People Power and Politics in the Post-War Period

People Power and Politics in the post-war period

Notes on syllabus choices:

Students have to complete all three sections in the topic.

Section A is compulsory. Within Sections B and C, there are some internal choices, as detailed below.

Section A: Australia as a global citizen: What role has Australia played in international affairs in the post-war period?

Australia’s role in: . The United Nations, including UNESCO, and UN conventions . Regional agreements, including the Colombo Plan and APEC

Section B: People power: What have been some important developments in post-war Australian history?

Students have to study ONE of the following.

Events/issues Individuals

Freedom rides Charles Perkins Women’s liberation Germaine Greer Green bans Jack Mundey Whitlam dismissal Sir John Kerr Green politics Bob Brown Republicanism Paul Keating One Nation Pauline Hanson

Section C: Prime ministers and policies: How have significant individuals and groups exercised their democratic rights in the post-war period? Students have to study ONE prime minister from the post-war period.

1 Background to Australian foreign relations: Foreign relations to the end of World War I, 1918: . During the 19th century, Australia had concerns about being attacked by non-friendly European powers. This was provoked by French involvement in the Pacific, German interests in New Guinea and Russian naval interests. . Australia engaged itself in imperial affairs. . When Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914, Australia immediately followed. . Contact with Asia during the 19th century was minimal. Relations with and attitudes towards Asians were governed by several fundamental beliefs. . Racist attitudes convinced Australians that they were superior to people in the north.  Europeans had political, economic and military control of Asian societies.  Asian societies were made up of opium smoking, corrupt, poverty stricken people. . However, the main emotion affecting relations was fear.  Many Australians were xenophobic (they had a violent and illogical hatred and fear of things foreign).  Fear of ‘Asian hordes’ led to a feeling of paranoia (an irrational fear that Asian nations were ready to invade Australia and take over).  The idea of the ‘yellow peril’ was often discussing in Australian newspapers. . These attitudes and feelings led to the establishment of the White Australia Policy.

From World War I to World War II: . During the inter-war period, Australia still remained firmly part of the British Empire, although this relationship was gradually changing. This is seen as Australia became part of the British Commonwealth. . Australia dutifully supported Britain when it went to war in 1939 though will less enthusiasm than that of 1914. . Australia’s attitudes towards Asia remained the same during the inter-war period and indeed, were strengthened. . At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, Australia (with New Zealand) was given the responsibility of looking after Germany’s former colonies in the region (e.g. PNG as a League of Nations Mandate). . Australia stuck firmly to the White Australia Policy during the inter-war period. . In the 1920s, the vast majority of immigrants came from the UK or Ireland. . Asia remained firmly under European control with the only independent nations – Thailand and Japan. . The amazing military successes of Japan during the early years of WWII, including its capture of Singapore and direct attacks on Australia, increased Australia’s sense of fear and paranoia.

From the end of World War II to the late 1960s: . After 1945: Australia became far more involved in world affairs in its own right not just as a followed of Great Britain. . The key figure in the development of Australian policy after the war the Minister for External Affairs, Herbert Vere Evatt. . Evatt had great intellect and ability and he sought to give Australia a role in world affairs. He played a major role in the creation of the UN. He worked tirelessly to allow middle ranking powers, e.g. Australia to have a say at the UN and tried to prevent the body being dominated by the US and USSR. In September 1948, he was elected President of the General Assembly of the UN. . Australia became a keen participant in UN agencies such as:  The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisations (UNESCO)  The World Health Organisation (WHO)  The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)  The International Labour Organisation (ILO) . Australia participated in the UN actions in Korea between 1950 and 1953. . Australia took a much keener interest in Asia after 1945. Fear of Japan disappeared with its complete defeat.  Japan became a friendly, stable and democratic nation whom Australia could do business with.  Japan became Australia’s number 1 economic partner.  However, Japan’s refusal to apologise for the wartime atrocities remains and aspect of the relationship still to be resolved. . After 1945, almost every nation in Asia has gained independence from its European masters.

2 . In the 1950s, Australia contributed to aid programs such as the Columbo Plan (program in which more developed Commonwealth nations would give technological and economic assistance to less developed Commonwealth nations – eventually included non-Commonwealth nations) . These programs helped Asian countries build infrastructure and develop their education and medical systems. . However, the fundamental factors determining Australia’s approach had not changed yet. The White Australia Policy still existed and racism, xenophobia and paranoia were still emotions at the time. . The most feared country now was China (as it had become a communist nation following the victory of Mao Zedong’s forces in 1949. . Australia shared the US’ commitment to containment. It was believed that Chinese communism sought to expand its influence throughout Asia. . Australia accepted the ‘domino theory’ that saw one nation after another falling to communism. The ‘yellow peril’ had now become the ‘red peril’. . New fears now dominated Australian policy towards Asia:  Indonesia’s radical nationalist leader Sukarno moved closer to the Indonesia Communist Party.  The South Vietnam regime was on the verge of collapse in 1964.  Australia pressured South Vietnam into inviting it to take part in the Vietnam War. . Australia’s involvement in fighting communist forces in Malaya and South Vietnam was an example of ‘forward defence’ (the notion that potential enemies should be dealt with ‘forward’ in Asia rather than waiting for them to attack Australia.

From the 1970s to the 1990s: . The late 1960s and early 1970s saw major changes in Australia’s relations with Asia. . The existence of the White Australia Policy had been an insult to Asian nations. The acceptance of this policy hindered Australia’s full participation in the region. . The end of ‘White Australia’ saw a rapid Australian involvement in the Asia region. . The Whitlam government did not share the previous Liberal government’s fear of communist China. Whitlam believed that Australia should strive to work with its communist Asian neighbours not confront them. Whitlam recognised the People’s Republic of China (1972); Whitlam visited Mao in Beijing (Nov. 1973) and the policy of ‘forward defence’ was over. . Relations with China continued to grow but they have not always been smooth.  Economic relation grew steadily in the 1980s  There has been a growing cultural exchange since 1972 (1000s of Chinese students study in Australia).  However, when Chinese troops killed hundreds of people in the Tiananmen Square Massacre (June 1989), relations broke down temporarily.  Normal relations were resumed in 1991, and as the Chinese economy continued to grow and economise, the economic relationship between the two countries grew  In August 2002, China signed a $25 billion oil and gas agreement with Australian firms. . During the late 1970s and early 1980s, hundreds of thousands of ‘boat people’ attempted to escape Vietnam and Cambodia following the communist takeover. Many of these refugees ended up in Australia. . This has been a key factor which has led to Australia’s keen involvement in the affairs of South-East Asia. . Australia’s relationship with Indonesia has experienced its ups and downs:  Sukarno’s links with the Indonesian Communist Party raised fears of the ‘yellow/red peril’.  When Indonesia invaded and annexed (took ownership of) East Timor in 1975. 5 Australian journalists were killed in the town of Balibo during this invasion. . Prime Minister Keating (1991-96) was keen to foster Australia’s relations with Asia. . Since 1996, the Howard government has been less keen to be involved in the Asian region. However, he has taken on the job of dealing with East Timor’s independence and has also got Australia involved in peacekeeping efforts in the New Guinea island of Bougainville. . In October 2002, during the massive bomb attack in Bali in which almost 100 Australian died, it lead to a quick Australia-Indonesia cooperation to deal with the human tragedy and to apprehend the people behind the attack. . Indonesia’s seemingly successful transition towards democracy, seen in its presidential election of 2005, has allowed relations to improve. Our generous assistance during the December 2004 Tsunami was received with sincere gratitude. . During the years of the Howard government (1996-onwards), Australia’s ties with the US have strengthened dramatically.  Prime Minister Howard quickly aligned Australia alongside President George W. Bush on his ‘war on terror’ 3  Australian troops served with US forces fighting Al Qaida and Taliban forces in Afghanistan (2001-2002)  Australia was quick to join the US and Britain in its invasion of Iraq in 2003.  Australia negotiated a free trade agreement with the US (2004-05)

Australia’s Post-War Regional Agreements: The ANZUS Treaty (1951): . In September, 1951, the United States, Australia and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty . It implied that each nation would assist the other in the event of such an attack. . The Australian government feared the aggressive communism and needed a strong ally in the dangerous cold war climate of the time (US and New Zealand). . The ANZUS Treaty still exists and was used by some to justify Australia’s involvement in the Iraq War of 2003 . New Zealand is currently not a part of the ANZUS Treaty.

The SEATO Alliance (1954):  In September, 1954, the South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was signed.  It was a treaty between, US, Britain, Thailand, Pakistan, the Philippines, France, New Zealand and Australia. It implied the defence of each nation in the event of an attack.  It bound Australia closer to the US, acknowledged the dangers in the region and backed the idea of ‘forward defence’ as it took Australia’s ‘front line’ into Asia.

The Colombo Plan (1951): . Began in 1951 – Commonwealth region aid program. . More developed commonwealth nations would contribute technological and economic assistance to less developed commonwealth nations. . Helped to build infrastructure such as bridges and roads and to develop their education and medical systems and thus improve living standards. . Help to develop skills in public administration, private development, helped to develop technologies, industry. . Foster political and economic ties with these countries.

APEC (1989): . Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation. . Aims to promote economic trade and development amongst member states, promote free trade, reduce tariffs, and come to terms with globalization.

The Whitlam Dismissal and Sir John Kerr: . On 11 November, 1975, the government of Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was sacked by Governor- General Sir John Kerr. . The Dismissal as it became known was arguably the most dramatic event in Australian political history. . There were many different views at the time of the Dismissal.  The Whitlam government was the greatest reforming government in history and it was treacherously destroyed just as it was transforming Australia.  The Whitlam government was a disaster for the nation and Sir John Kerr should be congratulated for his courage.  Sir John Kerr was a treacherous drunk who deserved to be hounded from office.  Malcolm Fraser was an opportunist of the worst kind who was willing to sacrifice all principle in the pursuit of power.  Malcolm Fraser should be viewed as a hero for his determination in 1975

Reasons the Labor government became so unpopular: . By the middle of 1975, the Whitlam government had become very unpopular 4 . There were three main factors causing major difficulties for the government:

1. Major economic problems 2. Scandals within the government 3. The perceived arrogant and insensitive behaviour of some in the government.

. Malcolm Fraser was later to justify his determination to bring down the government on the grounds that the government had become incompetent, corrupt and out of touch.

1. Economic problems facing the country: . In October 1973 when war broke out in the Middle East between Israel and the Arab states, in the aftermath, Arab states cut oil supplies to the West and drove up prices. . The 1973 oil crisis sent Western economies into recession. Australia did not escape. . The government was blamed for these problems and questions were being asked about its economic competence.

Australia’s post 1973 economic problems  Next Page

5 Australia’s Economic Problems Post-1973:

2. Scandals within the government: . The government seemed to be plagued with scandals. The media and the Liberal opposition certainly tried to convince people of this. . In early 1975: the Labor Attorney General, Lionel Murphy, retired from the Senate and was appointed to the High Court. . Murphy was qualified and later served the court well but his appoint gave the impression Whitlam was playing favourites and ‘providing jobs for the boys’. . Whitlam’s minister for minerals and energy was Rex Connor. . Connor’s aim in political life was to ‘buy back the farm’ (assert Australian ownership of Australian resources). Connor’s high-minded aim led to ‘The Loans Affair’.  Connor tried to borrow $4 billion using ‘shady’ Middle East contracts. He was ordered to stop doing this in May 1975.  He continued trying to raise money, using a man called Tirath Khemlani. Connor told Parliament he was not doing this and when a journalist revealed he was, he was forced to resign for ‘misleading parliament’ . Another leading Labor figure to get into trouble was deputy prime minister and treasurer, Jim Cairns.  Cairns made the headlines when he appointed Juni Morosi to his office. She was qualified and intelligent though also attractive.  Cairns made things worse when he spoke of ‘my love for Juni’. Cairns and Morosi denied having an affair however the media made such a story that it damaged the image of an already struggling government.  Cairns was forced to resign when was accused of misleading parliament over the matter of a $500 million overseas loan.

3. The government’s arrogant and insensitive behaviour: . The government behaved in a way that seemed to lose public support. . In 1974, the government bought a painting by Jackson Pollock called ‘Blue Poles’. It cost millions of dollars. People asked how the government could waste such money with the country in such economic difficulty. . The media portrayed the Labor government as though ignoring the nation’s problems.

6 The election of December 1975: . The events of 1975 broke al the rules of Australian political convention:  The senate blocked supply  Retiring or deceased senators were replaced by people from other political parties  The governor-general sought advice from someone other than his prime minister . However, when the election was held in 1975, many Australian people shared the doubts held by Fraser and many in the media held doubts about the government’s incompetence and propriety. . The people preferred the Liberal slogan – ‘Turn on the lights’ – to the Labor slogan – ‘Shame Fraser shame’. . Fraser won a landslide victory in the House of Representatives with ninety-one seats to thirty-six. . Kerr resigned two years later. . The issues raised by the Dismissal have still not been resolved. . A governor-general can still sack a democratically elected government and the Senate can still block supply. . The events of the Dismissal gave some impetus to those people who were beginning to think Australia should be a republic. They asked the question: ‘What right does the representative of a foreign queen have to sack a democratically elected government?’

The events that led to the Dismissal: Date Event December 1972 . The Labor Party under Gough Whitlam wins power for the first time since 1949. . Labor has a majority in the House of Representatives . It is in the minority in the Senate . Thus it cannot guarantee getting its bills passed December 1972-March . The Whitlam government proceeds with its attempt to bring in reform policies such as the 1974 Medibank health insurance . In March 1974 the Senate refuses to pass supply . This means the government will have no money to run the country. It was the convention (long- held practice accepted by all sides of politics) that supply would always be passed. May 1974 . Whitlam wins a double dissolution election (an election for both houses of parliament). . Supply and other bills are passed in a joint sitting of parliament. February 1975 . Labor Senator Murphy retires . NSW Premier Tom Lewis replaces Murphy with Cleaver Bunton. Bunton is not from the Labor Party . It was a convention that such ‘casual Senate vacancies’ should be filled with people of the same party. June 1975 . Queensland Senator Millner dies. . Premier Bjelke-Petersen replaces him with Albert Field, who votes with the Liberal Party. . The Senate casual vacancy convention is again broken. . Labor now does not have control of the Senate. August 1975 . Treasurer Bill Hayden introduces his budget. . The budget is linked to appropriation bills that would provide the government with the money to govern. October 1975 . Liberal leader Malcolm Fraser orders his senators to defer voting on the budget and so deny the government supply. . This action means the government will run out of money by 30 November. 10 November 1975 . Governor-General Sir John Kerr seeks advice from High Court Chief Justice Garfield Barwick. . He wants to know if he has the power to dismiss the government. Barwick says yes. . The governor-general is supposed to seek advice only from his prime minister. 11 November 1975 . Whitlam informs the Liberal opposition that he intends to hold a half-Senate election to break the impasse. . At about 1.00 pm Kerr sacks Whitlam . At about 1.30 pm he appoints Malcolm Fraser as caretaker prime minister on condition he passes supply, calls an election and introduces no new bills until after the election. . The Senate then passes supply. . Fraser asks Kerr to dissolve parliament and call a double dissolution election. 13 December 1975 . The Liberal Party wins a massive victory in a federal election. . Labor is swept from office.

For Section C: Prime ministers and policies – Refer to ‘Gough Whitlam’

7 School Certificate style questions:

Q1. Describe how Australia has behaved as a global citizen since 1945. (5 marks)

Q2. Select an individual you have studies. Explain the role he or she played in an event or issue you have studied. (10 marks)

Q3. Choose a prime minister you have studied. Assess the contribution of this prime minister to Australia’s post- war development. (10 marks)