 3.3% 3.9% 13.49 2.65 wealth Students' index of wealth 1.3% 1.5% 0.00 0.85 graderep Student has repeated a grade (dummy variable) 5.3% 7.6% 0.13 0.30 agestrt Age student started primary school 5.8% 5.7% 6.08 0.60 Student attended pre-primary school (dummy variables: no, for one year or 1.8% 2.0% 0.07 0.21 preschool less, for at least a year).

2 Table S1 (continued).

Average % Average Total % missing by S.D. by Variable Description missing country Average mean by country country isced3 Student attends ISCED 3 programme (dummy variable) 0.0% 0.0% 0.54 0.26 Grade level attended by student (dummy variable: at, above or below the 0.2% 0.3% -0.08 0.48 grade modal grade) mathperiods (^) Number of mathematics classes per week 37.7% 38.3% 4.17 1.19 mmins (^) Total mathematics learning time per week in school (in minutes) 40.2% 40.7% 218.14 72.94 homework (^) Time spent doing homework (in hours) 36.7% 36.7% 4.90 4.37 lmins (^) Total language learning time per week in school (in minutes) 40.6% 41.0% 215.10 72.34 smins (^) Total science learning time per week in school (in minutes) 42.9% 43.5% 200.37 104.55 outhours (^) Out of school study time (in hours) 35.6% 35.9% 9.22 8.13 Student arrived late two school at least once in the previous week (dummy 1.5% 1.6% 0.35 0.46 late variable) atschl (^) Students' index of attitudes toward school 35.2% 35.5% 0.00 0.98 intmat (^) Students' index of intrinsic motivation to learn mathematics 34.6% 34.9% 0.00 0.97 instmot (^) Students' index of instrumental motivation to learn mathematics 34.7% 35.0% 0.00 0.96 matheff (^) Students' index of mathematics self-efficacy 34.7% 35.0% 0.00 0.98 selcon (^) Students' index of mathematics self-concept 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.98 failmat (^) Students' index of attributions to failure in mathematics 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 matbeh (^) Students' index of mathematics behaviour 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 matintfc (^) Students' index of mathematics intentions 37.7% 38.3% 0.00 0.99 matwketh (^) Students' index of mathematics work ethic 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 openps (^) Students' index of openness to problem solving 35.1% 35.4% 0.00 0.97 persev (^) Students' index of perseverance 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.96 subnorm (^) Students' index of subjective norms in mathematics 34.7% 35.0% 0.00 0.95 disclima (^) Index of disciplinary climate 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.98 studrel (^) Index of student-teacher relations 35.1% 35.3% 0.00 0.98

3 Table S1 (continued).

Average % Average Total % missing by S.D. by Variable Description missing country Average mean by country country teachsup (^) Index of teacher support 34.8% 35.1% 0.00 0.96 cogact (^) Index of cognitive activation by the part of teachers 35.1% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 mactiv Index of cognitive activation in mathematics 3.5% 4.0% 2.36 1.17 mtsup Index of teacher support in mathematics 0.0% 0.0% 0.00 0.97 clsize Class size 4.1% 4.1% 26.88 5.90 ictsch ICT availability in school 20.4% 18.8% 0.00 0.92 School type (dummy variable: private independent, government dependent, 4.2% 4.4% 0.04 0.14 schtype public) Percentage of school funding that comes from government or public 12.5% 14.2% 85.38 16.96 govfund sources schsize School size 6.6% 8.1% 734.56 405.92 stratio Student-teacher ratio 10.2% 10.2% 13.32 4.73 smratio Student-mathematics teacher ratio 10.5% 10.3% 106.33 60.25 pcgirls Percentage of girls in the school 2.6% 3.1% 0.48 0.17 tqual_cert Percentage of certified teachers 0.0% 0.0% 0.87 0.17 tqual_isced Percentage of teachers holding an ISCED 5 - level degree 0.0% 0.0% 0.86 0.18 tmath_isced Percentage of mathematics teachers holding and ISCED 5 - level degree 0.0% 0.0% 0.59 0.31 tmath_prop Percentage of mathematics teachers in the school 0.0% 0.0% 0.17 0.08 city School location (dummy variable: large city, city, town, rural area) 2.7% 3.0% 0.24 0.40 School selectivity (dummy variable: recommendation from feeder schools or prior academic achievement is never, sometimes or always used for 4.1% 4.8% 0.32 0.39 admission into the school) selectiv School choice: residence in school catchment area is used for admission 4.0% 4.8% 0.39 0.40 choice_area into the school (dummy variable) School choice: parental agreement with philosophical orientation of the 4.3% 5.1% 0.16 0.32 choice_prnt school is used for admission into the school (dummy variable) School choice: students' special education needs is used for admission into 4.1% 4.9% 0.22 0.38 choice_spec the school (dummy variable)

4 Table S1 (continued). Average % Average Total % missing by S.D. by Variable Description missing country Average mean by country country Ability grouping in mathematics (dummy variable: students are grouped by ability in mathematics in all subjects, in some subjects or are not grouped at 4.6% 5.4% 0.26 0.36 abgrp all) scmatedu School index of educational resources 3.5% 4.0% 0.05 0.92 scmatbui School index of building infrastructure 5.6% 6.8% -0.03 0.96 tcshort School index of teacher shortage 3.6% 4.1% -0.03 0.85 Ratio of computers connected to the web and number of computers in the 8.4% 8.1% 0.97 0.09 compweb school creactiv School index of creative extracurricular activities 3.6% 4.2% 1.81 0.88 mathexc (^) School index of mathematics extracurricular activities 34.9% 35.1% 2.46 0.59 studclim School index of student factors affecting school climate 0.0% 0.0% -0.08 0.91 teacclim School index of teacher factors affecting school climate 0.0% 0.0% -0.09 0.91 tcmorale School index of teacher morale 3.6% 4.2% 0.00 0.92 Student assessments are used to monitor teacher practice (dummy 4.0% 4.6% 0.78 0.38 tmoni_studtest variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to inform 3.7% 4.3% 0.98 0.11 assmnt_inform parents of student progress (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to decide on 3.8% 4.3% 0.77 0.31 assmnt_retprom student promotion or retention (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to decide on 4.0% 4.5% 0.51 0.43 assmnt_group student ability grouping (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to monitor 3.9% 4.5% 0.81 0.33 assmnt_monit teacher practice (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to evaluate 4.2% 4.7% 0.50 0.45 assmnt_tcheff teacher effectiveness (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to make 3.9% 4.5% 0.80 0.36 assmnt_curr decisions on the curriculum (dummy variable) Student assessment results from standardised tests are used to compare to assmnt_compsc 5.9% 7.0% 0.53 0.45 h other schools or regional/national benchmarks (dummy variable)

5 Table S1 (continued). Average % Average Total % missing by S.D. by Variable Description missing country Average mean by country country respcur School index of autonomy in curriculum and assessment 0.5% 0.7% -0.04 0.78 respres School index of autonomy in resources 0.5% 0.7% -0.05 0.69 School index of principal leadership: framing and communicating schools' 4.1% 4.8% 0.01 0.89 leadcom goals and curricular development leadinst School index of principal leadership: instructional leadership 4.3% 5.0% 0.00 0.90 School index of principal leadership: promoting instructional improvements 4.9% 5.9% -0.01 0.90 leadpd and professional development leadtch School index of principal leadership: teacher participation in leadership 5.1% 6.1% -0.02 0.90 tcfocst Index of teacher focus 4.0% 4.7% -0.13 0.94 tchbehfa (^) Index of teacher behaviour: formative assessment 35.0% 35.3% 0.00 0.97 tchbehso (^) Index of teacher behaviour: student orientation 35.0% 35.2% 0.00 0.96 tchbehtd (^) Index of teacher behaviour: teacher-directed instruction 34.9% 35.2% 0.00 0.98 tchparti School index of teacher participation and autonomy 2.9% 3.5% -0.02 0.85

Notes: As a result of questionnaire rotation, certain questions and indices (^) in the student questionnaire were answered by only 2/3 of the students in the sample. Indices are provided in the PISA 2012 Database and built from student or school-questionnaire responses (9, 25). Source: Own calculations based on PISA 2012 Database.

6 Table S2. Relationship between independent variables and mathematics performance in each of the 12 model countries

Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U intercept 374.968 438.663 6 485.409 45 544.192 296.539 23.26 464.376 718.36 522.978 9 5. 1 5 9 25 . 1 2 8 7 female -9.075 -2.210 - -16.918 8. -6.821 -2.925 - 5.541 -6.353 -7.163 1 01 5.727 2 1 . 9 4 5 age 7.500 2.528 - -1.060 3. -7.086 9.799 6.153 0.398 -2.463 -0.130 1 36 7 5 . 9 0 8 immig (native) 22.891 9.016 1 9.984 30 16.170 -8.932 440.4 26.493 12.720 -11.545 3 .5 64 . 80 7 0 1 immig (1st) 0.930 -0.400 5 1.630 5. 6.650 10.130 1353. -6.180 34.340 -13.210 . 68 030 9 0 9 0 lngother -5.130 4.818 - -8.657 - -3.652 -66.636 - -8.820 -3.874 -2.909 1 13 48.54 4 .5 1 . 65 4 1 9 housecomp (mother) -5.817 6.445 3 3.842 9. 9.725 14.721 21.40 6.757 28.618 7.099 . 82 9 5 7 1 9 housecomp (father) 1.042 5.879 0 1.400 6. 7.060 -2.348 - 5.863 8.611 3.488 . 52 4.515 7 8 0 3 housecomp (grand) 0.363 -1.423 3 -6.257 - 0.391 -1.064 - -7.149 3.334 -2.929 . 19 0.615 6 .5 7 05 8 housecomp (other) 0.155 -10.209 8 -5.575 - 4.837 -2.568 - -16.705 1.311 -12.588 . 9. 13.86 6 16 6 9 2 5 escs 2.517 0.373 - 2.288 - 4.661 2.860 6.103 -12.751 -5.931 -1.331 1 2. . 84 0 0 6 5 escs (school 29.218 16.969 4 12.740 16 33.613 84.750 37.77 21.497 27.586 15.180 average) 1 .7 7 . 13 7 6 1 mother_isei 0.129 0.143 0 0.116 0. 0.043 -0.036 0.114 0.357 0.290 0.122 . 16 0 3 4 5 father_isei 0.108 0.222 0 0.101 0. -0.047 -0.004 - 0.259 0.195 0.396 . 25 0.181 1 2 2 4 cultposs -0.367 -2.931 - -0.186 - -2.530 -1.801 - -2.296 -1.280 1.285 2 2. 7.190 . 33 9 5 1 0 hedres 0.491 -5.788 - -7.519 - -5.005 -8.602 - -6.968 -3.252 -4.052 3 11 5.633 . .9 7 06 8 4 homeposs 6.245 18.646 1 25.598 35 28.562 22.921 36.83 24.907 21.142 12.418 4 .2 1 . 34 7 4 4 icthome -5.199 0.000 - -3.879 - 0.000 -4.645 - -8.066 - 0.000 1 7. 3.875 10.648 2 57 . 9 3 7 7 ictres 4.659 3.130 3 5.057 2. 0.626 8.875 7.461 3.256 4.876 3.154 . 73 9 1 4 0 pared -0.552 0.527 0 -0.266 1. -0.099 -1.060 - 1.624 2.393 0.786 . 23 0.421 1 7 0 7 wealth -9.289 -17.508 - -23.810 - -22.280 -24.817 - -20.991 - -11.157 1 29 43.15 15.197 2 .0 5 . 98 2 0 6 graderep -16.793 -24.893 - -14.457 - -5.224 0.000 - 0.000 -2.917 -18.632 4 28 16.21 . .1 4 7 86 4 6 agestrt -5.312 -2.882 - -5.455 - -1.698 0.000 - -0.929 - -4.256 4 5. 12.66 34.222 . 59 0 9 9 0 6 preschool (no) -8.837 -15.349 - -16.927 - -11.806 -10.545 0.476 -2.710 - 5.497 1 11 14.634 . .2 4 98 7 3 preschool (one) -11.772 -9.109 - -4.004 - -21.980 -20.141 - -13.262 -0.675 -1.614 7 4. 0.423 . 55 9 6 2 8 isced (2) -2.526 4.894 2 42.382 - -25.372 0.000 6.015 -28.087 0.000 -13.467 4 11 . .3 6 02 2 3 grade 31.695 19.725 3 36.610 24 28.865 0.000 3.655 15.429 41.086 11.429 2 .4 . 86 4 5 8

Table S2 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U mathperiods 10.566 -1.789 4 9.543 3. 2.653 -3.336 - 2.527 -1.016 3.262 . 48 4.625 5 1 0 2 mmins 0.001 0.037 - -0.225 - 0.014 0.171 0.127 -0.008 0.000 -0.043 0 0. . 11 0 2 0 7 homework 4.324 4.290 0 2.636 5. 2.724 4.864 2.580 4.757 3.288 5.229 . 84 5 2 8 8 lmins -0.051 -0.034 - -0.019 0. -0.015 -0.019 - 0.002 -0.019 0.005 0 03 0.033 . 0 0 7 3 smins 0.035 0.022 0 0.116 0. 0.055 0.095 0.076 0.000 0.002 0.064 . 10 0 0 1 1 outhours -2.746 -2.611 - -1.220 - -1.517 -2.591 - -2.472 -1.710 -1.972 1 4. 0.711 . 22 0 3 1 0 late -10.339 -13.227 - -5.207 - -13.246 -9.030 - -12.780 -7.316 -9.181 3 7. 5.577 . 33 4 9 9 3 atschl -2.594 0.714 - -0.548 3. 0.304 -1.149 - 0.209 -4.686 1.269 1 06 4.407 . 6 1 0 4 intmat -0.588 -3.370 1 0.073 - -5.431 5.026 - -6.916 -6.395 -9.053 . 3. 0.890 8 30 0 6 1 instmot 7.774 4.353 2 5.760 7. 3.299 3.266 7.371 5.895 7.233 2.985 . 09 7 4 9 0 matheff 13.510 22.192 1 18.768 18 17.211 22.212 24.93 22.111 24.964 23.140 9 .1 1 . 38 2 7 8 selcon 12.703 21.614 1 11.338 27 22.673 10.628 18.26 28.339 26.235 27.910 8 .5 4 . 93 6 7 1 failmat -2.577 0.915 3 1.313 0. -2.647 2.531 - -0.830 -1.256 0.817 . 75 0.266 5 2 0 1 matbeh 1.499 3.624 - -3.629 0. -4.172 4.139 8.280 -2.145 -1.453 -3.112 0 03 . 3 9 0 4 matintfc 0.856 -2.299 - 2.129 1. -3.959 -2.136 - 0.766 1.689 -1.550 3 58 0.596 . 8 0 9 8 matwketh -9.097 -11.648 - -6.653 - -9.742 -11.567 - -3.817 -9.243 -15.841 3 8. 9.236 . 14 8 7 5 5 openps 9.748 10.107 2 8.560 9. 5.133 2.823 7.434 7.451 2.144 6.748 . 90 7 2 6 2 persev -2.265 -2.184 - 1.335 2. 1.584 0.682 2.800 0.220 4.991 -3.190 1 13 . 4 3 1 4 subnorm -7.053 -4.015 - -5.229 - -5.154 1.841 - -3.594 -6.513 -7.334 6 6. 1.667 . 71 8 7 8 6 disclima 3.450 6.165 6 2.592 - 4.419 5.017 3.490 2.954 3.414 9.077 . 0. 3 26 1 1 4 studrel 2.488 0.348 - -0.374 - 2.111 -0.856 2.753 0.323 0.452 4.166 0 0. . 46 7 2 5 3 teachsup -2.407 3.018 0 1.621 2. 3.808 10.320 - 12.158 3.248 1.007 . 69 1.353 4 6 4 0 7.013 2.780 3 4.155 3. 2.702 2.401 4.916 1.477 8.460 1.418 . 54 8 9 6 cogact 0 2.370 1.294 1 -0.877 0. 5.028 0.025 0.763 -1.857 2.837 1.373 . 60 4 3 1 mactiv 4 -1.995 1.389 - -1.502 - -1.961 -5.933 7.412 0.935 -6.826 2.026 0 2. . 10 4 9 1 mtsup 3 -0.167 0.719 0 -0.183 0. 0.837 0.964 - 0.477 0.253 -1.320 . 52 0.595 9 7 9 clsize 3 -0.927 0.000 - -1.475 - 0.000 -1.558 - -5.626 -1.846 0.000 1 3. 0.422 . 36 6 3 4 ictsch 8 36.124 -9.759 - -7.536 0. 0.000 -37.170 2.795 0.000 10.823 -41.943 4 00 4 0 . 7 3 schtype (private) 0 schtype (govpriv) 14.058 4.212 - -2.040 - 2.933 0.000 1.644 -19.879 23.103 0.000 1 10 3 .1 . 03 5 9 7 -0.099 -0.064 - 0.046 0. 0.000 -0.121 0.022 -1.114 0.200 -0.303 0 20 . 5 6 1 govfund 2 0.000 0.007 0 -0.007 0. -0.002 -0.002 0.007 -0.006 -0.001 0.001 . 02 0 0 0 schsize 3 0.436 0.645 - 0.226 - -0.153 -2.111 1.663 -6.898 3.779 -1.183 0 2. . 36 0 1 2 stratio 1

Table S2 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U 0.047 -0.021 0 0.014 0. 0.024 0.327 - 1.113 -0.294 0.178 . 00 0.148 0 7 3 smratio 1 -3.570 -2.004 4 0.344 17 22.783 -22.200 - 1.959 -4.681 -3.392 . .4 15.35 3 01 2 4 pcgirls 8 -5.365 -8.137 1 0.000 - 17.830 183.283 - -5.258 - 16.862 8 3. 89.26 25.160 . 18 8 8 4 3 tqual_cert 9 11.255 8.158 0 -1.525 0. 0.580 - 140.5 0.000 5.919 16.270 . 00 112.811 60 0 0 0 tqual_isced 0 tmath_isced 12.864 4.574 6 -6.017 - 4.770 0.000 - 6.016 11.838 3.072 . 0. 11.24 0 30 5 2 4 7 89.870 -5.040 - -12.320 34 170.800 156.550 11.62 107.630 - 123.170 3 .5 0 193.81 6 30 0 . 1 1 tmath_prop 0 city -2.712 -2.695 - -0.232 - 4.663 2.132 - -4.291 1.807 0.299 6 0. 10.06 . 56 9 2 7 9 6 largecity -11.920 -3.906 - 3.000 0. -11.823 11.045 - 0.000 16.136 3.181 1 00 16.59 0 0 3 . 6 2 7 rural -12.372 7.509 - -2.058 14 2.205 0.000 - -26.665 3.307 15.124 0 .8 6.621 . 23 4 3 4 selectiv (never) 1.917 14.782 1 5.122 8. 9.865 26.648 9.664 6.607 25.495 -2.468 2 25 . 0 5 1 9 selectiv (some) 6.753 13.819 1 10.135 9. 8.580 15.809 3.688 22.102 23.320 2.815 2 27 . 8 9 3 4 choice (area) 5.324 9.675 8 5.558 - 12.713 16.103 5.445 0.000 24.024 7.370 . 1. 6 60 3 4 3 choice (prnt) 0.771 -1.577 - -5.071 - -6.658 8.650 - 18.850 -4.963 -8.991 1 1. 8.171 6 42 . 7 3 1 7 choice (special) -6.689 8.309 4 -9.155 0. -11.721 -15.149 4.888 0.867 9.908 1.016 . 05 0 2 8 1 abgrp (no) 5.296 -3.215 5 2.634 2. -9.241 5.003 12.12 4.576 1.843 -18.954 . 65 1 2 4 2 8 abgrp (some) 5.441 0.637 6 -0.914 - -3.581 -1.120 9.292 -0.572 -1.736 -3.916 . 1. 8 59 8 1 9 0.130 -2.102 5 0.304 0. -0.176 -2.467 - -1.407 -1.882 -3.612 . 59 6.789 9 6 6 scmatedu 1 0.650 1.605 - -0.693 - -1.197 1.985 1.641 -0.792 -1.139 5.167 3 1. . 80 4 5 8 scmatbui 8 -4.711 1.359 - -1.181 1. -2.428 3.205 - 1.639 -0.474 -1.533 2 05 2.501 . 8 9 3 tcshort 8 -9.342 4.766 - 7.462 - -18.776 -5.121 21.94 26.189 - -1.110 2 70 6 13.683 2 .3 . 14 0 7 compweb 8 creactiv 1.213 -0.659 9 -1.750 - 0.047 7.575 6.923 -3.174 -5.313 1.730 . 0. 6 11 4 9 5 -2.538 -2.110 1 3.310 0. -8.811 4.948 - 12.172 -2.461 -0.538 1 89 7.185 . 3 9 0 mathexc 5 2.683 6.501 4 3.634 4. 9.189 1.045 9.301 2.602 5.173 0.185 . 94 1 4 8 studclim 3 0.194 -1.393 - -1.799 - -4.037 -0.015 - 0.071 -6.172 -0.755 1 0. 4.258 . 85 6 7 5 teacclim 2 -1.084 2.786 - 0.823 - -0.424 1.589 2.443 2.635 1.854 -0.058 0 0. . 05 5 5 1 tcmorale 0 4.368 3.088 - -2.604 1. 0.753 12.703 - 3.631 0.000 -18.987 6 45 6.083 . 3 2 8 tmoni_studtest 2 2.146 -16.594 6 6.237 - -2.460 -55.274 9.009 19.678 - -36.624 . 2. 28.149 3 45 3 6 assmnt_inform 9 17.668 -4.405 2 0.917 2. 13.811 -7.165 2.754 27.180 2.077 -1.701 6 10 . 0 2 1 assmnt_retprom 8 assmnt_group 5.550 3.545 - -1.751 0. -1.482 4.440 - 4.825 -2.213 -0.545 1 49 1.086 2 8 . 1 0 7

Table S2 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U 1.662 2.442 3 -3.540 0. -4.486 -2.344 - -9.936 11.690 -9.244 . 12 6.424 9 6 4 assmnt_monit 6 -5.153 -1.011 0 0.157 - 0.723 -3.689 - 4.689 0.891 3.879 . 8. 6.606 1 78 4 4 assmnt_tcheff 5 -6.104 -6.459 2 1.533 2. -3.076 2.975 - -0.771 1.260 -1.864 . 35 6.051 0 1 1 assmnt_curr 7 7.271 4.827 - 4.489 0. 1.907 -7.113 14.52 -14.951 1.926 3.371 3 48 9 . 5 0 7 assmnt_compsch 7 -0.382 3.649 - -0.183 2. 1.314 -1.027 4.211 0.122 1.268 -1.064 0 57 . 7 9 0 respcur 0 11.105 3.934 - 2.017 2. -8.701 3.853 - 1.707 - -1.865 2 48 1.565 10.390 8 5 . 0 8 respres 4 1.466 0.279 1 1.455 2. -1.931 -0.972 0.384 -9.028 2.139 -5.843 . 47 1 9 2 leadcom 4 leadinst 2.114 -2.284 1 -2.692 - -2.302 3.542 - 0.405 3.540 -0.500 . 1. 8.046 5 35 6 3 7 0.582 -0.867 - 0.652 - 1.780 -5.273 5.052 1.357 0.879 -4.467 7 3. . 10 3 9 0 leadpd 1 -2.676 -0.363 6 0.312 - 0.113 -0.660 0.538 6.309 -4.383 7.224 . 0. 4 42 2 8 leadtch 3 -0.620 -2.227 - 0.343 - -0.137 1.628 - 1.792 3.307 -0.247 1 1. 1.440 . 46 3 7 4 tcfocst 2 0.039 -6.709 - -2.162 - -0.314 -5.728 - -4.013 -1.847 -0.418 0 4. 10.16 . 06 7 0 6 2 tchbehfa 5 -7.759 -12.963 - -9.569 - -3.521 -12.778 - -11.742 -6.248 -12.403 9 11 14.83 . .8 2 6 55 4 tchbehso 3 -2.178 -0.093 - -3.366 - -7.166 3.066 1.030 -9.045 -0.702 -0.352 1 1. . 53 7 2 9 tchbehtd 5 3.544 3.863 - 0.509 0. 0.528 -0.643 0.047 -1.940 -3.167 0.545 1 31 . 3 9 6 tchparti 0

Note: Estimates from regression weighted OLS regression models on fully imputed country datasets. Source: Own calculation based on the PISA 2012 Database. Table S3. Relationship between independent variables and sense of belonging in each of the 12 model countries

Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U intercept 0.802 0.972 - 0.678 - -0.947 12.484 - 11.961 -0.188 -0.473 0 0. 27.62 . 86 0 5 4 3 0 female 0.049 -0.094 0 0.007 - 0.024 0.012 - 0.023 -0.015 -0.135 . 0. 0.125 0 10 1 8 4 age -0.055 -0.033 - -0.022 - 0.084 -0.041 - 0.026 -0.038 -0.022 0 0. 0.084 . 04 0 7 2 4 immig (native) -0.052 -0.035 0 0.105 - -0.035 -0.009 28.34 -0.183 -0.255 0.249 . 0. 8 1 08 1 7 5 immig (1st) -0.079 0.013 - -0.052 - -0.070 -0.522 26.37 -0.165 -0.916 0.007 0 0. 1 . 09 2 1 0 5 lngother -0.036 -0.072 0 -0.136 0. -0.136 0.603 0.184 -0.175 -0.247 0.124 . 08 1 3 4 2 housecomp (mother) -0.031 0.063 0 -0.112 - -0.056 0.112 - 0.176 0.008 0.015 . 0. 0.120 1 02 5 1 6 housecomp (father) -0.021 0.008 0 0.011 0. 0.064 0.035 0.068 0.048 -0.032 0.036 . 00 1 4 4 3 housecomp (grand) -0.036 0.002 0 -0.089 - -0.402 0.002 0.089 0.081 0.011 0.035 . 0. 0 08 3 8 1 housecomp (other) -0.086 0.009 0 -0.032 - 0.047 0.032 0.109 -0.061 -0.084 0.022 . 0. 1 01 2 1 8 escs -0.031 -0.013 - -0.089 0. -0.058 0.160 0.030 -0.136 -0.172 0.023 0 00 . 6 0 6 7 escs (school -0.091 -0.045 - -0.028 0. -0.029 0.039 0.080 -0.394 -0.077 -0.065 average) 0 05 . 9 0 1 5 mother_isei 0.001 0.000 - 0.000 - 0.001 -0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0 0. . 00 0 1 0 1 father_isei 0.000 -0.002 0 0.001 - 0.001 -0.003 0.000 0.000 0.003 -0.001 . 0. 0 00 0 1 0 cultposs 0.006 -0.026 - -0.016 - 0.036 0.041 - 0.011 0.018 -0.046 0 0. 0.010 . 00 0 3 0 3 hedres 0.027 0.046 0 0.091 0. 0.115 0.068 0.055 0.080 0.023 0.097 . 11 0 2 8 6 homeposs -0.036 -0.009 - -0.070 - -0.077 -0.282 - -0.038 -0.028 -0.089 0 0. 0.057 . 16 0 1 1 5 icthome 0.111 0.000 0 0.037 0. 0.000 0.058 0.044 0.072 0.051 0.000 . 10 0 9 6 9 ictres -0.061 -0.047 - -0.067 - -0.044 -0.081 - -0.055 -0.008 -0.042 0 0. 0.067 . 04 0 4 3 6 pared 0.008 0.005 0 0.010 - 0.017 -0.029 - 0.045 0.031 -0.025 . 0. 0.009 0 00 0 3 7 wealth 0.075 0.108 0 0.216 0. 0.146 0.311 0.071 0.158 0.096 0.110 . 16 0 4 5 8 graderep -0.034 -0.123 0 0.044 - 0.069 0.000 0.117 0.000 0.002 0.098 . 0. 0 05 1 1 2 agestrt -0.029 -0.008 - 0.015 0. -0.014 0.000 0.026 0.020 -0.038 0.003 0 02 . 5 0 3 0 preschool (no) -0.097 -0.030 - -0.037 - 0.035 -0.016 - -0.106 -0.164 0.188 0 0. 0.097 . 19 0 4 5 7 preschool (one) -0.085 0.043 - -0.045 - 0.022 -0.121 - -0.028 0.034 0.020 0 0. 0.013 . 00 0 8 6 3 isced (2) -0.017 -0.015 - -0.171 0. -0.191 0.000 0.073 -10.466 0.000 -0.036 0 07 . 3 1 3 4 grade -0.014 -0.074 - 0.007 - 0.035 0.000 - 0.136 -0.006 0.029 0 0. 0.055 . 01 0 8 3 0

Table S3 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U mathperiods -0.012 -0.024 - 0.138 0. 0.056 0.031 - 0.011 -0.105 0.023 0 01 0.116 . 1 0 4 2 mmins 0.000 0.000 0 -0.002 0. 0.000 -0.001 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 . 00 0 0 0 1 homework 0.002 -0.006 - -0.008 - -0.018 -0.008 - 0.003 -0.018 0.000 0 0. 0.030 . 01 0 1 0 1 lmins 0.000 0.000 0 0.001 0. 0.000 -0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.000 . 00 0 1 0 0 smins 0.000 0.000 0 -0.001 0. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.000 . 00 0 0 0 1 outhours -0.006 0.001 0 0.002 - 0.006 0.005 0.014 -0.003 0.004 0.002 . 0. 0 00 0 4 2 late -0.030 0.036 0 -0.030 0. -0.011 -0.135 - 0.077 0.071 0.008 . 03 0.017 0 5 3 7 atschl 0.334 0.312 0 0.323 0. 0.279 0.321 0.381 0.276 0.298 0.311 . 23 3 0 6 5 intmat -0.098 -0.091 - -0.159 - -0.027 -0.051 - -0.142 -0.083 -0.104 0 0. 0.050 . 01 0 1 7 2 instmot -0.030 -0.014 - 0.000 0. -0.039 0.007 - 0.120 0.011 -0.027 0 04 0.028 . 2 1 0 0 matheff 0.075 0.055 0 0.082 0. 0.086 0.056 0.071 0.064 0.013 0.065 . 03 1 8 2 8 selcon 0.018 0.038 0 0.029 - -0.047 0.011 0.049 -0.052 0.028 0.044 . 0. 0 06 8 7 0 failmat 0.012 -0.030 - -0.043 - -0.036 -0.022 - -0.039 0.017 0.013 0 0. 0.008 . 04 0 3 2 2 matbeh -0.009 -0.061 - -0.061 - -0.013 0.012 - -0.065 -0.015 -0.073 0 0. 0.034 . 03 0 8 9 1 matintfc 0.020 0.005 0 0.003 - 0.010 0.011 0.015 -0.033 -0.022 -0.052 . 0. 0 01 0 2 3 matwketh 0.034 0.045 0 -0.010 0. 0.090 0.017 - 0.011 -0.004 0.102 . 03 0.030 0 7 0 3 openps 0.010 0.042 0 0.060 0. 0.082 -0.001 0.073 0.065 0.144 0.014 . 06 0 4 4 3 persev 0.056 0.055 - 0.080 0. -0.037 0.057 0.056 0.004 0.083 0.050 0 00 . 1 0 0 6 subnorm 0.005 0.072 0 0.067 0. 0.012 -0.031 - 0.061 0.019 0.146 . 02 0.036 0 7 6 4 disclima 0.055 0.043 0 0.046 0. 0.024 0.110 0.062 0.093 0.020 0.022 . 08 0 0 2 2 studrel 0.251 0.187 0 0.209 0. 0.139 0.218 0.214 0.229 0.188 0.170 . 25 2 6 4 3 teachsup 0.006 0.002 0 -0.017 0. -0.005 -0.021 0.025 -0.026 -0.015 -0.006 . 00 0 1 0 3 0.002 0.022 - 0.035 - 0.014 -0.004 0.045 0.047 0.034 0.040 0 0. . 00 0 8 4 cogact 9 mactiv -0.035 0.028 - 0.004 0. 0.030 -0.020 0.029 -0.013 -0.009 0.017 0 00 . 8 0 5 1 -0.006 0.002 - 0.031 0. 0.037 0.008 - 0.031 0.008 0.029 0 04 0.046 . 5 0 3 mtsup 0 -0.005 -0.001 - 0.000 - -0.002 0.005 0.002 -0.009 0.001 -0.002 0 0. . 00 0 3 0 clsize 1 0.011 0.000 0 0.007 - 0.000 0.023 0.003 0.009 0.050 0.000 . 0. 0 01 5 6 ictsch 0 0.081 0.042 0 0.014 0. 0.000 0.054 - 0.000 -0.151 0.202 . 00 0.111 2 0 0 schtype (private) 4 schtype (govpriv) -0.004 -0.065 0 0.090 0. -0.200 0.000 - -1.071 -0.055 0.000 . 04 0.052 2 3 7 8 0.000 -0.001 0 0.002 0. 0.000 0.000 - -0.040 0.002 0.003 . 01 0.001 0 2 0 govfund 8 0.000 0.000 0 0.000 0. 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 . 00 0 0 0 schsize 0 0.001 -0.006 - 0.002 0. -0.006 0.003 - -0.005 0.010 -0.010 0 01 0.016 . 1 0 0 stratio 1 Table S3 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U 0.000 0.000 - 0.000 - 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.006 0.000 0.001 0 0. . 00 0 1 0 smratio 1 -0.024 0.024 0 -0.086 - 0.169 -0.096 0.316 0.528 0.047 0.131 . 0. 5 02 4 7 pcgirls 1 0.001 -0.041 - 0.000 0. -0.024 -5.503 0.695 0.195 0.071 0.167 0 17 . 6 1 3 tqual_cert 8 0.255 0.050 0 0.016 0. -0.069 -6.272 - 0.000 -0.068 -0.505 . 00 0.718 0 0 0 tqual_isced 0 -0.242 0.148 - 0.058 - 0.015 0.000 - -0.067 0.012 -0.031 0 0. 0.012 . 14 0 0 0 tmath_isced 5 0.688 0.405 - -0.151 - 0.303 1.539 0.273 0.293 -1.040 1.390 0 0. . 33 0 9 9 tmath_prop 9 city 0.007 0.099 0 0.068 0. 0.041 0.059 0.050 0.078 0.047 0.027 . 05 1 1 0 6 largecity -0.043 0.051 0 0.140 0. 0.146 0.021 0.053 0.000 0.015 0.013 . 00 1 0 6 9 rural -0.076 -0.037 0 -0.055 - 0.130 0.000 - -0.085 -0.085 -0.063 . 0. 0.133 1 09 5 4 0 selectiv (never) -0.059 -0.048 - -0.054 - -0.312 -0.309 0.060 -0.187 0.168 0.018 0 0. . 25 2 2 3 6 selectiv (some) -0.078 -0.028 - 0.020 - -0.208 -0.094 0.062 0.089 -0.025 -0.025 0 0. . 26 2 3 0 6 choice (area) -0.002 -0.034 - -0.084 - -0.200 -0.082 0.095 0.000 -0.010 -0.002 0 0. . 06 0 7 5 0 choice (prnt) -0.058 0.041 - -0.021 - -0.024 -0.126 - 0.165 0.038 -0.008 0 0. 0.013 . 04 0 1 3 8 choice (special) -0.006 -0.002 0 -0.066 - -0.101 0.059 0.051 -0.150 -0.006 -0.018 . 0. 0 08 4 6 2 abgrp (no) 0.106 -0.058 - -0.059 0. 0.091 -0.041 - 0.204 0.036 0.269 0 06 0.023 . 9 0 8 7 abgrp (some) 0.075 -0.014 - -0.023 0. 0.112 -0.088 - -0.005 -0.122 0.118 0 06 0.042 . 2 0 7 4 -0.042 -0.017 - 0.006 0. -0.053 0.011 - -0.023 0.004 0.011 0 03 0.025 . 0 0 0 scmatedu 3 -0.025 0.015 - 0.017 0. 0.035 0.001 0.003 0.042 0.019 -0.027 0 01 . 0 0 0 scmatbui 9 -0.007 0.027 - -0.014 0. -0.009 -0.009 - 0.028 0.042 0.013 0 01 0.036 . 3 0 1 tcshort 0 0.024 -0.477 0 -0.301 0. -0.288 0.004 0.195 0.637 0.319 0.104 . 58 0 7 9 compweb 1 0.000 -0.011 0 0.015 0. -0.008 0.031 - 0.013 0.013 -0.014 . 01 0.018 0 0 3 creactiv 5 0.040 0.005 0 -0.034 - -0.017 0.081 0.028 0.171 0.076 -0.015 . 0. 0 03 6 2 mathexc 1 0.012 0.003 0 0.023 0. 0.042 -0.043 0.009 0.004 0.033 0.064 . 03 0 8 3 studclim 3 0.032 -0.009 - -0.020 - 0.016 0.066 0.010 0.022 -0.009 -0.015 0 0. . 01 0 0 5 teacclim 2 tcmorale 0.011 -0.006 0 0.001 0. -0.012 0.024 - 0.039 0.007 -0.001 . 01 0.019 0 7 3 1 0.053 -0.012 - 0.048 0. 0.019 0.022 - 0.047 0.000 0.019 0 00 0.019 . 1 0 6 tmoni_studtest 7 -0.035 -0.166 - -0.223 - -0.091 0.163 - 0.078 -0.191 0.484 0 0. 0.214 . 06 0 1 7 assmnt_inform 2 0.100 0.027 - 0.210 - -0.129 0.015 0.023 0.211 0.034 -0.013 0 0. . 10 1 4 5 assmnt_retprom 5 0.094 -0.028 - -0.059 0. 0.041 -0.057 0.000 0.049 0.002 -0.016 0 03 . 9 0 4 assmnt_group 3

Table S3 (continued). Variable BEL CAN D ESP FI FRA JPN KOR NOR POL USA E N U 0.039 -0.038 - 0.000 - -0.069 0.037 - -0.095 -0.047 -0.258 0 0. 0.060 . 01 0 1 8 assmnt_monit 1 -0.008 -0.021 0 -0.025 - 0.048 0.001 0.157 -0.010 -0.032 -0.067 . 0. 0 01 4 2 assmnt_tcheff 2 -0.075 0.040 0 0.005 0. 0.084 -0.025 - -0.051 0.101 -0.007 . 01 0.004 0 5 4 assmnt_curr 2 -0.083 0.022 - -0.010 0. 0.058 -0.042 - -0.033 0.011 0.069 0 00 0.001 . 6 0 1 assmnt_compsch 2 0.046 -0.018 - -0.008 0. -0.008 0.016 - -0.005 0.011 0.030 0 02 0.019 . 0 0 4 respcur 9 0.097 0.025 - 0.005 - 0.152 -0.023 - -0.063 0.035 0.031 0 0. 0.024 . 03 2 0 1 respres 9 0.019 -0.015 0 0.007 0. -0.013 -0.023 - -0.032 -0.002 -0.033 . 00 0.023 0 4 0 leadcom 4 0.035 0.001 0 0.031 0. -0.014 0.030 0.022 0.092 -0.010 0.054 . 00 0 0 2 leadinst 3 -0.070 0.000 0 0.018 - 0.008 0.037 0.001 -0.056 0.048 0.008 . 0. 0 04 2 8 leadpd 9 0.036 0.003 0 -0.023 0. 0.011 0.025 - -0.014 -0.012 0.007 . 02 0.001 0 6 1 leadtch 7 -0.009 0.006 - -0.001 - -0.013 -0.008 - 0.060 0.034 0.004 0 0. 0.025 . 01 0 2 0 tcfocst 3 tchbehfa 0.044 0.016 - 0.022 0. -0.026 0.022 0.016 -0.036 -0.005 0.002 0 00 . 5 0 4 7 -0.032 0.004 0 -0.034 - 0.004 -0.002 - 0.009 -0.017 0.009 . 0. 0.014 0 02 0 7 tchbehso 6 0.011 -0.021 0 0.009 0. 0.003 0.029 - 0.015 -0.009 -0.023 . 01 0.058 1 1 1 tchbehtd 9 -0.011 0.003 - -0.016 0. -0.028 0.044 - -0.030 -0.002 0.026 0 01 0.011 . 3 0 0 tchparti 2

Note: Estimates from regression weighted OLS regression models on fully imputed country datasets. Source: Own calculation based on the PISA 2012 Database.