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Social Science Outline An Introduction to the History of Modern India
I. INDIA BEFORE EUROPE (15%) [p. 8] A. Introduction: Visva Bharati and the quest for an Indian identity1 1. Geographic Features of India a. population patterns 1) India proper: 1.2 billion 2) Pakistan: 196 million 3) Nepal: 31 m 4) Bangladesh (166 m) 5) Bhutan (734,000) 6) Sri Lanka (22 m) 7) Maldives (394,000) b. Three geographic zones 1) Deccan Plateau a) formed when Indian tectonic plate hit Asia b) granite base provides limited agriculture in comparison to coastal regions c) separated from coast by ghats 2 i. western Coromandal Coast with Bombay at northern end along Arabian Sea ii. eastern Malabar Coast with Chennai (Madras) linking India to SE Asia 2) Indo-Gangetic Plain a) between the two river systems of its name b) passable mountain range allowed for expansive trans-Asian trade i. Kirthar ii. Sulaiman iii. Khyber Pass c) the doab region of two rivers as locus of Delhi i. Ganges ii. Yamuna iii. confluence of Yamuna and Ganges at Allahabad/Prayag (in Hinduism)3 iv. the mouth of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers it at Calcutta (Kolkata)4 3) Himalayan Mountains a) Tibetan Plateau to the North b) source of many river systems for Indian heartland with rich agricultural plain 4) rainfall patterns a) two yearly monsoons shape i. conditions of agriculture ii. long-distance shipping and trade b) monsoons in June and July driven by Indian Ocean air currents i. starts in SE ii. travels through NW iii. “retreat” provides additional dose of rainfall for additional growing season c) 1st monsoon blows from W to E allowing long-distance shipping across Indian Ocean d) 2nd monsoon blows E to W allowing for eastward travel from Malabar Coast e) contributed to two broad social patterns i. coastal regions developed large, settled agrarian empires and shipping entrepôts such as Calcutta ii. arid, desert regions like Rajasthan tended toward unsettled tribal forms 2. The Term “India” a. Prior to independence reference is to the entire area of the subcontinent b. After independence, India refers to the contemporarynation-state c. South Asia refers to the collection of states in the subcontinent (I,P,B,N S,B, M)
1 It is apparent that this expansive introduction intends to frame modern Indian identity in the context of both Asian identities and the long legacy of ties to Europe that entails not only British influence, but the broader patterns of culture affiliated with the Indo- European linguistic and cultural sphere. The references to Subash Chandra Bose is clearly an effort to portray the diversity of identities that had emerged on the eve of independence. Here’s the thesis explicitly: “India’s history and culture cannot be reduced to simple dichotomies of native and outside. Rather India’s culture has developed as a composite culture with multiple interwoven influences braided together.” (p. 7) 2 long granite mountain ranges along coastal India 3 The Allahabad reference appears to link this toponym to Islam (Allah). Prayag would thus appear to be the more common toponym for Hindus and is probably the most historically based term. The guide appears to be throwing you an intentional curveball here! 4 There appears to be a concerted effort as well to make you aware of colonial and postcolonial toponyms. Here are a few examples, with colonial listed first: Bombay/Mumbai; Calcutta/Kolkata; and Madras/Chennai. There will certainly be others as we move through the text; but these would appear to be three of the major toponym challenges. 1 d. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation also includes Afghanistan e. post-colonial toponyms 1) Bombay to Mumbai in 1995 2) Calcutta to Kolkata in 2001 3) Bangalore to Bengaluru in 2014 B. Approaches to Indian History [p. 10] 1. Keywords: Colonialism, Nation, Modernity a. Colonialism 1) defined a) rule of one people by another b) lacks complete consent c) unequal and often exploitative 2) periodization a) Iberian phase of 16th and 17th centuries i. Spain ii. Portugal iii. Netherlands (spices) b) 17th and 18th centuries i. Holland in Java ii. Britain in India c) 19th century i. scramble for a. Africa b. Asia ii. world divided between a. France b. Britain c. Germany d. Holland iii. twentieth century nationalist movements 3) primary motive: economics b. nation-state 1) defined a) group of people i. in common territory ii. shared bonds of identity in a. culture b. homeland c. language d. history e. ethnic f. religious b) state as political unit encompassing nation 2) nation-state ideal emerged in relation to European model a) France b) Italy 3) nation-state idea facilitated by communication technologies a) telegraph b) newspapers c) railways and mail service d) radio by 1920s 4) developed notion of shared historical experience5 5) India as nation-state developed in 19th and 20th centuries a) gradual b) complex array of nationalist groupings demanding separate states6 i. language ii. religion iii. tribal affiliation/kinship network iv. shared history c) Indian nationalism as a unifying force in the face of divisions of i. caste ii. gender
5 note that the guide does not reference a common literature or a political notion of citizenship separate from personal allegiance to a lord/ruler 6 In HuG, we referred to these as centrifugal forces 2 iii. religion iv. class c. modern Indian history, various interpretive approaches to dating 1) 1757 Battle of Plassey puts British at center of Indian modernity 2) 1885 with Sumit Sankar’s thesis that the Indian National Congress is birth of Indian nation 3) general historical consensus that 16th century defines modernity 2. Indian Society a. Religions: diversity, toleration, and constant change 1) Hinduism (80.5%) a) knowledge, practices, and belief system b) temple worship: darshan (vision) i. propitiation of deity (appeasing god through some form of sacrifice) ii. blessing through “seeing” the deity c) polytheistic and accommodating i. dieties a. Pan-Indian b. local ii. ancestor propitiation as part of worship d) ritual facilitated by priest as central e) scriptures as basis for religious understanding and ethics, most famously in the Vedas’ two great epics i. the Mahahharata ii. the Ramayana f) Unity of Hinduism as product of British? i. previously defined in relation to particular deity or saint ii. key deities include a. Brahma, the creator b. Vishnu, the protector c. Shiva, the destroyer iii. the three “godhead” deities with many avatars doing work of gods among humans g) cosmology contributes to i. flexibility ii. adaptability 2) renouncer religions of Buddhism (.8%) and Jainism (.4%) emerged in 6th century BCE a) Ashoka (304-232 BCE) i. converted to Buddhism ii. adopted Ahimsa (non-violence) as penance for conquest of Orissa b) Buddhism died out in India in medieval period c) Jainism as small but continuous presence in India d) renouncer religions both criticized Hindu notion of karma7 correlation to status in next life e) both challenged adherents to detach from desire, including advance within caste system i. Buddhism saw desire as the root of suffering ii. Jainism encouraged a. non-action8 b. asceticism (renunciation of material possessions) c. fasting (Gandhi from Jain center of Gujarat) d. strictly non-violent in all things, including root vegatables e. Jainism diffused primcipally among i. merchants ii. capitalists f) British treated both as variants of Hinduism 3) Islam (13.4%) a) India as 2nd largest Muslim country i. Indonesia ii. Pakistan as 3rd iii. combined with Pakistan and Bangladesh, the largest Muslim population b) diffusion of modern Islam to India i. hearth in 632 and spread through Umayyad Caliphate in 7th and 8th centuries a. to Spain in West b. Central Asia c. Sindh in East ii. Islam as conduit for Sindhi culture to Arab world and Europe a. mathematics b. astronomy c. fable literature 7 karma as moral causation or the consequences of ethical behavior or lack thereof. 8 this would appear to have some similarities to Taoism 3 d. medicinal practices iii. diffusion a. contagious to Sindh in NE b. hierarchical to ports along coasts iv. Mappila Muslims near Cochin, Kerala claim to have converted in era of Mohammed a. did not observe caste rigidities and thus intermarried with Arabs b. spoke Malayalam c. dredded like neighbors d. retained matrilineal organization of society e. built the Cheraman Jasjid in 7th century as wooden structure different from Umayyad mosques and 1st central mosque (Jama Masjid) in India v. The Labbais on Coromandel Coast a. 16th century hagiography of Mohammed blended Hindu genres i. written in Tamil of Tamil Nadu state ii. description of Mecca reflected Tamil landscape b. reflects Islam’s adaptability as global religion encouraging local expression i. artistic ii. cultural c) 14th and 15th expansion of Islam under Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire i. diffusion among frontier peasants ii. peasants attracted to a. simple tenets b. radical message of equality iii. particular expansion among Bengals in Eastern India iv. the role of shrines and holy men a. mystic Sufis encouraged devotion to saints b. Sufism merged mosque and shrine-based practices c. most S Asian Muslims are Sunni adherents of Hanafi legal school d. substantial Shia population located near i. Lucknow in North ii. Hyderabad in South e. Indian Muslims shaped Islam throughout SE Asia 4) Christianity a) Thomas allegedly brought Christianity to India, in the form of Syrian Christian tradition b) Portuguese efforts to promote Catholicism c) British missionaries with some success in northeast 5) Zoroastrianism diffused from Iran, known in India as Parsis a) Zoroastrianism developed in Persia in 2nd millennium BCE b) Parsis settled as merchants along West Coast of India 6) miniscule community of diaspora Jews 7) Sikhism (1.9%) to be discussed later b. Caste (from Portuguese for “lineage” or “breed”) 1) Varna: five broad categories derived from religion and occupation a) Brahmins (priests) b) Kshatriyas (warriors) c) Vaishyas (traders and farmers) d) Shudras (laborers) e) Dalits: as “outcastes” or “untouchables”, has presently assumed notion of “oppressed” as term of empowerment 2) jati: local, specific, and more related to daily life than Varna a) highly occupation specific b) highly influential in i. marriage arrangements ii. mobilizing credit iii. access to political power 3) caste as characteristic of all Indian religious expressions 4) the historical character of caste a) some scholars argue that caste made more rigid in context of colonial domination b) other scholars view caste as deeply structured in Indian society c) some scholars even argue that British rule had effect of diminishing caste distinctions c. Gender 1) protection of women as legitimizing ideology for colonial rule 2) anti-colonial analysts rather argue that Indian women inherently had greater status than women in Britain 3) relations complex and rich a) historical variances b) social status of Dalits and other social groups C. The Early Modern Period: The Indian Perspective [p. 14] 4 1. Introduction a. traditional view: Mughal Empire as national foundation of greatness whose declined opened the way for the British b. second view: India as vital component in regional and world systems of exchange 1) responsive 2) dynamic 3) capable of incorporating diverse social groups 4) socially and politically sophisticated c. contemporary India as product of history 1) inter-mixture 2) sharing 3) fusion 4) tolerance 2. Vijayanagara, 1346-1565 (vijaya: “victory”; nagara: “city”) a. Deccan Plateau fort city of Sangama kings 1) developed as servitors to local kings 2) later as lieges of Delhi sultan b. peaked under Davaraya II (r9. 1432-1447) as a result of accumulating rivals’ assets 1) technology 2) personnel 3) mounted horse warfare c. later consolidation and expansion under Krishna Deva Raya (r. 1509-1529) 1) military strength 2) well-timed campaigns 3) political marriage alliances subdued a) Gajapatis b) Bahmanis d. The end of Vijayanagara greatness in 1565 in Battle of Talikota vs. 1) allied enemies a) Ahmadnagar b) Bijapur c) Golconda 2) Vij continued as kingdom with reduced influence e. legacy of Vijayanagara 1) land revenue collection system a) warrior elites (nayakas) entrusted with suzerainty over immense territories b) feudal arrangement of land in exchange of providing troops to King c) nayaka status could be revoked by king, limiting threat of regional power accumulation 2) Indian Ocean trade 3) domestic trade around eight centers, with Vijayanagara compared to a regional Rome 4) small horses symbolize formative interaction between Europe and Asia a) symbiotic mercenary and military aims b) increasing sophistication of i. administration ii. revenue collection 5) bottom line: many foundations of modern India laid long before arrival of British 3. The Mughal Empire, 1526-1857 a. as one of India’s best-know exports 1) monuments of red sandstone and marble 2) basis of tourism 3) houses institutions a) military b) cultural 4) the Taj Mahal a) Shah Jahan’s monument to wife, Mumtaz Mahal b) Agra in N. India 5) capital either in Delhi or Agra 6) Mughal/Mongol/Mogul a) central Asian horseback, nomadic warriors b) Genghis/Chengiz Khan c) Timurlane (1336-1405) converted to Islam d) five generations after Timurlane, Timurid Empire divided into emirates b. Reign of Babur (r. over India, 1526-1530) 1) sought control of Timurlane’s Samarkand in lieu of Fergana (Uzbekistan) a) resented modest patrimony b) Samarkand as 500 km E of Fergana 9 r = reign 5 c) failed to conquer on 2 occasions i. at age 15 ii. on second attempt lost his base at Fergana 2) turned attention to Kabul (conquered in 1504) a) political intrigue b) built large, agrarian empire 3) defeated Sultan of Delhi at Panipat (110 km N of Delhi) in 1526 4) two key advantages over Indian Kingdoms a) sophisticated artillery b) cavalry advantage over infantry-based armies i. well-trained ii. large iii. agile iv. speedy 5) succeeded by son, Humayun (1530-1536), who regained and expanded holdings 6) Sher Shah Suri (r. 1538-45) drove Humayun to exile in Iran 10 years after Babur’s death 7) the panegyrics10 of Abu al-Fazl, who “grudgingly” acknowledged Sher Shah’s administrative a) abilities b) innovations c. Reign of Sher Shah Suri (r. 1538-1545) 1) list of successes a) control of economy i. measured land to set tax rates ii. standardized rupiya b) infrastructure projects i. mosques ii. rest stops iii. massive forts iv. highway across N. India curcial to overland trade c) ideological ifforts consolidating legitimacy d) military policies i. ensuring a. loyalty b. efficiency ii. via a. regular salary b. branding horses 2) Humayun regained control only 10 years after SSS’s d. in 1545 3) Humayun died the next year (1556) after falling down steps in his library11 d. Reign of Akbar (1556-1605) 1) viewed by Indian nationalists as earlier uniter of almost all of India 2) reign marked by a) experimentation b) commitment to knowledge c) expansiveness of spirit d) concern for welfare of subjects 3) expansion under Moghal suzerainty12 a) initially limited to north Indian doab b) augmentation i. western India ii. eastern India c) efforts to unite Central India largely successful by overcoming fissiparousness13 i. incorporating elites ii. balancing elites of diverse backgrounds 4) incorporation of a) Persian nobles to counter dominant role of Central Asians i. Persians as exiles from Iran ii. sought N. Indian patronage b) Indian elites i. Hindu ii. Muslim
10 a public speech in praise. Gr. pan = all and agora = public/market place. 11 Humayun’s stated reign of 1530-1566 was thus actually only 1530-38 and 1556. 12 overlordship of subject groupings 13 tendency to break apart (as in fission) 6 5) use of marriage a) like Krishna Deva Riya b) many other royal houses 6) incorporation of defeated enemies brought in most Rajput14 kingdoms a) through alliance b) through conquest in late 1560s i. Chittor fort ii. Ranthambhor fort 7) turn to Gujarat from Rajasthan15 a) western Indian coast b) Gujarat as crucial depot in global trade networks 8) turn to E. India a) center of agrarian production b) linked land and sea trade networks c) Akbar controlled through capital of Patna d) Patna as foothold in movement toward Bengal 9) 1570s refinement of SSS’s administration: the mansabdari system a) mansabdari as rank holder b) each mansabdari required to provide men and horses i. minimally ten horsemen ii. up to over 5000 spread across 33 ranks c) mansabdari compensated either with i. salary ii. revenue fixed to certain territory d) mansabdari transferrable i. highest ranks reserved for royalty ii. varied background could become part of Mughal aristocracy iii. helped prevent growth of landed, feudal aristocracy iv. cash salaries facilitated by flow of New World silver via Indian Ocean trade 10) cosmopolitan style of rule and political culture a) religious diversity b) universal toleration (sulh-i kul) c) religious experiment: the din-i-ilahi (Religion of G-d) i. discipleship order binding nobles to emperor ii. leadership cult or elite religion? 11) succession never uncontested a) no strict primogeniture b) claimant reliant on networks of support c) Jahangir (r. 1605-1628) thus claimed throne e. The Reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658) 1) Jahangir’s favorite to succeed despite being 3rd in birth order 2) built solid bases of support a) success against Rajput Sisodiyas in Chittor, Rajasthan b) early military success complemented by development of empire 3) securing the empire’s base a) shored up control of east b) captured Sind in West c) subdued Deccan d) moved in more conservative religious direction, with uncertain motives i. part of natural drift? ii. effort to appease conservatives? iii. expression of own convictions? iv. combination of all three? f. Reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) 1) historiographical dispute: apogee of Islamic conservatism or not so clear? 2) succession through violence a) 1657 imprisoned father (Shah Jahan) in Agra Fort b) religious conservatism as effort to restore legitimacy after impious actions? 3) religious conservative policies a) banned music at court (but not to extent some claim) b) decreased sacral qualities of kingship by stopping darshan16
14 member of dominant military caste 15 Rajasthan is far NW in India, Gujarat is directly south from there along the coast 16 practice of viewing deity in devotion as common in Hinduism but most certainly not consistent with strict Muslim prohibition of idolatry 7 c) reduced distribution of gold at court d) re-instituted the jizya poll tax on non-Muslims in 1679 i. initially applied to the Abrahamic religions a. Christianity b. Judaism ii. previously and generally applied to Hindus as well iii. even after reinstitution, many exemptions continued 4) the challenge from Shivaji Bhonsle (r. 1630-1680) a) regional base in Western and Central India b) Maratha chiefs colonized new agrarian lands as products of i. hard work ii. risk-taking in scarcely populated region iii. developed close relationships with peasants iv. military tactics well-suited to hilly, rocky base in western Ghats c) Shivaji defeated Deccan sultanate of Adil Shahs in 1659 d) successfully attacked Mughal port at Surat in 1663 e) Aurangzeb sent Rajput Jai Singh to Deccan to capture Shivaji f) Shivaji escaped capture and set up fort at Simhagad (1670) g) 1674 i. declared himself an independent ruler ii. allied with strongest of Deccan Sultanates 5) 1680 Shivaji’s death led Aurangabzeb to shift capital to Aurangabad in Deccan in order to a) subdue Marathas b) incorporate Deccan Sultanates c) mission accomplished by 1689 with defeat of i. two Deccan kings ii. Shambuji, Shivaji’s son 6) Deccan conquests incorporated as crown lands rather than mansabdars a) allowed for direct extraction of revenue to pay for i. military demands ii. infrastructure b) however, Aurangzeb lacked strategy for incorporating rebellious locals c) revenue system also beginning to fail in the East d) many Mughal elites refused to move to new capital 7) achievements of Aurangzeb a) see time-lapse map of empire17 showing considerable spread under Aurangzeb b) maintained cores in Agra and Delhi 8) the legacy of the Marathas a) guerilla, raider cavalry-based tactics similar to what had been used initially by Mughals b) Marathas now ruled by Brahmin Maharastrians in lineage known as peshwa c) Maratha army became professional through military fiscalism sustaining via i. fiscal policy ii. economic policy g. Muhammad Shah (r. 1719-1748) and the Decline of Mughal Power 1) a decade of instability after Aurangzeb’s d. in 1707 2) Mughal Empire fissured into areas of emerging regional kingdoms a) Bengal b) Deccan c) south India d) Awadh in upper Inidia 3) Mughal successor states did not express economic, social or political decline a) blended Mughal system with regional forms of expression b) military fiscalism using Mughal structures h. Women in the Mughal Empire 1) strategic marriages of Rajput nobles to Mughal elite women under Akbar 2) older women at court acted as power brokers: esp. Akbar’s mother Hamid Banu Begum a) ousted Akbar’s regent b) reconciled Akbar and his son, Jahangir c) served as Governor in Punjab 3) varied rules in elite cultures of Mughal Empire i. influence of the Mughal Empire 1) great administrative land-based empire over two centuries 2) collected revenue and facilitated domestic trade 3) mansabdari system mobilized troops needed to build 4) culture of loyalty through diversity
17 http://ecai.org/projects/ProjectExamples/SouthAsianAnimations.html 8 a) Persian b) Rajput c) Central Asian d) Muslim e) Hindu 4. Sikhism (20 million centered in Punjab) a. Guru Nanak (1469-1539) 1) succession of 10 Gurus 2) final Guru, Gobind Singh (b. 1666, Guru, 1675-1708) 3) holy text established as final authority a) Guru Granth Sahib aka Adi Granth i. compilation of 3,000 compositions a. teachings of Sikh Gurus b. teachings of various religious leaders i. Hindu ii. Muslim ii. text treated as living Guru (cf. Torah in Judaism) b. importance in Indian history and politics 1) exemplifies a) diversity b) vibrancy c) dialogue 2) simplicity of peace and justice in revelations of Waheguru (G-d) 3) social acceptance beyond a) race b) caste c) gender 4) the langar (common meal) without caste distinction 5) represented all caste communities a) Khattris (Hindu administrative group) b) Jat (agriculturalists) c) merchants d) artisans c. The spatial distribution of Sikhism 1) hearth adjacent to Mughal hearth 2) Guru Nanak founded first community at Karatpur on Ravi River 3) Guru Ram Das founded Ramdaspur a) later known as Amritsar18 b) most important pilgrimage site for Sikhs c) rapid growth angered Jahangir 4) conflict with Mughals led to founding of Khalsa in 1699 a) Shah Jahan imprisoned sixth Guru, Hargobind b) Aurangzeb executed Guru Tegh Bahadur for militaristic threats 5) The Khalsa a) militaristic bloc within Sikhism requiring i. military skill ii. initiation b) the five K’s of initiation i. kesh (uncut hair) ii. kara (distinctive steel bracelet) iii. kanga (comb) iv. kaccha (cotton undergarments) v. kirpan (steel sword) c) khalsa initiation not mandatory d. Punjab as resource-rich region 1) crossroads of overland luxury trade 2) mediated ties with rivals in Safavid court in Iran a) 25,000 camel loads between i. Lahore (capital city of Pakistani Punjab) ii. Isfahan (central Iran) b) more trade between i. Lahore ii. Qandahar19 3) Punjab thus threatened Mughals as base of regional power it represented 18 The site of the infamous 1919 massacre depicted in Gandhi. 19 Pastun (Persian) region in East-Central Afghanistan 9 D. India and the World [p. 21] 1. The World in 1492: Calicut and the Malabar Coast a. Vasco da Gama 1498 b. Zamorin (ruler) of Calicut as coastal rather than territorial king20 c. Calicut as “hinge” city in luxury trade 1) diverse merchant community a) Jews b) Syrian Christians c) Muslims 2) intermarriage with local women d. Zamorin as protector of 1) religious identity 2) merchant interests e. the relative location of Calicut: three crucial circuits 1) the western-oriented world of a) Arabian Sea b) Mediterranean c) Europe 2) the eastern Indian Ocean world linking a) Persian Gulf b) India’s east coast 3) the eastern21 helf of Indian Ocean stretching a) from India’s east coast to b) SE Asia c) China f. The link to Portugal (1498) 1) da Gama’s route a) Cape of Good Hope b) East Africa c) along coast of i. Persia ii. India d) ultimately, Calicut 2) strengths of Portuguese a) successful navy b) “flinty” willingness to achieve economic goals through i. force ii. violence 3) the cartaza system a) each vessel required to have cartaza in order to trade b) certain goods could ONLY be traded with Portugal 4) Portuguese conquests allowed control of global spice trade a) Colombo (Sri Lanka) in 1505 b) Malacca in 1511 c) Hormuz in 1515 5) established Goa in 1510 a) introduced Catholicism b) enforced the Inquisition c) imposed cartaza on western Indian Ocean trade g. decline of Portuguese in led to rise of Dutch East India Company by 1605 1) took Colombo in 1656 2) Cochin (SW tip of India) in 1663 3) Portuguese retained Goa until 1961 (sic) 4) Dutch strong regional control a) along Coromandel Coast b) Southeast Asia 5) British strong only in Gujarat 2. Gujarat a. Mughal port Surat benefitted from Portuguese takeover of Diu in 1535 1) Surat free trade zone contrasted Portuguese protectionism 2) Surat’s products a) textiles
20 cf. the contemporaneous city-states of Italy (Venice, Florence) 21 Please NOTE that the guide appears to be incorrect here. It states “western half” of Indian Ocean but then explains in relation to “India’s east coast through Southeast Asia to China.” 10 b) indigo 3) Surat’s Indian and non-Indian trade partners using Muslim-owned ships b. Gujarati textiles bartered in SE Asia for spices priced in relation to Indian cloth 1) nutmeg 2) cloves 3) cinnamon c. Indian Ocean system transported goods 1) within India 2) within hawala network as regional system for 22 a) money transfer b) credit c) compares to electronic money transfer in digital age d. 1600, Queen Elizabeth established the East India Company23 1) a joint stock company 2) held monopoly on English trade in Indies for 15 years 3) early manifestation of modern corporation a) spread risk b) limited liability 4) dependent on Crown for security a) legal b) diplomatic e. the expeditions of the EIC 1) first two to Sumatra in Indonesia 2) 1603 one million pounds of pepper to GB 3) third expedition to SUrat in 1608 a) English rep with i. 25,000 pieces of gold ii. latter for Emperor Jahangir form King James b) however, English had little to really offer Jahangir i. already established with Portuguese ii. did not lack a. pepper b. wool c. gold c) 1612 envoy also dismissed in 1612 4) trade with Surat began only with British defeat of Portuguese in 1612 Battle of Swali f. 1613 Thomas Roe 1) established permit for factory24 at Surat on behalf of EIC 2) subsequent Dutch factory in 1618 g. 1623 British 1) surrendered plans for SE Asia to Dutch 2) in exchange for greater presence in India h. decline of Portugal increased British presence in 1) Persian Gulf 2) Arabian Sea i. Gujarati hinterlands produced cotton textiles with markets in 1) Europe 2) SE Asia 3) Other major cotton regions included a) Bengal b) Punjab c) Coromandel Coast j. Other Gujarati products 1) teak 2) bamboo 3) spices 4) silver 5) carnelian (brownish-red semi-precious mineral) 6) camels
22 This is very important. If it confuses you, please let me know and I’ll explain something called “bills of exchange.” The guide exaggerates when it compares the hawala system to electronic transfers. It was rather like a traditional banking network and the system of checking accounts in the period prior to debit cards. The key phrase here is “networks of trust.” (p. 22, col. 1, par. 1) 23 Compare the London Company (aka the Charter of the Virginia Company of London) established 7 years later (1607) under King James I. 24 here defined as place to store goods before shipment, making Surat an entrepôt. 11 3. The Coromandel Coast a. Southern Indian Kings encouraged trade on western coast with 1) low taxes in imports 2) favorable conditions for a) Indians b) Europeans 3) trade used gold as basis for exchange (cf. silver in northern Indian trading) 4) noted for fine and valuable textiles a) muslin b) chintz, a woven cotton with intricate designs i. hand-printed ii. block-printed 5) Spice Islands of Indonesia imported 400,000 pieces of Coromandel textiles b. successor kingdoms to Vijayanagara 1) Golkonda a) turned city of Masulipatnam into most important port city b) entrepôt for goods from i. Gujarat ii. Bengal iii. Deccan plateau iv. SE Asia v. in 16th century, Arabian Sea trade included c) diamond mines ensured Golkonda working from advantageous position in sea trade decision 2) EIC bought Coromandel Properties in 1640 from local ruler a) previously shared in trade settlements in collaboration with Indian kingdoms along with i. Dutch ii. Danes iii. Portuguese b) Portuguese not as dominant in Coromandel region as in Gujarat c) most trade in Indian hands d) British attracted to i. calico textiles ii. saltpeter25 iii. indigo 3) 1690 Madras emerged as leading trade port linked to SE Asia 4. Bengal and Eastern India a. Portuguese expelled from Mughal Bengali port of Hugli (1632) due to expansion desires of Shah Jahan b. Portuguese expulsion opened opportunity for 1) Dutch 2) British c. Bengal’s desired product 1) muslin a) thin b) light 2) silk d. Bengal’s weaving centers 1) Dhaka 2) Murshidabad e. by 1680s, EIC importing 2.8 million pieces of textiles from India II. THE BRITISH IN INDIA, 1707-1857: “A FATAL FRIENDSHIP” (25%) [p. 25] A. The Shift from Trade to Rule, 1707-1757 [p. 25] 1. British Trade in India a. gradual expansion of British influence in India over 17th and 18th centuries b. Thomas Roe factory founded fifty years of trade as guests of Mughal emperors c. Mughal emperors derived 1) revenues for funding soldiers 2) employment for weavers across India d. EIC for Mughals neither important 1) politically 2) economically e. 1640 purchase of Madras from Indian ruler spawns growth 1) 100,000 population by 1700 2) Madras as open port f. 1668 British purchased Bombay 1) from Portuguese 25 Potassium nitrate required for gunpowder until 1889 12 2) part of Princess Catherine’s dowry upon marrying King Charles 3) Maratha attacks on Surat drove growth of Bombay a) merchants b) craftspeople 4) ultimately Bombay emerged as capital a) cultural b) financial g. Bengal expansion began with expulsion of Portuguese from Hugli after 1632 1) competition with Dutch EIC initially favored Dutch 2) EIC officials resented Mughal officials’ interference in trade 3) 1686 ten English ships attempted to blockade a) Surat in Gujarat b) Chittagong in Bangladesh 4) Mughal counter-blockade of Bombay (1690) resulted in a) British concession b) large indemnity to Mughal emperor h. The EIC détente with the Mughals (1700) 1) EIC autonomy in Madras 2) uneasy and expensive peace in a) Calcutta b) Bombay 3) EIC under dual threat from a) Mughals b) Marathas i. 1686-1690 war ii. raids on Surat by Shivaji 4) Bengal textiles represented ½ of EIC exports by 1710 5) shift of EIC focus a) from Surat b) to Calcutta in Bengal i. 1717 British receive duty exemption in exchange for small yearly fee, enabling advantage over Dutch 1) granted by Farrukhsiyar (r. 1713-1719), Aurangzeb’s successor 2) Dutch still paying per item duties 3) incentive for maximum production to British who paid same, whether greater or lesser quantity 4) Farrukhsiyar also granted a) rights to settle inland in Bengal b) favorable customs terms at i. Surat ii. Madras c) right to mint coins at Bombay 5) concessions appear to be sign of weakening Mughal authority j. EIC officials used to benefit personal as well as official capacities 1) EIC officials not bound to trade that did not include direct trade between a) India b) England 2) private EIC officials replaced Gujarati shipowners 3) private traders also engaged inland commodities 4) EIC granted tax-free status to some Indian merchants k. growing tensions to Mughal successor in Bengal, Nawab Alivardi Khan (1671-1756, r. 1740-1756) 1) encroachment into inland basic trade in a) salt b) grain 2) Khan weakened by Maratha onslaughts, sought to increase revenues through tax increases on a) zamindars (landowning aristocrats) b) Indian merchant bankers c) European companies 3) Khan’s 19 year old successor, Siraj al-Daula (1733-1757, 1756-1757) attempted to continue Khan’s policy 2. British-French Rivalries a. The Compagnie des Indes Orientales (CIO)26 and “mushroom” growth 1) founded in 1664 2) expanded to Pondicherry in 1674 3) expansion in additional outposts a) Chandernagore (near Calcutta) b) Masulipatnam (Coromandel Coast) 26 Indes Orientales is literally “East Indies”. Note the general place confusion of Europeans in distinguishing the “East” and “West” Indies (Indes Occidentales, i.e. Caribbean). 13 c) Malabar 4) growth more rapid than EIC 5) operated in similar fashion to EIC, though more directly under control of French crown b. further comparisons of French and British 1) British driven by public and private trades asserted a) movement inland b) movement down the scale of production 2) French used direct military means to a) gain political control b) obtain commercial advantages c. South India under diverse power configuration at end of 18th century 1) Mughal Empire in the Nizamate of Hyderabad 2) Maratha ruled Tanjore under Poona’s nominal suzerainty 3) Nawab of the Carnatic controlled Arcot, 70 miles inland from Madras 4) War of Austrian Succession (1744-1748) pushed France and England to opposite sides a) after initial French victory, Britain retained control of Madras through superior naval power in 1748 b) French controlled Pondicherry despite British efforts to obtain c) Treaty verified gains through exchange i. French obtained Cape Breton island ii. Britain received returnof Madras 5) 1750 French gained influence over Nawab of Arcot through chosen candidate a) assassinations b) machinations d. India and the Seven Years’ War (aka French-Indian War), 1756-1763 results in decline of French influence in India27 1) Britain used influence in Bengal to prevail over French a) resources b) supply of loyal soldiers c) cash reserves d) credit networks e) naval power 2) British also had advantages of multiple strategic locales a) that could be used against i. French ii. Indian rivals b) included i. Calcutta ii. Madras iii. Bombay 3) French were weak in Bengal a) deeply indebted i. great banking house of Jagat Seth, who banked for the Nawabs ii. many others b) had fewer assets to manipulate than British e. role of English military often exaggerated in explaining British prevalence 1) successful employment of Indian intermediaries 2) chronology of European entrance 3) development of commercial contract law28 4) chance 3. Summary: Indian Polities on the Eve of the Battle of Plassey a. South India largely under Nawabs 1) despite French control in Pondicherry (until 1950!) 2) Nawabs exercised all power in Bengal despite nominal control of Mughal Empire in Delhi 3) however, expanding power of EIC a) fortification of holdings b) mingong coins b. Western India 1) Maratha threat spurred English to expand Bombay ties 2) regional powers in Southwest and Deccan a) Nawab of Arcot b) Nizam of Hyderabad c) Maratha at Tanjore c. the erstwhile Mughal heartland of North India 1) Rajput kingdoms exemplify relative a) independence 27 as it did in North America 28 let’s be sure to discuss British contract law as well as the role of the 7 Years’ War in our review. 14 b) stability c) e.g. Raja Jai Singh 2) Delhi and Agra suffered from Persian and Maratha raids, resulting in heavily localized authority a) agrarian stability b) trade 3) Awadh to the east a) half-way point between i. English de facto capital of Calcutta ii. Mughal capital at Delhi b) ruled by Nawab c) wealthy agrarian heartland with market access via i. river ii. well-worn roads d) wealth as basis of cultural center i. for elite classes ii. reputation for Nawab commitment to local welfare B. The Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Political Framework of Colonial Rule [p. 27] 1. The Battle of Plassey a. Siraj-ud-Daula, (1733-1757, 1756-1757) attempted to continue Nawab Alivardi Khan’s program to increase revenues 1) character led to excessively aggressive posture toward enemies a) headstrong b) inexperienced c) even became contentious with the Jagat Seth banking house 2) disrespected officials who had served under his father b. assumption: drastic measures necessary to engage enhanced standing of British 1) attempted to extract greater revenues in 6/1756 from a) French b) Dutch 2) proceeded to attack British in Calcutta as well in order to show his unwillingness to accept challenges to his authority29 c. reality: local authorities resented power move and dissipated his control at a time when unity was essential d. the attack on the British residents of Fort St. William (6/1756) in Calcutta 1) 40 prisoners suffocated in the “Black Hole of Calcutta” while under Siraj’s soldiers’ care 2) British used as example of Indian barbarism 3) Robert Clive (1725-1774) arrived with 10 ships of soldiers from Madras, causing Siraj to return Calcutta to British control in 1/57 e. hostilities resumed after Clive’s ambitions led him to seek Siraj’s overthrow via disgruntled elites 1) Jagat Seth 2) Mir Jafar f. terms of the deal: Mir and Jagat to obtain effective rule in exchange for 1) EIC to receive financial support of the two financiers (1.25 million ₤) 2) EIC to receive trade privileges g. B. of Plassey began after deal in June 1757 1) Nawab’s troops had been bought off by Jagat Seth and fled upon outbreak of war 2) Siraj caught and executed 3) Mir Jafar claimed Naawab’s throne at Murshidabad as grandee of a) Jagat Seth b) EIC h. Consequences of the B. of Plassey 1) EIC gained far more than they hoped 2) EIC with right to mind coins despite Jagat Seth’s previous monopoly claim 3) gained additional area, Twenty-four Paraganas (in present day Kolkotta) 4) EIC and Nawab as independent allies i. 1758 conflict over terms of Mir Jafar and Jagat Seths’ debt repayment led to Clive demand for revenue rights to 3 Bengali districts 1) Chittagong 2) Mindnapur 3) Burdwan j. territorial aggrandizement in effect poses transition from trade empire to dominion with Clive’s 1760 demand for permanence 1) territories not generating sufficient revenue 2) end of bullion trade in 1757 added pressure a) British refused further bullion payments due to success of trade b) successful trade comprised of i. saltpeter
29 This paragraph does not fully make sense, as it appears that Siraj’s only policy was to attack any and all who might limit his power. It’s not clear where his real base of support lay unless it was somehow in the military and among those who now saw the British as their principal adversary. 15 ii. textiles iii. opium iv. other commodities c) forced EIC to purchase its goods from own i. trade ii. land revenues k. Mir Jafar turns to help from other Europeans upon this land grab by British l. Clive asserts Mir Kasim as de facto Nawab 1) in exchange for permanent claims 2) through compulsion by EIC force m. Mir Kasim’s pragmatic efforts to balance interests 1) restored those ousted under EIC influence 2) moved capital to higher inland ground near Monghyr (in modern state of Bihar) 3) reformed army along European infantry lines 4) manufactured weapons 5) hired Armenian mercenaries as commanders 6) excluded Jagat Seths from court 7) attempted to ensure steady flow of revenue n. Mir Kasim’s efforts to restrict power of EIC 1) contested private trade in staple commodities that were traditionally sources for Nawab a) grain b) salt 2) British saw as violation of 1757 agreement and led to 1763 attack by EIC army 3) initial return to Bengal with support of a) Nawab of Awadh b) Mughal Emperor Shah Alam (r. 1759-1806) 4) EIC defeated Mir Kasim’s army at 10/64 B. of Buxar o. EIC restored Mir Jafar, but now as a puppet under terms of 1765 Treaty of Allahabad 1) EIC given right of diwani to a) Bengal b) Bihar c) Orissa 2) in exchange for 2.6 m rupee payment to Mughal Emperor in Delhi 3) this reverses previous arrangements in which EIC drew portion collected by Nawabs 2. Company or Government?30 a. title of diwani deputized EIC as part of Mughal Empire up to 1858 b. 1st Governor-General of India, Sir Warren Hastings (1772-1785) established 7 years after diwani appointment 1) based rule on Indian models to minimize expense and accommodate Indian culture 2) continued use of Persian as legal language until 183531 3) EIC minted coins in name of Mughal Emperor c. EIC transitions from commercial monopoly to adjudicator of competing commercial interests, in effect operating as state within expanded trade network32 d. new arrangements asserted value of commodities over sustenance, especially indigo e. EIC operating largely like Mughal and Nawab regimes 1) extracted revenue from lands 2) used revenues to further interests in other regions 3) differences were that a) British more widespread use of coercion b) extracted profits benefitted London f. the costs of the new regime 1) 42% of revenues sponsored military expenses under Hastings 2) an army of 115,000 men, 90% Indian 3) sepoys (from Persian sephai), in effect well-paid mercenaries, were needed to quash rebellions a) Behar in 1781 b) Orissa in 1817 g. further incorporation of peasants from Bihar and Awadh as military force for EIC 1) EIC respected religious and caste norms a) dietary b) festivals
30 Clearly the authors want you to infer that the EIC became an effective governmental entity by virtue of its various administrative activities that emerged in the late 18th century. This might be the basis for an essay question. 31 uncertain whether this would be the same as an “official” language 32 this is a very important and complex point. Could we argue that the EIC became something of the forerunner of the GATT and WTO? An umbrella organization for a complex of companies? The difference with the WTO, of course, was that the EIC benefitted exclusively British interests. 16 2) also problems with European officer mutinies in 1766 and 1795-6 h. main point: EIC used expanding army role in society to expand territorial and political control as effective state actor 3. The Land Revenue System a. the Permanent Settlement in Bengal illustrates British being drawn into Indian Society beyond its extraction interests 1) lasted until 1947 2) established by Lord Cornwallis soon after his surrender at Yorktown in 1781 3) established fixed rate of land revenue taxation in perpetuity in order to encourage productive innovation 4) reflected Whig belief in role of hereditary landed aristocracy and ideal of creating Indian gentleman-farmer b. the theory and practice of permanent taxation rate 1) zamindar (landowner) incentivized to maximize output since tax rate stable regardless of profitability33 2) zamindar threatened with property confiscation for failure to pay 3) system was cheap and manageable a) operated through only large landholders b) zamindars operated as effective nobility, who were responsible for answering to needs of ryot (tenants) c) 1799 regulation allowed zamindar to seize land of ryot in cases when latter unable to meet obligations 4) EIC revenue expections of ₤ 3,000,0000 [sic]34 exceeded Bengal revenues set by Mughals or Nawabs c. Social, land use, and legal effects of the Permanent Settlement 1) new class of landowners created by rapid transformation in property market due to forced sales a) 40% of Bengali estates changed hands in first 15 years b) landholding elite moved from countryside and became absentee landlords living in Calcutta 2) new class of estate managers emerged whose well-being based on peasant exploitation 3) peasants exploited thus by both zamindars and colonial state a) zamindars engaged in profit maximation b) colonial state strengthened control of i. supply chains ii. conditions of cultivators’ labor c) results: i. famine in 1770 killing ¼ of Bengal population ii. famine in 1783 4) new system ripped the fabric of traditional relations in the countryside a) ownership patterns b) cultivation c) tenancy d) commons e) traditional labor exchanges f) custom d. Madras and Bombay develop different pattern from failed Bengal model in 1820s 1) variable revenue rate based on assertion of virtues of smallholding peasant-farmer 2) The ryotwari system created direct relationship between Company state and individual peasants 3) two prominent historians assert this system as “self-delusion”35 a) revenue rates determined by local elites at village level, thus securing the position of the already advantaged b) required expansion of administrative oversight and bureaucracy i. European District Collector supervised network of Indian petty collectors36 ii. Collector in effect became executive and judicial power within jurisdiction realm iii. District level system of courts endures in India today in the person of District Magistrate 4. Ideologies of Rule a. Sir William Jones (1746-1794), founder of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, first to assert Indo-European language link 1) made link between Sanskrit, Persian, Greek and Latin 2) studied Hindu legal traditions so as to be independent of inefficient and untrustworthy legal advisors a) Hindu b) Muslim 3) effort to “purify” Indian tradition along Indian lines 4) Jones as Orientalist a) capture and preserve India as it was at its height b) merged deep respect and patronizing pity 5) consequence: made rigid a previously diverse and flexible system through a) introducing precedent-based common law b) certain interpretations and texts over others
33 note parallels to Reagan era “supply-side” economics that asserted a lower tax rate in order to encourage investor class to contribute to economic activity by virtue of profit incentives 34 this is clearly a typo in guide. Probably 3,000,000, but may be 30,000,000 35 The historians cited here are Metcalf (X2) Marshall, and Trautmann 36 who drew their salaries from the taxes collected 17 b. James (1773-1836) and John Stuart Mill37 as Utilitarian followers of Jeremy Bentham who had less respect for Indian culture than Jones 1) Utilitarianism: the greatest good to the greatest number38 2) view of India as needing full cultural overhaul as expressed in 1818 History of British India a) stagnant b) superstitious c) irregular c. Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859), utilitarian who advocated education in English 1) Promoted Anglicist rejection of Indian a) norms b) practices c) languages 2) denigrated Indian literature 3) promoted English India in a) taste b) opinions c) morals d) intellect d. Anglicist approach gradually displaced Orientalist approach by 2nd half of 19th century 1) adopted Macaulay’s criminal code 2) other adoptions that remain largely in effect to this day e. British largely forbade Christian missions in India 1) British imprisoned 1st US missionary around 1812 in Madras 2) William Carey (1761-1834) British Baptist forced to operate from Danish Serampore rather than British Calcutta 3) few conversions 4) major importance of missionary schools 5) Christian critiques of Hinduism led many Indians to undertake apologetics 6) eventually, by 1813, restrictions on missionaries largely lifted though a) not always reliable allies for colonial project b) would excoriate as well as encourage imperial endeavor C. Colonial Expansion in the Nineteenth Century [p. 33] 1. Lord Wellesley and Tipu Sultan: The Battle of Seringapatnam, 1799 a. Full state operations by time of 3rd Governor General Wellesley 1) Permanent Settlement with administrative, executive and judicial structures 2) expansion of a) military b) revenue streams c) trade b. Haider Ali (r. 1761-1782) founded great state of Mysore in Deccan Plateau, ruled by successor Tipu Sultan (r. 1782-1799) at time of Wellesley 1) prosperity 2) stability a) favorable conditions for trade b) skilled army of 60,000 c) flourishing capital city of Seringapatnam, close to Mysore 3) reform a) eliminated i. revenue farming ii. intermediary zamindars b) direct collection of revenues from peasants39 c. Heroic defeat of Tipu Sultan in 1799 1) fought EIC troops to draw in 1984 B. of Poligur 2) Tipu Sultan appeal to Napoleonic France in 1799 drew Wellesley’s special anger a) use of revolutionary idioms b) planted liberty tree 3) Treaty resolution based on Bengal protection promise in exchange for a) de facto control b) heavy tribute d. Mysore settlement applied to other independent polities on subcontinent under subsidiary alliance 1) annual fee from state in exchange for protection 2) company residents resided at court and initially managed state’s relationship with EIC 3) ruler required to disband personal army
37 Both worked for EIC 38 Cf. contemporaries Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo’s “Iron law of wages.” 39 note guide lauding what it had earlier criticized under ryotwari system as too bureaucratic 18 2. The Next Phase of Colonial Expansion a. diffused nature of Maratha rule challenged direct control of EIC 1) sub-kingdoms under nominal head at Poona 2) many producing own weapons in N. India 3) 1802 Treaty of Bassein forced Marathas to submit to subsidiary alliance 4) 1803 remaining independent Maratha regions succumbed to subsidiary alliance a) Deccan b) around Delhi b. Final Maratha stand failed in 1818 1) total annexation of Maratha territory by EIC40 2) Maratha rulers pensioned and resettled 3) remaining independent states of India surrounded by territories controlled by EIC c. 1840 failed military adventure of EIC in Afghanistan 1) territory difficult to govern and fully conquer 2) 1842 a) 16,000 soldiers besieged at Kabul b) EIC able nevertheless to annex nearby Sindh d. Afghanistan failure caused EIC to refocus on Punjab 1) power vacuum created by d. of Ranjit Singh in 1839 2) tactic of playing rival Sikh chieftains against each other succeeded in 1845 1st Sikh War a) EIC installed resident at Lahore court b) rewarded Hindu king of Jammu with kingdom of predominantly Muslim Kashmir 3) Treaty of Amritsar 1846 a) Gulaab Singh, Dogra King in Jammu i. granted a. valley of Kashmir b. nominal sum of money c. twelve goats for chasmere wool d. three pairs of shawls ii. basis of current Kashmir conflict 4) 1848-9 complete EIC annexation of Ranjit Singh’s kingdom e. The Punjab school of EIC rule 1) emphasized strict rule 2) allowed officials’ wide-ranging powers set standards for arbitrariness in this region a) paternalistic b) illiberal c) may relate to attitude behind infamous 1919 massacre at Jallianawala Bagh f. Awadh administration similar to Punjab school 1) classic subsidiary alliance after B. of Buxar and Treaty of Allahabad in 1765 2) Awadh Nawab unable to sustain network of local support without relying on EIC for loans 3) problems of debt compelled Awadh Nawab to embrace a) cultural expression b) aesthetic achievement 4) 1801 debt forced kingdom to cede eastern half of territory to EIC, further decreasing revenue base 5) cultural legacy of Awadh culture expressed in Satyajit Ray’s film The Chess Players (1977) a) though British saw Awadh events as proof of Anglicist view b) Lucknow and Faizabad testify to cultural dynamism of Awadh region c) The Chess Players based on 1924 short story of Premchand i. Hindi ii. Urdu g. 1818 tie between Mughal Empire and Awadh ended with Nawab declaration of self as king, but evident effort at independence only set stage for ultimate British annexation in 185641 1) as undertaken by Governor-General Dalhousie 2) one of the bases of Indian Rebellion in 1857-8 h. movement eastward into Myanmar/Burma (1826) brings Konbaung Dynasty under EIC control 1) valued for its timber supplies 2) British aggression led to 2nd war in 1852 and annexation of territory up to Pegu 3) 1886 war resulted in total annexation a) remained part of British India until 1937 b) after 1937 under British rule but own administration until independence in 1948 i. 1819 conquest of Singapore, the entrepôt for trade with China 1) Straits of Malacca linked Singapore to Myanmar 2) consolidated English shipping dominance over Dutch in SE Asia 3) further takeover of Ile de France in 1814, now Mauritius 40 NB this is 3 years after the end of the Napoleonic wars 41 NB end of Crimean War in 1856 19 4) consolidated control over Indian Ocean from Mauritius to Canton 5) extended network by takeover of Aden port on Arabian Sea 6) Indians diffused throughout key port areas of British empire, from British Guiana to Fiji a) merchants b) soldiers c) police d) laborers, most importantly j. the value of British rule to British 1) favorable trade terms 2) inexhaustible supply of natural resources 3) consumer markets for mfgd goods a) in colonies b) at home 4) by 1830s, no major Indian elite challenges to British control 3. Indirect Rule and Princely India a. GG Dalhousie’s 1848 efforts to 1) consolidate holdings a) legally b) territorially 2) expand communication and transportation in order to reduce costs a) railroad b) telegraph b. paramountcy as operational principal 1) rulers without male heirs regarded as “lapsed” and EIC could take direct control of domains (doctrine of lapse) 2) lapse doctrine violated local methods (common law) for determining successors, e.g. king might even adopt heir 3) resulted in annexation of large states (1848-1854) and increased annual revenue by ₤5 million a) Satara b) Jhansi c) Nagpur 4. Infrastructure and Economy a. drastic changes in rural economy 1) opium in eastern India used to pay Chinese for tea a) in place of silver or gold b) 15% of EIC revenue c) EIC with monopoly claim to cultivate and smuggle d) famous fortunes i. Elihu Yale ii. Sassoon family 2) indigo a) cash advances provided to encourage production, resulting in massive indebtedness of Indian peasants with market collapses in i. 1827 ii. 1847 b) Blue Mutiny in Bengal of 1859-60 prompted reforms there c) no such reforms in Bihar were Planter Raj prevailed until 1917 and Gandhi’s Champaran Campaign b. decline of weaving in conjunction with industrial revolution 1) volume swamped quality 2) political pressure not able to coerce reforms as in 19th century Britain 3) other commodities in this period a) jute b) sugar c) rice grains d) timber c. railways 1) today, 100,000 kms of track and 1.3 million employees 2) legacy good, but not consistent with original intent a) move raw materials to i. ports ii. mfg centers b) move troops and materials in events of uprisings 3) evolution of Indian railways in1850s a) Crown guaranteed at least 5% return on investment to creditors b) consequently, all profits from RR returned to British investors c) design and layout served commercial interests d) raw materials to build came from outside India e) as a result, no multiplier effects from this infrastructure investment 20 d. Ganges Canal and other irrigation projects 1) Dalhousie oversaw 500 miles of canal construction 2) short-term benefits with long-term environmental consequences through salinization of soil e. Dalhousie also completed telegraph 1) deep-sea cable in 1850 crossed Hooghly River from Calcutta as crucial site for innovation 2) postal service with penny post laid foundation for transnational political organization 3) steam power adopted in 1840 f. did these infrastructure contribute more than they extracted from the overall development of the Indian economy? D. Indian Society, 1757-1857: Diverse Responses to Colonial Rule [p. 38] 1. Reform, Reaction, and Creativity a. Indian creativity most notable in EIC capital at Calcutta 1) important role of Asiatic Society of Bengal working in conjunction with Sir William Jones 2) founding of Hindu College in 1818 a) provided path for employment with colonial state b) especially important after shift from Persian to English as language of governance c) Henry Derozio (1809-1831) as example of those who adopted English ways i. conversion to Christianity ii. organized Young Bengal to a. critique Indian society b. lead enthusiasm for things British b. Founding of Delhi College in 1825 1) aimed to provide necessary education for respectable work in colonial sector 2) embodied ways in which English and Indian knowledge had come to coexist a) Urdu received pride of place at Delhi College i. developed under Mughals ii. blended Persian script and vocabulary with Hindu grammar b) western scientific tracts translated into Urdu, which formalized it in relation to i. translators ii. readers c. The Firangi Majal (foreigner’s palace) in Lucknow as indigenous educational movement 1) Shia Nawabs of Awadh patronized Sunni religious scholars in palace of former French adventurer 2) FM developed curriculum for sustaining Muslim identity in various cultural frameworks 3) FM remains as basis for much Muslim religious education today a) language b) rational sciences c) logic d) rhetoric e) theology in systematic form d. Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) encouraged stricter norms of Islamic practice 1) criticized Sufi saint worship at shrines 2) Followers such as Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi led jihad against perceived violations of Muslim religious practice carried out by Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh a) utopian character of reform movement to destroy and rebuild society on egalitarian basis b) movement failed, forcing new ways to accommodate change42 e. The Bengali Renaissance under Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) using accommodative strategy43 1) Roy as a) employee of EIC b) polyglot i. Persian ii. Sanskrit iii. Arabic iv. English c) knowledge of Christianity applied to reformist ideals in Hinduism i. critiqued superstition ii. sought to restore Hinduism to earlier glory 2) The Brahmo Sabha founded in 1828 as institution to promote Roy’s vision, later known as the Brahmo Samaj a) comprised of elite Bengali families b) forum for engaging Christianity and Hinduism c) corresponded with Unitarians i. England ii. US d) followed revolutionary and constitutional movements throughout the world
42 This would seem to be something of a precursor to Al Qaeda? 43 Note the frequent surnames of “Roy” and “Raj”, indicating the Indo-European etymological link to the Latin base from which we get the term royal. 21 f. Radha Kanta Deb (1784-1867) countered accomodationist positon of Roy by founding the Dharma Sabha 2. Gender in Colonial India a. sati, the ritual burning of a widow on husband’s funeral pyre 1) valorized in 18th century 2) became symbol of barbarity by 1820s, banned in 1828 by colonial state b. some Bengali elites encouraged banning, including Rammohun Roy who provided Hindu scriptural opposition to sati c. Deb supported sati, or at least opposed colonial ban d. South Asian historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalan point out selective morality of colonial critique of sati 3. The Press a. English and native language papers benefitted from penny post b. newspaper as foundational to literate India c. 1st Indian owned English newspaper in 1777 d. the Bombay Samachar founded in 1822 in Gujarati is Asia’s longest-running newspaper e. newspapers linked Indians throughout British Empire, facilitating national bonds and action 4. Peasant Resistance a. Bengal 1) Shariat Allah (1781-1784) led Islamic based peasant uprising on indigo plantations 2) refusal to pay tribute for support of Hindu religious activities 3) Shariat’s son organized workers against abuses of a) zamindars b) colonials 4) Blue Mutiny of 1859-60 b. Mapilla (Moplah) rebellions on Malabar Coast 1) made economic and social demands on Hindu landlords a) 1802 b) 1830s c) 1849 d) 1852 2) like the Faraizi movement44 5. Bhil and Santhal Rebellions a. among forested tribal groups known formally as adibasis or indigenous inhabitants b. colonial state referred to as criminals based on allegations of raids to supplement livelihoods c. Bhils in western India subject to surveillance and punitive response with colonial lack of respect for 1) common law 2) habeas corpus d. Colonials compelled sedentarization on nomadic groups like the Pindaris in 1810s e. Santhal rebellion began in Bengal state of Jharkhand under leadership of four brothers in 1855-6 (aka hool) 1) showed resistance not only among elites 2) provides basis for present-day Maoist resistance in India’s central forest region III. FROM HIGH COLONIALISM TO INDEPENDENCE, 1857-1947 (25%) [p. 43] A. 1857: Mutiny or War of Independence? [p. 43] 1. The Causes a. not the first challenge to British authority 1) peasant uprisings 2) army mutinies b. differences from earlier uprisings 1) widespread coordination of action 2) escalation in scale 3) new levels of intensity in challenges to colonial power c. the EIC in 1857 1) 1.6 million square miles 2) 238,000 all-volunteer army a) divided into 3 major forces based on provinces (presidencies) b) only 38,000 were European c) British troops had been removed to fight in i. Persia ii. Crimea d) European contingent especially small in Bengal and doab heartland in North e) European focus in NW Punjab f) Bengal Army as largest i. 151,000 troops ii. 40,000 high-caste a. Brahmins b. Rajput landholders from recently annexed Awadh d. Sepoys (soldiers from Persian word sipahi) Rebellion 44 This is another name for Shariat Allah’s movement 22 1) Sepoys much cheaper than conscripting Europeans45 2) use of personal networks related to specific populations a) Awadh b) Bihar e. disaffection within Bengal army had begun already in mid-18th century 1) EIC soldiers’ salaries did not keep up with inflation 2) Brahmins could not be promoted to levels comparable with Europeans f. territorial expansion of mid-18th caused further aggravation 1) Maratha territories 2) Sind (1843) 3) Punjab (1849) 4) Awadh (1856) g. soldiers denied bonus pay for “serving abroad” in these territories, as British promote notion of unified India h. Eastern Front expansion added further strain 1) no sepoys used in Burma campaigns so as not to break caste norms forbidding crossing the kala pani (open/black waters) a) 1824 b) 1852 2) however, 1856 General Services Enlistment Act required sepoys to go “overseas” i. resentments caused by 1) soldier recruitment outside of Rajput and Brahmin north 2) expanded influence of British missionaries as assault on cultural foundations 3) public cultural criticisms of a) Macaulay b) Mill 4) 1856 justification for annexation of Awadh due to Lucknow nawab a) misgovernance b) decadence j. increased residents control and expanded use of “doctrine of lapse” k. expansion of company control into highly localized economic areas l. proper context for understanding the dispute over the new form of cartridge 2. Narrative of Events a. hearth: army garrison uprising in response to cartridge grease 1) Meerut in 5/1857 a) 468 long km from Lucknow b) only 66 km from Delhi 2) religious basis of refusal to bite cartridges led to mass incarcerations a) pig fat grease offended Muslims b) tallow from beef offended Hindus 3) the rebellion involved a) massacre of English residents b) massacre of military superiors of the Cantonment b. movement toward Delhi 1) Mughal heart of India 2) seven centuries of political and economic dominance 3) seat of Bahadur Shah Zafar, “the last Mughal” a) 83 years old b) rallying point for Indian sovereignty c. summer spread throughout northern and central India 1) drew mass support from disaffected a) dislocated landlords b) peasants wronged by i. local notables ii. colonial state c) merchants d) former princes 2) drew key elite support that inspired further resistance a) Queen regent at Awadh b) last great Maratha chieftain, Nana Saheb d. The role of Awadh 1) colonial land reforms had dislocated wealthy landlords in favor of landholding peasants a) medium b) small 2) joint resistance of displaced landlords and peasants shows that grievance not merely economic but also a) political b) ideological 45 early form of outsourcing! 23 3) siege of the Lucknow Residency a) 500 women and children b) taken 20 days after Meerut uprising c) required two separate British relief efforts e. the central Indian territory of Jhansi and the Maratha territories as centers of uprising 1) Jhansi a) had been annexed under doctrine of lapse b) displaced queen (Rani) died leading troops into battle 2) Maratha a) Dalhousie had ended generous stipend to Chieftain Nana Saheb b) Nana Saheb led successful charge vs. EIC troops at Kanpur (near Lucknow) in 6/57 c) officers,women, and children massacred despite Nana Saheb promise of safe passage d) massacre became bases of colonists’ perceptions of barbarism f. Madras and Bombay Presidencies largely excluded from revolt g. Punjab also with no major fighting 1) had recently been defeated by Bengal Army 2) Punjab officers crushed sepoys who showed rebellious sentiment h. widespread peasant rebellion in north Indian heartland showed support across social groupings 1) social groups a) tribal communities b) tenant farmers c) landholders of all sizes 2) historiography has shown that rebellion was not defined by elites but rather based on a) honor b) prestige (especially in Awadh46) i. British prevailed largely due to “backyard” in other parts of India 1) James Neill led Madras army to retake Allahabad fortress in 6/57 2) Allahabad became base of operations for retaking Lucknow in tough battle over 5 months starting in 7/57 3) Jhansi retaken the following spring (3/58) 4) in 6/59 Gwalior retaken, effectively ending the mutiny47 5) bases in Madras and Bombay gave British crucial resource base that rebels lacked j. rebels also suffered from lack of unity 1) varied discontents led to limited unity 2) Hyderabad Nizam perceived rebellion to be largely fomented by enemy Marathas k. consequences of rebellion both immediate and long-term 1) Bahadur Shah Zafar tried, convicted, and exiled to Burma48 a) sons killed b) 1858 Babur’s lineage met ignominious death 2) British revised approach to military policy: The Peel Commission Report a) ratio of European to Indian soldiers increased i. from 1:6 ii. to 1:2 b) army to not rely as heavily on a single social group, though clear preference given to loyal groups i. Punjabis, who represented ½ of army by 1857 ii. Pathans iii. Nepali Gurkhas 3) intensified British racism a) British equivalent to Yellow Journalism emerged by mid 19th century with expansion of print media b) media coverage of Kanpur massacre shifted public opinion against what had previously been seen as legitimate Indian grievances against colonial rule c) 1,000 Indians massacred at Allahabad deemed legitimate act of revenge d) gruesome acts of punishment justified49 i. blown from cannons ii. the razing and fencing in of Shahjahanabad heart of Mughal empire iii. Red Fort in Delhi taken over by British to house enlarged troop presence iv. forced expulsion of ½ of Delhi residents v. Kanpur and Delhi as Mutiny Tours for residents vi. popularization through emerging technology of photography 3. The Post-Mutiny Political Framework 1) Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858 which rendered all EIC authority to crown
46 Meerut, Kanpur, Lucknow 47 Again, compare the dates of the Crimean war (10/53 – 2/56). One wonders how events might have unfolded had the uprising begun a few months earlier! 48 note that last Burmese king exiled to India in 1885, less than 30 years later. 49 compare US adoption of torture after 9/11 24 2) Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 a) Guaranteed ca. 500 Indian princes their title, effectively undermining Dalhousie’s policies b) traditions invented so as to reaffirm Indian place among British royal family c) declared the Queen the Empress of British India d) declared non-interference in Indian religion e) promote social advancement of Indians 3) vast reorganization of resources a) India compelled to pay ₤50 million reparation in “India debt’ b) required reorganization of land tax system and added income tax on wealthier urban groups i. basis for financing Indian army ii. Indian Army role expanded throughout Empire iii. numerous military conflicts involving Indian Army a. Afghanistan in 1870s b. Burma annexed in mid-1880s c. Egypt taken in 1882 d. Sudan brought under British control in 1880s and 1890s e. Boxer Rebellion ca. 1900 f. Boer War (1899-1902) g. Tibet (1902-1903) iv. enhanced status of India after 1857 indicates designation as “jewel in the crown” c) annual (!) transfer of ca. ₤17-18 million from India to London to pay for i. military expenses ii. administration form London iii. training new officers iv. military stores v. pensions to retired British officers vi. Mutinyh debt vii. numerous colonial wars viii. payments made via natural resources export to London d) railway building to facilitate i. troop movements ii. disperse mfg’d goods iii. export raw materials 4) reorganization of cities strengthened division between colonizers and natives a) reflected heightened fear and suspicions b) strict division between White and Black towns50 B. 1858-1900 High Noon of Colonialism [p. 48] 1. the 1860s and 1870s: intensification of nationalist sentiment in the aftermath of the 1857 rebellion51 a. debates facilitated by new communications technologies 1) among Indians 2) between Indians and the British b. the language of debate 1) liberalism 2) science 3) progress 4) modernity c. British sought to expand the social support base in India 1) Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress by Imperial Assemblage in Delhi in 1877 a) even though capital was Calcutta b) Delhi symbolized British aspirations to invoke legacy of Mughal Empire 2) princes and notables received personal coat of arms from Viceroy52 Lord Lytton (1876-1880) d. Indian elites awarded formal representation through the Municipal Councils Act of 1882 1) deflected some of the criticism that might be levied against the British for tax increases 2) placed Indians in charge of major infrastructure projects on local scale a) sanitation b) roads 3) served as training ground for “Anglicized” elites in accordance with theories of Macaulay 4) allowed British to “balance” representation between Hindus and Muslims53
50 The guide has not yet mentioned, but it should be noted, that the 1860s was the incipient decade for the rise of Social Darwinism. This doctrine arose prior to The Origin of Species (1860) in relation to the theories of Herbert Spencer, who had used Malthus’ ideas to frame his racialist worldview even before he had had the opportunity to apply Darwin’s theories to human societies. 51 Note the parallel developments in Europe at this time, especially as it pertained to the multinational lands of the Habsburg Empire. 52 Viceroy is literally the person who represents the “king” in an imperial land. Roy is Latin for king. 53 Metcalf and Metcalf, A Concise History of Modern India, summarized the intentional contradiction of the British program with the following: “Indians were expected to develop universal loyalties and were criticized for parochialism, yet in colonial institutions they 25 5) “Divide and Conquer” appears to have been a basic motive for British to induce competition between Hindu and Muslim subjects 2. Indian Religious Movements a. Islamic modernism 1) animated by a) science b) rationalism 2) embraced secular approach to social relations 3) understood nation-state to be basis of polity 4) represented by the Aligarh movement a) founded by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan i. family of service gentry at Mughal Court in Delhi ii. employed by EIC in 1837 iii. sided with EIC during Rebellion iv. wrote Loyal Mohammedans of India in 1861 b) promoted loyalty of Muslims to British c) promoted education model based on both Islamic and Western models d) 1875 establishment of Mohamadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh i. modeled on a. oxford b. Cambridge ii. principal and staff were English iii. Aligarh graduates a. had come from all India b. resettled and assumed leadership positions throughout India b. Deoband movement rather focused on proper Islamic observance than colonial domination 1) critiqued shrine devotion at tombs of Sufi saints 2) critiqued ban on Muslim widow remarriage as reflecting contaminating influence of Hinduism 3) opposed lavish spending on a) Saints’ birthdays b) weddings 4) Deoband madrassa separate from mosque a) organized along modern bureaucratic lines b) relied on public contributions and philanthropy rather than patronage c) used printing presses and pamphlets to spread message d) first in India to i. publish annual proceedings ii. list donors’ names e) graduates returned to homelands and established 9,000 satellite campuses in 1st cdntury c. Deoband movement more open to women’s participation than Aligarh 1) Aligarh saw men as more suited to public life, whereas Deoband saw moral role of women as paramount 2) For Deoband women were to be a) sensible b) intelligent companions for husbands c) raise children in proper manner d) women’s domestic status encoded in Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanasi’s Bahisthi Zaheer d. Arya Samaj as Hindu parallel to Deoband movement 1) purify Hinduism by limiting role of a) superstition b) custom 2) purification ceremonies for those who had converted to a) Islam b) Christianity 3) established Temples throughout India which carried the message 4) centered in Punjabi heartland where Christian missionaries had had most success e. Other religious movements54 1) included a) Singh Sabha in Punjab (1873) sought renewal among Sikhs b) Ahmadiyyas, Muslim minority sect c) Ramakrishna Mission 2) all involved with a) modern organizational techniques were given incentives to identify with particular religions and castes.” 54 Note that the late 19th century was also the time when such religious affiliations as the Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and other Utopian movements with a religious character. 26 i. print culture ii. public fundraising iii. dedicated followers to serve as missionaries b) reforming women’s practices c) emphasis on i. individual choice ii. commitment d) aspired to enter pantheon of world religions by emphasizing i. antiquity ii. scripturalism 3. The Founding of the Indian National Congress, 1885 a. the drain of wealth theory: the colonial state does not represent Indian interests 1) not a wholesale rejection of colonialism 2) endeavored to secure fiscal policies to nurture development of Indian industries to compete with British 3) varioius urban centers for development of theory a) Calcutta b) Bombay c) Madras d) London b. Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) 1) 1st Indian elected to Parliament by London constituency in 1888 2) Parsi from Bombay 3) wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) expressing drain of wealth theory 4) other associations a) 1870 Poona Sarvajanik Sabha b) 1876 Indian Association founded in Bengal c) Madras Mahajana Sabha in 1884 d) Bombay Presidency Association in 1885 5) 1885 meeting of regional associations in Bombay became basis for INC c. Constituency of INC 1) no clear democratic basis 2) self-selected group of Indian elites from a) Presidency cities of i. Madras ii. Calcutta iii. Bombay b) most had traveled to London to study for i. Indian Civil Service exam ii. or law c) represented professional class in India 3) character: moderate a) methods: i. used constitutional pressure tactics ii. employed language of a. rights b. justice c. liberalism iii. did so in polite fashion b) aims i. increase powers of legislative councils ii. allow Indians to be part of legislative councils iii. Indianization of the Indian Civil Service, the “steel frame” of the colonial state a. this would have allowed for Indians to have become bard of ICS without journey to London b. would ensure that ICS represented Indian interests c. would allow officer pensions to remain in India iv. critiqued extractive policies a. opposed high land revenue demands b. linked revenue demands to famine c. indentured laborers exploited by plantation owners 4) posed as representatives of larger Indian public to colonial state d. largely Hindu in character 1) Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan of Aligarh movement did not participate due to expectation of a) Hindu domination of elected councils b) Hindus benefitting from Indianization of ICS 2) despite INC 130 year stated commitment to a) secularism 27 b) tolerance e. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920) opposed moderated constitutionalism of INC 1) Swaraj as birthright 2) Marathi language newspaper advocating a) more radical line than INC b) more religious line than INC 3) 1893 created the Ganapati Festival a) celebration of Ganesh b) several days of i. processions ii. food iii. launching of small shrines to Ganesh in Indian Ocean at Bombay 4) 1895 created similar festival for Maratha warrior Shivaji a) as symbol of Hindu who defeated Mughal Empire b) Tilak prograyed Mughals as Muslim empire 5) encouraged exclusive consumptions of swadeshi (goods produced in India) 6) Hindu pride in opposition to colonial rule 4. The Idea of India at the Turn of the Century a. religious vs. secular visions of the nation b. all groups used rail and communication networks c. shared grievances 1) racial discrimination vs. professional elites 2) peasants subject to a) market forces b) landlord depredations c) heavy tax burdens d. colonial state used religious diversity to exert control C. Indian Nationalism and the Rise of Gandhi [p. 52] 1. The Partition of Bengal, 1905-1911 a. Lord Curzon’s Viceroyship (1899-1905) similar in tone to Dalhousie’s 1) streamline bureaucracy 2) withdraw concessions given to Indians in a) education b) local government i. reduced number of elected members on municipal board of Calcutta in 1899 ii. led secret all-British conference that reduced the number of elected Indian members of universities’ governing bodies (1904 Universities Act) b. Partition of Bengal (1905) triggered mass resistance 1) East Bengal with a majority Muslim population a) broke historic shard homeland b) offended Bengali middle-class 2) swadeshi campaign form 1905-1908 brought together variant strands of nationalist groups a) INC moderates believed in Constitutional methods i. petitioning colonial state ii. prudent use of press b) Hindu militants also saw value in swadeshi c) independence groups seeking i. strengthened Indian economy ii. undermine basis of British role in India d) some revolutionary “terrorist” groups who used swadeshi as cover for their activities55 c. assessing the swadeshi campaign 1) early success a) 25% decrease in imported British goods b) mass and diverse social base i. educated professionals ii. students iii. working-class laborers from factories a. Calcutta b. Bombay c) actions i. burning of imported goods ii. marched in streets
55 I personally do not like the use of the term “terrorist” in this context. The resort to violence in the quest for national independence has a long history that rarely gets applied to European contexts. By this standard, would not Washington and Jefferson be terrorists? Garibaldi and Bismarck? 28 iii. toured countryside to convince peasants to forego cheaper imported cloth for swadeshi 2) growing divisions over tactics limited sustainability of campaign 3) compelled London to replace Curzon and ultimately engage long-term reforms to quell insubordination d. British response to the campaign: the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 1) retooled administration a) granted majority of non-official seats for elected Indian officials i. elections not based on universal franchise ii. votes distributed according to constituencies a. commercial organizations b. university graduates c. municipal boards d. most importantly: separate electorates for Muslims b) official seats for colonial officials no longer in majority56 e. The “Hindu” character of Congress and the swadeshi movement resulted in the founding of the Muslim League in 1906 1) based on Muslims associated with Aligarh movement 2) based in Dhaka, in East Bengal 3) partition strategy of creating independent base of Muslim influence successful 4) Muslims granted separate electorates on Indian municipal councils in Morley-Minto reforms 5) separate electorates made it impossible for Hindus to vote for Muslims and vice-versa f. 1911 formal launching of Delhi as new capital of India 1) conscience effort to correlate British rule as continuation of Mughal Empire 2) defused mass resistance in a) Calcutta b) Bengal 3) 1905 partition of Bengal rescinded, though 3 new states created a) Bihar b) Orissa c) Assam g. major gains of India through swadeshi movement: self-representation at the province-wide level 2. World War I and India a. dynamic influences on India 1) 1 million Indians into battles across the world 2) development of Indian industries as supply flows interrupted 3) the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms advanced self-representation and democracy in 1917 4) the return of Gandhi (1869-1948) b. Indians drawn into war 1) serving in a) France b) East Africa against Germans c) Middle East against Ottomans 2) tripled India’s defense expenditure, contributing ₤150 million to war effort 3) lean years for India a) food prices 2x b) import prices 3x 4) 1918 global flu epidemic killed ca. 14 million Indians 5) simultaneous failure of the monsoon c. Indian industry benefitted from increased customs on British imports 1) Gujarati benefitted especially a) Ahmedabad b) Bombay 2) Indian mill production of cotton exceeded imports from Lancashire d. The war galvanized idea of self-determination and generated political reforms 1) Indian nationalists negotiated exchanges for sacrifices of a) men b) material c) money 2) new generation of Indian nationalists assert role comparable to that played by a) Australia b) Canada e. Independence spirit exemplified in 1916 meeting in Lucknow57 1) Joint meeting of a) Muslim League
56 the distinction between official and non-official status is not explained but would appear to be crucial to understanding the real power configuration of colonial administration 57 the old Awadh capital 29 b) INC 2) INC had survived splits between moderates and extremists over 31 years 3) Muslim League had a decade of mostly moderate leadership f. The role of Jinnah (1876-1948) at Lucknow 1) background a) irreligious b) barrister c) from Karachi and Bombay d) member of legislative council in Bombay in 1910 (34 years old) 2) INC and League agreed to a) common platform with demand for greater self-determination b) elected majorities on all councils c) wider franchise d) separate electorates to Muslims 3) importance of Muslim community thus upheld in demands for self-determination through separate electorates 4) 1916 Lucknow Pact thus a) adopted Morley-Minto policy of separate electorates b) accommodated democratic aspirations while also c) upholding religio-political identities g. Britain compelled to accommodate nationalist sentiment in Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Montford) 1) announced in 1917 and formalized in Government of India Act in 1919 2) Montagu nearly promised dominion status 3) dyarchy as key concept a) under provincial control i. education ii. health iii. local government b) colonial state retained control of i. communications ii. defense iii. law iv. revenue 4) Indians saw Montford as minimal h. End of war spelled end of Constitutionalist approach to settling disputes 1) difficult economic conditions 2) colonial repression 3) political intractability 4) Rowlatt Acts extended wartime powers of detention without trial into peacetime 3. Enter Gandhi a. returned to India in 1915 after successful political legal and political career in South Africa b. political philosophy expressed in 1909 Hind Swaraj c. satyagraha as “truth-struggle” 1) program of self-reform followed by political reform 2) involved delineation of publicly-stated political demands that afforded adversary opportunity to a) acquiesce b) negotiate 3) only after failure of negotiations would agitation occur 4) goal: win opponent over to the truth of the cause 5) assumption: colonial state had pursued a wrong course with repression of Indians d. ahimsa (nonviolence) 4. Non-Cooperation and the Khilafat Movement a. Gandhi’s early success upon return to India 1) compromise negotiated between mill workers and owners of Ahmedabad 2) Bihar settlement ameliorating conditions of indigo tenants b. cooperated with Ali brothers on Khilafat movement 1) brothers a) Mohammad b) Shaukat 2) aims of Khilafat a) preserve Ottoman Empire in wake of WWI b) OE to remain Caliph of Islam 3) Gandhi used Khilafat movement to draw new groups into anti-colonial agitation 4) effectively drew Muslim masses into the movement 5) 1919 massacre at Jallianwala Bagh in Armitsar also galvanized movement a) large Sikh center and holy city b) massacre ordered by British Brigadier-General Dyer 30 i. 300 dead ii. over 1000 wounded c) Dyer’s favorable reception in England provided further boost to independence movement in India c. Gandhi elected president of INC in 1920 1) creation of mass movement a) fee for membership reduced so that anyone could afford to join b) reorganized structure of Congress i. committees linked village to district ii. district to province iii. province to nation 2) boycott of British goods and services, 1920-1922 a) students gave up British education to work with peasants b) peasants came in droves to INC in response to lowered revenue demands d. 1922 violent attack on police officers in Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh caused Gandhi to call off movement 1) felt non-violent resistance had failed 2) retreated for period of spiritual contemplation 3) called on movement to gain greater cohesion and discipline 4) Khilafat movement collapsed with accession of Ataturk to power in Turkey in 1924 e. Gandhi’s main method was to create strength out of India’s apparent weakness 1) poverty 2) spiritualism 3) military emasculation D. Mass Nationalism [p. 56] 1. Interwar Political Debates a. tensions within the INC 1) Subash Chandra Bose (1897-1945) argued against go-slow program of Gandhi 2) others influenced by socialist ideology 3) others saw Muslim League as threat and sought to push more hardline Hindu program 4) Muslim League beset by limited appeal to even its own religious constituency b. tensions from outside the INC: Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar (1891-1956) 1) background a) Dalit from Maharashtra b) intellectual prowess c) financial backing from influential Indian prince allowing him to study in i. London ii. New York d) Ph. D in economics from i. Columbia ii. London School of Economics e) London bar 2) despite clear talent, discrimination kept him from playing role in India 3) critique of Gandhi a) stress on social harmony ignored oppression of Dalits b) advocated i. separate Dalit villages with new infrastructure ii. amelioration and reparation for Dalits iii. weighted political representation to counter advantages of upper caste Hindus c. The Simon commission, 1927 1) all-white 2) Indians posed counter-recommendations in same form as Simon Commission 3) Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) put forward 1928 Nehru report a) Nehru background i. Congress Moderate ii. lawyer iii. from Allahabad b) report countered Simon’s and advocated greater self-representation 2. Civil Disobedience, 1930-1934 a. Gandhi emerges from “retirement”58 to address increasing divisions within nationalist movement b. the 11 point plan sent to Viceroy called for repeal of the salt tax 1) fell most heavily on shoulders of poorest 2) heavy symbolism as one of simple claim to the most basic and essential of resources c. Viceroy’s decision to not correct any grievance triggered Salt March
58 Retirement is probably not a good word to use here. Gandhi was never far removed from his work on the Ashram (at least as shown in Attenborough’s film, Gandhi). The guide also does not appear to be consistent in conveying Ambedkar’s criticism of Gandhi when it rather appears that Gandhi was working diligently to change attitude about “untouchability.” 31 1) 241 mile journey a) starting in Gandhi’s “center” of Ahmedabad, Gujarat b) culminating in small seaside town of Dandi, near Surat59 2) the march as event a) moral issues clear-cut b) powerful focus on two essentials i. homespun cloth ii. salt c) involved massive numbers of women 3) the “Frontier Gandhi”, Abdul Ghaffer Khan (1890-1988) extended support for the Salt March to NW Frontier Provinces a) Pathan b) tall and imposing c) Muslim60 d. Gandhi’s arrest 1) initially upheld discipline of non-violent civil disobedience 2) ultimatey fell into violence, causing Gandhi to call off campaign e. Gandhi’s agreement with Viceroy, Lord Irwin 1) India as federation 2) Indian responsibility to increase 3) safeguards for political minorities to be put into place f. symbolic significance: 1st time colonial stated treated leader of INC as equal61 g. The 2nd Round Table talk in London 1) Dr. Ambedkar won separate electorates for Dalits 2) Gandhi angered by Dalit separation as he saw them as part of the Hindu community 3) Gandhi viewed as criticism of his own approach to issue of Dalits 4) Gandhi responds by undertaking fast-unto-death in effort to avert the division of India62 5) Ambedkar thus coerced into accepting Gandhi’s demands to reverse Dalit electorates in Poona Pact of 1932 6) Gandhi’s concession: certain legislative districts reserved for untouchables only a) voters could vote for whomever b) but all candidates to be Dalits 3. The 1935 Government of India Act and the 1937 Elections a. The Gov’t of India Act of 1935 (GOIA) 1) ended Montford diarchies at provincial level, placing all departments in hands of Indians 2) colonial authority with power to remove Indian representatives if deemed necessary b. 1937 elections held to confirm provisions of GOIA of 1935 1) franchise now included 35 million expanded role of middle class 2) regional parties contested a) Congress b) Muslim League c) many others on regional basis 3) INC prevailed in 8 of 11 provinces 4) Local parties won other 3 5) Muslim League captured only 4.4% of Muslim vote 6) agrarian based coalitions won in areas that would later become ML63 strongholds a) Punjab b) Bengal 7) Muslims tended to vote in accordance with local issues, not religious affiliation 8) regional parties drawn to ML so as to limit INC dominance E. World War Two in India [p. 58] 1. The Declaration of War and the Two-Nation Theory a. London declared war on behalf of India without consulting elected Indian government b. INC resigned all seats in protext c. Jinnah took advantage of rift between INC and London in 1940 Lahore Resolution 1) argued Indian Muslims as separate nation 2) made demands for independent of quasi-autonomous status for Muslim states in a) Northwest b) east
59 according to the film, the arrival at Surat was to coincide with the anniversary of the Amritsar massacre 60 not mentioned in guide 61 It is important to note that all of this is occurring as Britain is falling into the depths of the Great Depression. One of the consequences of this is that the conservative governments of the 1920s gave way to the increasing power of the Labour Party as the masses in Britain moved to the left. 62 the guide refers to this as Gandhi’s famous “fast unto death”. This is certainly not his most famous fasts and was over in 6 days. Is it possible that the guide has overstated the coercive nature of this tactic in this instance? 63 Muslim League 32 c) around Muslim majority states of i. Punjab ii. Bengal 3) hoped to exchange promises of minority rights in Muslim majority regions with Hindu majority regions d. Jinnah’s two nation theory 1) two nations resided in united India 2) must be treated equally as nations despite Hindu majority 2. August 1942: Turning Point a. Sir Stafford Cripps offered full dominion status after war in order to retain Indian support during the war b. INC refused Cripps offer, demanding independence immediately 1) uncertain future promise 2) untrustworthy partner64 c. basis for Gandhi’s 3rd major civil disobedience movement: The Quit India movement 1) encompassed previously reluctant social groups 2) very large number of women participating in 1st public activity outside of home d. colonial response brutal: arrest and imprisonment of entire INC leadership e. ML used opportunity to enhance status with Britain f. ML became favored party in exchange for loyalty and gained influence exceeding its electoral base 3. The Indian National Army (INA) a. Subash Chandra Bose’s conception as farfetched, bombastic and galvanizing 1) rebel army that challenged non-violent vision of Gandhi 2) endeavored to treat Britain on own terms a) global b) militaristic 3) many Indians did not see British victory in their interests 4) Japanese advances compelled massive migration of a million Indians from Burma to Calcutta a) after victories in SE Asia i. Dutch territories ii. British territories including chokepoint of Singapore b) control of Singapore gave Axis base to move into Burma b. Bose consorts with the Axis 1) Gandhi had marginalized Bose’s socialist wing of the INC 2) 1939 Bose visited a) Germany b) Singapore 3) negotiated deal with the Axis, using Indian POWs of Japan as base of army to fight British a) 30,000 member army b) Rani of Jhansi brigade of women soldiers 4) British made aware of limits of Indian a) loyalty b) even passivity 5) movement fades with d of Bose in 8/45 airplane crash65 c. 1946 trial of 3 INA leaders for sedition by colonial state 1) fanned flames of nationalist discontent 2) hastened demise of British in India 4. Indian Summer: The 1943-1944 Famine in Bengal a. E. Indian special suffering during WWII 1) 1 million refugees from Burma to Calcutta 2) US soldiers able to break siege at Imphal only in 1944 3) further Allied movement into Burma after 1944 b. colonial policies contributed to Bengal famine 1) unlike WWI, in WWII Britain had to fund its own war effort 2) Britain unable to fund the 2.5 million Indian soldiers fighting on its behalf 3) agreement with the Government of India to fund the war based on promise of British repayment after the war 4) 1.3 Billion rupee debt funded during war by government deliberate inflationary policy66 c. famine as consequences of inflation, supplies, and stores 1) 3.5 million dead in eastern India 2) product of maldistribution a) food stores centralized in urban areas
64 NB numerous instances of GB promises to allies in WWI that were later left unfulfilled. E.g. Arabs and Kurds. 65 note that 8/45 was the month in which the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, effectively bringing WWII to an end 66 The guide is somewhat confusing here. It notes a debt of London measures in “₤ 1.3 billion rupees”. Is it British pounds or rupees that is in play here? It is also not clear who is in charge of the “Government of India” at this point, considering that most of the INC leadership had been imprisoned in response to the Quit India movement. 33 b) stores shipped to the army as priority c) hunger deaths concentrated in countryside, where inflation wreaked most damage 3) long-term political impacts of famine in eastern India claimed famine as source of subsequent divisions and riots in Bengal IV. “TRYST WITH DESTINY”: INDEPENDENT INDIA, 1947-1991 (25%) [p. 61] A. The Independence Settlement [p. 61] 1. The Partition Plan a. severe debt crisis in post-war Britain 1) most debt to US 2) some debt to government in India 3) heavy reliance on US aid 4) peacetime food rationing in Britain 5) tide turning against colonial rule a) war fought for democracy and self-determination67 b) 1945 election of Labour government i. Labour PM Clement Attlee sought to extricate Britain from India ii. sought quick movement68 b. The Simla Conference (6/45) 1) Simla as Himalayan escape from oppressive summer heat of Delhi and Calcutta 2) Viceroy convened joint conference with Muslim League and INC to negotiate Independence 3) ML rewarded for its support for Allied war effort 4) INC represented by Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) a) background i. son of Motilal ii. Spiritual son of Gancdhi iii. grew up in England a. careful student of situation in India b. enormous charisma b) politics i. socialist ii. secular iii. more modernist than Gandhi iv. Gandhi prone to peasant utopian vision c. The failure of the Simla conference due to irreconcilable divisions between Nehru and Jinnah 1) Nehru agreed a) in principal to two-nations theory of Jinnah b) to equal division between Hindus and Muslims on negotiations committee 2) Nehru rejected Jinnah’s argument that all Muslims be represented by the ML, excluding thereby any Muslims who might affiliate with the Congress Party (CP) d. British held 1945 election to determine interim government and negotiating partner for further talks 1) CP highly successful 2) for 1st time, ML also successful a) in 1937 won only 4.4% of vote b) 1945, ML won i. all Muslim seats in central legislature ii. 75% of seats in provincial legislatures iii. guide seems to imply that Jinnah manipulated fear of Hindu dominance in order to achieve these victories 3) the reasons for the ML success a) close work with local Muslims b) sustained campaign in countryside spearheaded by Muslim scholars c) promoted Muslim overtones69 4) CP also promoted a religious idiom to sustain its political base, driving moderate Muslims toward a more religious view e. 1946 Cabinet Mission sought compromise in face of unclear election results 1) Provinces divided into 3 groups a) Group A was Hindu majority states 67 Clearly, too, the war was fought against an extremist form of racism that was not lost on Indians as well. It’s surprising that the guide does not mention this here! 68 The guide’s assertion of Gandhi as a peasant utopian would not appear to be a proper summary of Gandhi’s political viewpoint. Rather, Gandhi asserted that no real progress could be made that disregarded the vast majority of Indians who survived a meager existence as peasants. Progress would have to encompass all of India; not just its urban, industrial groups. Nevertheless, Gandhi’s criticism of western materialism could reasonably be interpreted as a form of peasant idealism. It is also interesting to note the parallel ideological formation of the Maoist version of Marxism that itself focused on the definitive role of the peasantry as the revolutionary core for transformation in the exploited periphery of the world. 69 this despite Jinnah’s generally secular views. One would have to assume that in order to gain the mass support of Muslim peasants, religion would have had to play a prominent role. This mass religious appeal would clearly shape the character of the Pakistan that would emerge from these developments. 34 b) Group B included Muslim regions i. northwest states of a. Punjab b. Sind c. Baluchistan ii. northwestern frontier provinces c) Group C: eastern state of Bengal, a Muslim-majority province 2) three-tiered Indian government a) tier 1: individual states b) tier 2: groupings A, B, and C c) tier 3: national government 3) each group of states to have equal say at national level, giving Muslims far greater voice than numbers would have warranted 4) important powers concentrated at group level a) taxation b) law and order 5) Nehru opposed the inherent divisions as a structural weakness, leaving India susceptible to new modes of foreign exploitation70 6) CP leaves negotiations f. Jinnah’s response: the Direct Action Day of November 1946 1) triggered violence against Hindus in Bengal 2) Hindus retaliated in Bihar 3) Gandhi’s tour of the two provinces failed to stem the violence g. British response to violence was to seek a more rapid withdrawal so as not to become responsible for yet another crisis 1) Attlee announced in 2/47 that British would withdraw by 6/48 2) Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979) sent to negotiate final settlement 3) Mountbatten advanced withdrawal date to 8/47, leaving only 6 months to arrive at settlement h. The charm offensive of Mountbatten and wife, Edwina i. Jinnah viewed Mountbatten’s ultimatum in one of two forms 1) either a united India with no guarantees of Muslim power at the center (as had been set in the Cabinet Mission) 2) OR an independent Pakistan with two wings71 j. Jinnah’s acceptance of Pakistan plan achieved even more than his Lahore Resolution of 1940 asserted k. Nehru accepts Mountbatten Plan 1) as best way to achieve end of colonialism 2) with pressure from Hindu conservatives within the CP l. Gandhi vehemently opposed partition 2. The Trauma of Partition, 1947-1955 a. no massive migration anticipated 1) assumed guarantees of minority rights in both nations would suffice 2) failure of planning intensified popular anxiety a) hurried timeline b) lack of detail c) poor communication 3) other contributing factors to upheaval a) post-war conditions b) oppressive heat c) high-anxiety d) uncertain boundaries b. border finally determined six weeks after partition 1) drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, chosen because he had not been to India and was perceived as neutral 2) consultations with a) Hindus b) Muslims c) Sikhs 3) Radcliffe Boundary Comission a) toured India b) accepted various arguments c) settled on decisions that were sometime arbitrary d) immortalized in famous poem of W.H.Auden, “Partition” c. complete breakdown of law and order in Punjab 1) London and Delhi ignored pleas from British officers for reinforcements
70 This system is not dissimilar to that established under the Articles of Confederation in the US in 1783. Nehru may well have been right in asserting the inherent national weakness implicit in such an arrangement. His criticism would thus have little to do with his socialist proclivities, as the guide suggests! 71 the two ears on the elephant trunk of India! 35 2) largest peacetime migrations till that time a) 6-12 million crossed borders b) 1 million killed in riots c) crimes against women 3) Punjab particularly violent because of legacy of militarism in the region a) had provided bulk of soldiers to Indian Army b) many veterans of WWII traumatized and inured to violence d. eastern border exchanges not as violent 1) spread out over longer period (1947-1955) 2) Calcutta cultural landscape changed with influx of millions of Hindus from E. Pakistan 3) eventually, E. Pakistan would become Bangladesh in 1971, due to resentment of domination by W. Pakistan 4) Chatterji estimates 4.1 million refugees going from west to east Bengal from1947-1962 5) partition of Bengal reminiscent of 1905 partition 6) strong Bengali identity based on a) language b) literature 7) i.e. Bengal closer to Indian identity in many ways than it was to Pakistan e. the 8/15/47 “Tryst with Destiny” speech of Nehru, painted optimistic picture of what India could accomplish in the world 3. The Princely States and the Roots of the Kashmir Conflict a. general background 1) 562 princely states 2) 45% of territory in subcontinent 3) required integration into modern democratic machinery 4) most too small to remain viable outside of national integration72 5) generous provisions made for those who acquiesced to join India 6) some, however, resisted; with lasting consequences b. the “instrument of accession” required for princely acquiescence is at heart of Kashmir conflict 1) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950) put in charge of princely integration 2) Patel faced problems in three states a) in Junagadh in western India, Muslim Nawab wanted to join Pakistan, which Patel refused i. cut off supply lines and postal links ii. sent troops to the border iii. Nawab capitulated to these pressures b) similar process in Hyderabad i. Muslim Nizam ruled over 87% population of Hindus73 ii. state surrounded by India iii. acceded to India in 1948 even though some soldiers continued to resist Indian rule c. Kashmir as obverse of Hyderabad and Junagadh 1) Muslim majority state ruled by Hindu kings 2) Hindu Kings granted territory in exchange for loyalty during Sikh wars of 1840s 3) Hindu Prince Hari Singh announced preference for Pakistan a) Pakistan more amenable to autocratic style of his rule? b) Singh concerned over socialist tendencies of the new India c) concerned to placate Muslim majority 4) Nehru sought to incorporate Kashmir as the one Muslim-majority state in new India a) in order to show evidence of success of secular approach to government b) in order to show strength of democratic polity?74 5) incursions with evident ties to Pakistan military drove Singh toward India for military reinforcements a) incursions in direction of Srinigar b) instrument of accession signed, but would have to be approved by Kashmir citizens d. Indian troops in Kashmir marked the 1st Indo-Pakistani war on 10/27/47 1) UN intervention in 1/48 resulted in ceasefire only in 1/49 2) ceasefire contingent on successful plebiscite, which has never been held 3) Kashmir thus tacitly partitioned a) most territory under Indian control b) some northwestern territory under Pakistani control c) boundary not recognized by either side e. Kashmir accession enshrined in Indian constitution 1) substantial autonomy for Kashmir ensured in Article 370 2) two additional wars have been fought over status of Kashmir 3) tensions remain as a product of a) Indian mistreatment
72 compare, however, the experiences of such European ministates as Luxembourg, Monaco, and Malta. 73 presumably the Nizam also wanted to join Pakistan 74 guide does not mention this second element to explain Nehru’s policy 36 b) Pakistani support for insurgent movement 4) citizens increasingly disgusted by both a) Delhi b) Karachi/Islamabad B. Jawaharlal Nehru’s India [p. 65] 1. “We the People of India”: Drafting the Indian Constitution a. the challenges Nehru and the Indian government faced in implementing swaraj 1) persistent underdevelopment a) lack of education b) lack of technology 2) extraordinary diversity b. progressive constitution nevertheless retained many aspects of British colonial state 1) strong central government to protect a) civil liberties b) equality 2) ameliorative measures for a) Dalits by banning untouchability b) women 3) British parliamentary democracy with elections every five years 4) 1952 first application of constitutional election with universal adult franchise 5) to this day, Indian democracy with much higher voting rates than most Western democracies c. Components 1) Guiding principles in a) Preamble b) Fundamental Rights section 2) lengthy details of division of state and central authority created unique form of federalism a) central government held most powers b) state governments i. control of agricultural land ii. law and order c) third category of topics negotiated between states and central government 3) effective accommodation of a) regional rights and variations b) strong central government to i. protect against foreign threats ii. ward off fissiparous tendencies d. the assassination of Gandhi occurred amidst process of drafting constitution 1) January 1948 in New Delhi 2) Nathuram Godse, right-wing Hindu nationalist opposed to a) Gandhi’s accommodations to Muslims b) message of tolerance 3) resulted in a) banning of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (national organization of volunteers) b) effective removal of right-wing Hindu politics for three decades 2. A Planned, Mixed Economy a. 1951-6 focus on land ownership reform, the first of Soviet-style five year plans 1) terms a) ended colonial system of intermediate revenue collection by large landlords in zamindari system b) formerly large estates divided and sold at below-market rates to allow small holders ownership c) large landholders compensated at below market rates75 2) problems of implementation at the state level a) loopholes in legislation b) dominant groups controlled state legislature and set land ceiling limits so high as to undermine effective reform c) peasants so poor that few could afford to buy even the below market plots d) peasant cooperatives as alternative to individual land ownership never implemented e) “and the process was marred by the inefficiency, loopholes, and fraud that accompany any large government scheme.”76
75 For the record, and against what the guide asserts, this is exactly the OPPOSITE of the Soviet five-year plans. Stalin’s system entailed collectivization, which effectively turned the agriculture sector of the economy over to control of the state. Stalin subordinated the agricultural economy to the needs of rapid industrialization. What Nehru appears to be doing here is rather reminiscent of the program of peasant-centered development that Gandhi had advocated. The analogy to the Soviet system appears thus far to be off-target. 76 the conservative ideological predilections of the guide’s author(s) are laid pretty clearly here. One wonders what would have happened to land reform had the Congress Party taken Ambedkar’s proposals more seriously to allow for separate representation of the historically oppressed Dalits. One can’t help but draw the parallels to the proposals of Radical Republicans at the end of the Civil 37 3) accomplishments of the land reform limited a) Uttar Pradesh: 3 million peasants took control of 7 million acres of land i. small cultivators ii. even some sharecroppers b) as interesting experiment in federal relations between states and central government c) as testament to central government commitment to social reform d) limits of success reverberate to present day i. rise of radical Maoist movements in 1950s and 1960s77 a. West Bengal b. Kerala c. Andhra Pradesh ii. the bhoodan (land gift) movement of Gandhian Vinobha Bhave as effort to have landowners voluntarily gift land b. The Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961): industrial development78 1) large industries placed in government hands a) national security b) development i. mines ii. atomic energy 2) joint control with private entities of some less essential industries 3) small industries entirely private 4) protectionism a) auto industry i. only car produced in India was the Ambassador a. clunky b. stately ii. high tariffs nurtured Indian development of industry b) Nehru’s efforts successful despite US opposition i. industrial output increased 7% annually ii. base income levels rose c) agricultural productivity increased i. 25% in first five-year plan ii. 20% in 2nd five year plan c. Nehru and non-alignment 1) defined: coalition of former colonies dissatisfied with Soviet and Western bloc system 2) Nehru organized Bandung conference in Indonesia (1955) which included recently independent states a) 1949 i. Burma ii. Sri Lanka b) Indonesia (1949) c) ultimately, Ghana joined as 1st independent African colony (1957 independence) 3) reflects inspiration of anti-colonial sentiments expressed in a) Gandhian nationalism b) Nehruvian vision 3. Language, Religion, and Caste in Independent India a. Language as greatest source of division 1) the problem: 14 major linguistic groupings79 2) the solution enshrined in the constitution: 15 years of official English then transition to Hindi 3) the reality: English remains the language of governance
War to grant every freed slave 40 acres and a mule. This, of course, could only have been done in the aftermath of the comprehensive defeat of the Confederacy in the US Civil War. India was not going to push this reform to the extent that it would tear apart an already divided society. Also, for the record, by economic measures the Soviet state-sponsored planning experience was quite successful. 77 It should be noted that the decades after the end of World War II were marked by a number of post-colonial peasant uprisings that included Vietnam, China, and Algeria. Land reform remains a major theme in various Central American conflict up to the present and was definitive in the Mexican Revolution in the decade of the 1910s. The Soviet revolution was also largely a peasant revolt that occurred in the crisis of WWI. The lack of a major peasant uprising in India might be regarded as at least partly an expression of the success of the political order that had been established under its constitution. 78 This paragraph is somewhat frustrating in that it does not look at some of the essentials such as energy, transportation, and communication. It also does not mention healthcare. In most European states after WWII these have been placed under the more-or- less direct control of the government. The term “mixed economies” is thus rather useless in that all economies are mixed to a certain degree. Few economies are as favorable to private interests as that of the US. 79 Including hundreds of Indo-European language family languages as well as numerous languages from the Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan, and Uralic language families. 38 a) Hindi pertinent only to dominant northern languages i. Punjabi ii. Bengali b) Hindi resented by speakers of i. Tamil ii. Telugu iii. Malayalam iv. Kannada c) English as practical, albeit imperfect, solution 4) India has successfully averted political devolution based on linguistically-based nationalism 5) the case study of Madras as example of inclusive rather than devolutionary resolution of linguistic nationalism a) Potti Sriramulu 1952 fast to create Telugu-speaking state our of Madras b) his death from the fast forced Nehru to resolve Tamil and Telugu dispute in favor of Telugu c) by 1956, 14 states incorporated based on linguistic nationalism 6) the example of Punjab a) two Hindi-speaking states i. Haryana ii. Himachal Pradesh b) Punjab for Punjabis b. religion 1) no special constitutional protection for Indian Muslims outside of general guarantees to minorities 2) separate Muslim representation instituted under British was abolished 3) state support for varied religious communities through encouragement and support of religious-based a) schools b) universities c) associations 4) many national holidays for each of India’s religions c. caste 1) Dalits protected by constituonal legal obligation to equality and anti-discrimination 2) special representation seats for scheduled castes and tribes (SCs and STs) a) essentially the same system as Gandhi and Ambedkar’s Poona Pact b) SCs and STs helped develop regional and national political parties to represent these groups 3) reserved seats extended to a) government employment b) education c) in essence, India’s version of Affirmative Action! 4. Nehru’s Death and Legacy a. CP party domination in elections of 1952, 1957, and 1962 b. the enduring democratic political culture 1) contrary to skepticism of Western political scientists a) the legacy of “oriental despotism” b) religious fervor c) poverty 2) transfers of power a) peaceful b) reflective of voter choice 3) varied political perspectives outside of the defining role of CP a) communists b) Hindu nationalists 4) occasional resort to emergency powers such as governor’s rule 5) generally consistent respect for a) civil liberties b) due process c) free expression 6) Congress promoted collaboration between a) national party b) state-level leaders c. the 1962 War with China 1) triggered by refuge offered by Nehru to Dalai Lama after Chinese annexation of Tibet in 1959 2) Chinese encroachment into what India perceived as its territory 3) some claim that Nehru visibly weakened by defeat C. Mrs. Gandhi’s India [p. 70] 1. The Congress Political System a. Nehru’s successor: Lal Bahadur Shastri 1) the 2nd Indo-Pakistani War (1965) a) Indian response to Pakistani-sponsored insurgency in Kashmir 39 b) ended in a ceasefire 2) Shastri died en route to Tashkent to sign ceasefire agreement b. death of Shastri opened way for political career of Indira Gandhi (1917-1984) 1) Nehru’s daughter who came to be called Mrs. Gandhi80 a) had been constant companion of her father b) married Feroze Gandhi, who was not related to Mohandas c) Gandhi is common name in Gujarati 2) CP considered Indira to be pliable link to Nehru legacy 3) Indira had her own ambitions not in line with CP power brokers c. the 1967 elections 1) Congress retained national power but lost in several important states 2) Indira a) exploits momentary weakness to create the Congress-I party b) circumvents party elites in order to make mass appeal on garibati hatao (expel poverty) platform c) “Indira is India” 3) resounding Congress victories in 1967 and 1971, despite the weakening of Party-centered culture created by her father 4) Indira used religious assertions as basis for mass appeal 2. The Birth of Bangladesh a. general context of difficult international challenges 1) mass campaign of nationalization of key industries 2) 1971 alignment with the Soviet Union a) forsaking father’s nonalignment b) distrust of US due to its close ties with Pakistan 3) elimination of stipends for former Indian princes and their descendants 4) abolished fundamental right to hold property in order to fund populist programs b. major victory in the 3rd war with Pakistan 1) context of alienation of East Pakistanis a) the language division: Bengal vs. Urdu and Punjabi b) disenfranchised in many ways c) cut off from access to i. government jobs ii. elite institutions iii. networks d) West Pakistan consistently underfunded development programs in favor of heartland projects 2) E. Pakistan election of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the Awami League triggered massive W. Pakistan intervention a) brutal suppression of all signs of resistance b) ca. 1.5 million Bangali civilians killed c) mass migration into Indian W. Bengal 3) Gandhi successfully invaded E. Pakistan created modern Bangladesh, which retains generally good relations with India D. The Emergency, 1975-1977, and Its Aftermath [p. 7-] 1. Social Movements in 1960s and 1970s India a. 1973 as crisis transition in Indira’s PMship 1) global inflation hurt Indian economy a) food shortages b) unemployment 2) promises made earlier unfulfilled 3) corruption scandals b. the rise of Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979) in Northern India 1) background a) Gandhian b) socialist c) graduate of University of Wisconsin, rather than England 2) personal tours of Indian countryside similar to Gandhi 3) political alliance with Morarji Desai in Gujarati, who rather represented middle-class dismay with Indira 4) The Total Revolution campaign of 1974-5 was the result of this alliance c. the Naxalite movement in Bengal 1) originated in town of Naxalbari in late 1960s 2) state repression drove movement toward Maoism 3) Naxalite movement active in India for over 40 years now as revolutionary movement a) attacks on Indian police b) attacks on army outposts 4) centered in forested core at juncture point of states of a) Andhra Pradesh b) Orissa c) Bengal 80 to what extent was her assuming the surname Gandhi an effort to claim the mantel of both great founding fathers of modern India? 40 d) Madhya Pradesh e) Maharashtra f) new state of Chhattisgarh 5) strong support by tribal residents a) neglected by state b) resist incursions on traditional lifestyle of i. modern industry ii. commerce d. combination of discontented groups made Indira’s regime ineffective 2. The Emergency, 1975-1977 a. the causes and content of the emergency 1) Indian High Court invalidated Indira’s election in 1971 on paperwork technicality 2) Indira responded by declaring emergency a) suspending i. civil liberties ii. due process iii. free speech b) imprisoned rivals 3) Indira convened Parliament to retroactively validate her election 4) used poverty as an excuse to a) justify repression b) aggressively (and selectively?) pursue corruption 5) younger son Sanjay (1946-1980) enters scene in support of Indira’s program a) cleared slums in service of i. economic efficiency ii. aesthetic appeal b) enforced birth control often via forced sterilizations 6) the darkest moment in Indian democracy? b. public response to the emergency 1) initial support of middle classes as way to undermine campaign of Narayan 2) poor and Muslims alienated by a) mass sterilization b) slum clearance 3) 1977 call for elections resulted in severe defeat of Indira’s program 4) Morarji Desai led coalition of parties that took control a) led by Janata Party b) increased influence of regional parties c) right-wing Hindu party part of coalition, the Jan Sangh d) coalition unstable with Uttar Pradesh leader Chaudhury Charan Singh briefly unseating Desai. 5) coalition collapsed in 1980 and Indira brought back into power 3. Return to Power and Regional Autonomy a. further enhanced role of religion, with chief example being Punjab 1) linguistic reorganization had resulted in creation of three states in British Punjab a) Himachal Pradesh b) Haryana c) Punjab, the Sikh heartland 2) Punjab separatism/devolution strengthened under Indira’s regime b. The Punjabi grievances 1) Punjab as breadbasket of modern India as a result of its effective implementation of Green Revolution technologies 2) disputes with Punjab a) economic, especially in relation to water rights b) location of capital c) preservation of historic role of Punjabis in the Indian military 3) Punjab grievances organized in relation to the Akali Dal party whose goal greater autonomy in Khalistan (land of the pure) c. Indira plays the religious card: her support for Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale (1947-1984) 1) nature of support a) material b) political 2) Indira, however, could not control Bhindranwale’s radicalism a) roadside executions of opponents b) sought refuge in Sikh temple at Amritsar 3) 1984 Operation Blue Star a) Indian army stormed Golden Temple with tanks b) Bhinranwale killed 4) Sikhs devastated by betrayal of Indian government and destruction of their holiest shrine 41 d. Mrs. Gandhi assassinated by two of her own Sikh bodyguards e. retaliation against Sikhs 1) fomented by Congress party by handing out lists of Sikh-owned businesses 2) 3,000 Sikhs killed f. the major consequence of the emergency: the shattering of Indian secularism V. CONTEMPORARY INDIA, 1991-2014 (10%) [p. 74] A. Introduction [p. 74] 1. the end of Congress dominance in 1989 2. economic liberalization 3. development of consumerist lifestyles 4. national focus, despite increasing importance of state activity 5. Parliamentary system combining legislative and executive powers a. Prime Minister elected by ruling party or coalition b. President as constitutional head of state with similar role to monarch in constitutional monarchies c. ministerial heads come from elected members of Parliament 1) heads such as a) Home b) Foreign c) Planning 2) two houses of Parliament a) upper house b) lower house Lok Sabha (People’s house) of 545 seats B. India under Rajiv Gandhi: The Third Generation of the Nehru Dynasty (1984-1989) [p. 75] 1. Rajiv’s Economic Policy a. Rajiv’s accession 1) President Zail Singh immediately swore in Rajiv immediately after assassination of Indira 2) Rajiv won resounding majority after calling for electoral confirmation, winning 77% of Lok Sabha b. movement away from relative success of Nehruvian autarky 1) Import Substitution Policies and protectionism of earlier decades 2) movement away from state sponsored infrastructure projects of predecessors a) mines b) factories c) dams for hydroelectric and irrigation 3) Green Revolution a) successful in wheat regions i. Punjab ii. Haryana b) relative failure in rice region of eastern India 4) famine eliminated, though problems with malnutrition continue c. Rajiv facing limits of Nehruvian success 1) large government debt burdens 2) regulations slowed a) growth b) innovation 3) heavy defense burdens 4) corruption d. Rajiv contributes to corruption through “Permit raj” (license prince?): 1980s as era for favored permits for new business e. program featured deregulation, import liberalization, and easier access to foreign technology 1) program led by technocratic economists, especially Manhmohan Singh (PM 2004-2014) 2) eased restrictions on imports, especially electronics 3) opened to foreign investment through joint ventures, especially in auto industry 4) pushed for revolution in information technology 2. Rajiv’s Foreign Policy a. turn toward the US as the USSR enters terminal phase b. regional affairs: Sri Lanka 1) background a) Sinhalese Buddhists failed to integrate Tamil Hindu minority effectively into society b) Tamils as descendents of plantation workers who migrated to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in colonial period from Tamil Nadu 2) Indian peace-keepers sent in 1987 drawn into long conflict with Tamil Tigers, ultimately withdrawn in1990 3) female suicide bomber assassinated Rajiv and 14 others during campaign visit to Tamil Nadu in May 1991 4) Sri Lankan civil war ended with complete suppression of Tamil insurgency by May 2009 a) ended 26 years of civil war b) suppression achieved by President Mahinda Rajapaksa 3. Religion and Politics in the 1980s and 1990s a. continuation of Indira’s religious program exacerbated tensions with India’s Muslims 1) 37 million Indian Muslims in population of 372 million at time of partition historically supported INC 42 2) Rajiv appealed to conservative rather than reformist wing of Indian Muslims to secure vote bank a) group of electors who vote en masse for i. candidate ii. party b) assumes people vote as groups rather than as individuals81 3) Indian secularism generally included rights of each religion a) to found schools b) observe public holidays c) practice own civil laws related to i. marriage ii. divorce iii. inheritance iv. adoption v. other family and religious customs d) these founded in the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 b. the 1985 Supreme Court case of Shah Bano brought religious problems to fore 1) circumstances a) elderly Muslim women turned out from home through triple talak divorce b) unilateral divorce as male prerogative, though with some protections for woman under Muslim marriage contract c) Shah Bono sought government assistance in deriving alimony d) lower courts granted request and ordered husband to pay monthly maintenance e) lower courts operating on a century of precedent in this matter i. matter considered under criminal law ii. criminal operant because women without support often had to turn to illegal means for sustenance f) husband appealed case to Supreme Court i. on contention that Muslim contract adequately provided for divorced wife ii. and that criminal code violated his constitutionally guaranteed religious freedom 2) the Supreme Court decision as frontal assault on fundamentals of Islam a) five justice bench of all Hindus b) precedent in support of wife exceeded with attack on Koran 3) Rajiv used Supreme Court decision as opportunity to appeal to Muslim conservatives via the 1986 Muslim Women’s Bill a) Muslim women could no longer sue for maintenance under criminal law b) women dependent only on Muslim religious personal law c. other appeals of CP to Islamic conservatives 1) Hindu right endorsed stereotype of Muslim male misogyny 2) Hindus right asserted civilizing mission sentiment of former colonials 3) Hindu right accused CP of “pseudo-secularism” a) in refusal to undertake common civil law for marriage b) in subjecting Hindu males to laws not applied to Muslim males 4) Hindu right as patriarchal upholder of Muslim women’s rights d. Muslim women doubly disregarded 1) denied right to claim maintenance 2) closed out of discussion on women’s rights by Rajiv’s appeal to Islamic conservative male leadership e. the growth of the Muslim women’s movement since the 1980s 1) able to effectively argue that social structures, not the Koran, is basis of discrimination 2) creation in 2006 of All India Muslim Women’s Personal laws Board a) provided platform for women to develop their own exegesis of Koran b) compelled male-dominated Personal Law Board to include women c) proffered model nikahnamah (marriage contract) with better rights to i. property ii. money f. 2001 revision of Supreme Court decision in Shah Bano case 1) based on common law practice of “reading down” a) reinterpretation of statute along Constitutional lines b) does not involve overturning of statute 2) court declared an “equivalence” of criminal law and terms of the muslim Women’s Act 3) principals asserted a) Indian secularism need not unseat separate religious practices through uniform civil code b) reforms could be enacted by each community on its own terms 4. Roots of the Babri Masjid Affair a. background 1) Babri Masjid built in 1528
81 this appears to be similar to district apportionment in which certain racial groupings are guaranteed representation through a clear majority in that district. It assumes, however, that whites will largely vote for whites and blacks for blacks. It feeds separation rather than unity. 43 a) through patronage of founder of Mughal Empire, Babur b) located in Ayodhya, 85 miles east of Lucknow 2) some Hindus believe that mosque came with destruction of temple devoted to a) Hindu Lord Ram b) avatar of the god Vishnu 3) most mainstream historians dispute Hindu activists’ claim 4) 1949 claim of miraculous insertion of Ram icon in mosque 5) state reasonable response of closing site upon rise of religious tensions 6) matter remained dormant for 36 years b. 1986 Rajiv reopened temple as reassurance to Hindus in light of Muslim Women’s Act c. demands grew to restore alleged temple on site of the mosque 1) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)President L.K. Advani toured India dressed like Lord Ram in a) 1990 b) Toyota chariot 2) coincided with TV serializations of Hindu epics a) The Ramayana b) The Mahabharata 3) episode combined forces of a) mass media b) spectacle c) religious devotion d) violent ends d. The Hindutva philosophy 1) Veer Sarvarkar (1833-1966) as ideological founder a) 1923 tract, Hindutva b) three pillars i. geographic unity of India ii. Aryan roots of Hindu community in Sanskrit scriptures iii. common culture of India c) “big tent” concept of Hinduism included i. Sikhs ii. Jains iii. Buddhists d) Islam as the externalized “other” due to the foreign origins of its religious ideas e) Muslims i. required to bear extra burden of “assimilation” ii. not entitled to special provisions as laid in constitution a. no 1909 separate electorates b. no 1985 variant civil law 2) as correlated to other Hindu nationalist organizations a) many originate in early 20th century b) the Hindu Mahasabha as coalition that formed premier organization of Hindu nationalism i. promoted cow protection ii. promoted Sanskritized Hindi language over a. Urdu b. English c. other c) Rashitriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) “Association of National Volunteers,”est. 1925 i. paramilitary organization that did not seek electoral politics ii. organized into local units (shakhas) a. paramilitary training b. community service c. create bases of support d. meet needs of locals when state fails iii. primary goal: reform Hindu community in relation to totally dedicated warrior leaders a. strong b. masculine c. militaristic iv. supported by the Mahasabha in its expansion in north Indian heartland, especially in those areas where high caste threatened by a. peasants’ unrest b. large Muslim populations v. after partition found sympathetic base among traumatized a. Hindus b. Sikhs vi. lost prominence when RSS member Nathauram Godse assassinated Gandhi 44 d) other Hindustva organizations affiliated with the Sangh Pariwar family of Hindu right organizations e) BJP party formed when Jan Sangh w/drew from Janata Party coalition in 1980 5. Rajiv’s Fall and the Rise of the Manata Dal/National Front Government a. the Swedish arms (Bofor) scandal and kickbacks to ministers in Rajib’s government b. V.P. Singh “pushed scandal forward” to the point that Rajiv expelled him from CP c. Singh established coalition that would unseat CP in 1989 elections 1) led by Singh’s Janata Dal 2) prudent electoral strategy held coalition together 3) led to major BJP victory on national stage with 86 seats in the Lok Sabha d. CP suffered further defeats at state level in 1990 1) CP controlled only 9 states 2) in 1985 it had controlled 17 3) Janata Dal won five states in Hindi heartland 4) BJP in control of a) Madhya Pradesh b) HimachalPradesh e. so began the period of “political fragmentation” C. Prime Minister V.P. Singh (1989-1990) and the Mandal Commission [p. 79] 1. Singh’s reform program to change caste-based affirmative action a. increase reserved seats for scheduled communities 1) from 22.5% 2) to 49.5% b. promote National Front/Janata Dal base via implementing Mandal Commission efforts to improve access to 1) education 2) employment c. affirmative action programs applied to OBCs (Other Backward Classes) raised OBCs political status 2. the response of upper castes to Mandal Commission implementation a. particularly strong among 1) students 2) medical community 3) to the point of self-immolation b. 1992 Supreme Court decision upheld 50% as maximum permissible affirmative action quota, thereby affirming Mandal c. dispute provoked BJP to abandon Janata Dal coalition and undermine PMship of Singh 3. assessment a. have empowered many b. negatively, has created a hierarchy within the oppressed classes82 c. wealth not “thoroughly” distributed within each caste grouping83 d. caste identity has become “reinscribed” by the state84 e. “substantive” equality over “formal” equality has created a culture that motivates caste identity85 f. The 1989 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1) effort to address the problems of caste-based violence, especially in rural areas 2) established special courts tor trials in abusive cases 3) recognition of inherent weakness of normal institutions in addressing such cases a) police b) courts 4) bottom line: oppressed groups to not have reliable forums for justice86 82 this is reminiscent of when in US history the Irish became a primary source of hostility toward the Chinese and, ultimately, African- Americans -- without, of course, the racial dimension. The general situation evokes Max Weber’s understanding that people do not generically identify in a social group. They seek a status above someone else, not class solidarity with a denigrated social group from which they might have derived. 83 One suspects that what the guide is attempting to assert here is that a network of power and influence emerged among the OBCs that operates with the same weaknesses and corruptions as in the rest of the society. Poverty does not always breed virtue! 84 “reinscribed” seems an awkward verb here. Rather “reconfigured”? 85 presumably, the distinction between “substantive” vs. “formal” equality correlates to the legally-encoded equality that is guaranteed, for instance, in the US constitution. Of course, this legal equality for African-Americans and some others did not always pertain. Recent Indian history appears to be an effort to focus “de facto” egalitarianism as opposed to merely “de jure”. This is the challenge of Affirmative Action programs wherever they might occur: How to recognize the inherent consequences of centuries of injustice without creating new injustices that might become more pernicious. Programs such as Affirmative Action entail inherent dangers that open the way for new forms of injustice and discrimination. That does not necessarily mean, however, that the programs are inherently flawed. The challenge in any democracy is to be vigilant and engaged, ever-ready to improve and change. 86 Again, the parallels to the US are evident. There have been numerous instances in which the US federal government has had to intervene to protect minorities (especially Blacks) in instances of local and state police and judicial abuse. There is a spate of federal law in the US that has been set up to address precisely these more local injustices. The complex interplay between local, state, and federal authorities is an inherent part of the complex interactions in democratic societies. 45 D. The Prime Ministership of P.V. Narisimha Rao (1991-1996, as representative of the INC (I) Party) [p. 79] 1. The Destruction of Babri Masjid a. Rao came to power on wave of sympathy for INC after assassination of Rajiv Gandhi at hands of Tamils in 1991 b. 12/92 state efforts to protect structure failed 1) weak policing 2) role of BJP a) not in power in 1990 b) chief Min Kalyan Singh could not keep word i. structure razed by karsevaks (volunteers) ii. singh faced criminial charges for failure c. Rao imposed President’s Rule 1) dismissed a) Singh’s elected government in UP b) 3 other state governments 2) courts assumed control of legal status of temple in compromise ruling a) 1/3 of temple land to Lord Ram devotion b) 1/3 of temple land to Muslim organization c) 1/3 of temple land to stae d. aftermath of destruction 1) riots killing ca. 1000 a) north India b) Bombay 2) state complicity in violence against Muslims a) Shiv Sena party in Bombay increasing local political power i. nativist ii. militaristic iii. founded by political cartoonist Bal Thackeray (1926-2012) b) Maharishtrian regionals targeted outsiders operating in Bombay i. south Indians ii. Muslims iii. Gujaratis c) Shivaji iconography d) Shiv Sena important role despite political dominance of Congress in Maharashtra 2. Liberalization a. the weight of the 1980s debt burden87 1) 1991 debt obligation was 75% of GDP 2) Gulf War oil price spike compelled India to seek two IMF bailout loans totaling $3.2 billion 3) IMF loans predicated on “structural adjustments” a) privatization of industry b) devaluation of rupee c) abolition of export subsidies b. liberalization success 1) GDP annual growth rose to 6.3% after miring at 3% as “Hindu rate of growth” 2) IMF restructuring irreversible despite recent declines88 3) critiques from Left and Right a) foreign domination b) lack of Indian i. goods ii. ideas c. the social consequences of liberalization 1) the rise of a new middle class as measured in consumer goods purchases a) washing machines b) TVs c) kitchen appliances d) air condtioners 2) Indian corporations as measured in Forbes Magazine’s list of 2000 public companies a) Reliance Industries
87 Again, either the ideological obsession or the naivety of the guide authors’ viewpoints are revealed. By the end of the 1980s, MOST governments in the developing world were in the midst of a debt crisis. There was nothing uniquely “socialist” about debt problems. The global debt crisis of the late 1980s was a product of complex policies emanating from the world’s banking centers and projecting into Asia, Europe, Latin America, and Africa regardless of the political and economic policies undertaken by the various governments on those continents. 88 The guide’s commitment of “Washington Consensus” ideology is almost humorous in its lack disparagement of the voices of those who might disagree. There “was no going back” despite recent evidence showing that growth declines may soon fall below those of the “Hindu rate.” What’s next, a “Rastafarian rate”? 46 i. largest private sector firm in India ii. diversified (conglomerate) a. offshore oil fields b. television c. publishing d. telecom iii. recently split up by sons of patriarch, Dhirubhai Ambani b) State Bank of India c) Oil & Natural Gas d) ICICI Bank e) Tata Motors d. liberalization expanded telecom 1) created many new television broadcasters a) from 1959-1991 Doordarshan held monopoly b) presently 700 licensed channels c) 60% of all households have cable and satellite 2) 600 million unique mobile telephone connections 3) growth in “citizen journalism” monitoring a) corporations b) politicians 3. Politics in the South a. Tamils 1) since 1950s, have called for autonomy rather than secession 2) 1975-1987 led by the DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam) under Chief Minister M.G. Ramachandran (1917-1987) a) background in Tamil Film Industry exemplifies role of film industry in linking to political career i. producer ii. actor iii. director b) exemplifies role of cinema fan cultures and clubs in influencing life i. public ii. artistic b. Andhra Pradesh 1) INC dominance until 1983 2) 1983 rise of Telugu Desam Party under film star N.T.R. Rao 3) under party leadership of Chandra Babu Naidu TDP has a) effective adoption of e-governance tools b) turned Hyderabad into major IT center 4) challenged by Telangana movement, which achieved separate statehood in 2014 a) perceived historic unity b) sense of development in comparison with other regions in AP c) struggle between AP and Telangana over status of Hyderabad resulted in temporary compromise of 10 years as capital of both states c. Karnataka 1) varied leadership since 1983 of a) INC b) Janata Dal 2) capital Bangalore as IT industry center d. Kerala as center of communist influence with success measured in89 1) balanced distribution of wealth 2) high human-index measures, e.g. 93% adult literacy, highest in country E. The BJP and the Prime Ministership of Atul Bihari Vajpayee, 1998-2004 [p. 82] 1. Nuclear South Asia a. background to BJP 1) dominant party in current government whose first ascension to power occurred in 1998 2) moved away from Hindutva roots and has focused on economic development 3) movement away from Hindutva opened doors to coalition partners in quest to unseat Congress 4) however, 13 coalition partners very diverse and have contributed to paralysis b. effort to assert India’s geostrategic standing vis-à-vis 1) Pakistan 2) China c. 1998 nuclear tests in Pokharan in Thar Desert of Rajasthan 1) second explosions in this desert
89 This example and this section provides some great evidence in support of the federalist structure in general and in India in particular. In a true federalist system, individual states provide experimental labs in governance that reflect local cultures but that also might contribute to programs and policies that might be adopted in other states or even at the national level. 47 2) first explosion was in 1974 as response to Chinese tests at that time d. BJP used nuclear weapons as expression of Indian power in 1998 e. Pakistani exploded nuclear weapons in Baluchistan f. neither state willing to accept criticism from Russia or USA g. MAD not guaranteed to 1) prevent error 2) deter war 2. Kashmir a. new crisis in Kashmir since 1989 different from earlier 1) earlier crisis as state dispute between India and Pakistan 2) new crisis as product of local insurgency related to disputes between a) Kashmir b) Delhi 3) crisis as product of Delhi’s a) excesses of force b) shortages of funds b. the story of Sheik Abdullah 1) leader of INC-modeled National Conference overthrown by Nehru in 1953 2) detained and released after 22 years 3) resounding political success from 1977 until death in 1982 4) succeeded by his son, Farooq c. the failings of Indian policy in Kashmir led to rise in political opposition to India 1) failures of national leadership a) Nehru and Indira failed to create “vibrant constitutional culture” in Kashmir as they had elsewhere b) Rajiv “cynically manipulated Kashmiri politics” 2) rise of new parties a) Muslim United Front b) Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front embraced violence c) other groups also undertook violence d. the role of Pakistan 1) goal: weaken India 2) method: force India into further repressive measures 3) success a) soldier:citizen = 1:5, the highest anywhere in the world in 1990 b) visible Indian presence everywhere lends sense of occupation 4) 100,000 Hindu Pandit refugees from targeted bombings of non-Muslims create Hindu resentment and support for India e. analysis 1) current crisis not significantly related to a) Islam b) Indian secularism 2) conflict based on key factors of a) region b) nation c) incorporation 3) Jammu and Kashmir LF demands “secular and sovereign Kashmir” 4) conflict fostered by Delhi a) denial of political rights b) political repression 5) Pakistani role is to keep Indian army tied up in Kashmir f. the 1999 Kargil conflict 1) cause: infiltration of Pakistani agents over the Line of Control (the agreed upon border after last Indo-Pakistani war) 2) war remained conventional and short, though fought at 2,700 meters 3) BJP framed it as Hindu war against Muslim Pakistan g. current government under control of Omar Abdullah, Chief Minister (2009-Present) 1) son of Farooq 2) paradox of Kashmir dependency upon and resentment of India 3) most recent Delhi failure in response to massive floods in 9/2014 h. Kashmir insurgency in context of other separatist conflicts that began in 1989 1) Punjab and Assam successfully incorporated after long, bloody conflict 2) programs of government employment and developmental funds not as effective in Punjab F. The Prime Ministership of Manmohan Singh (b. 1932), 2004-2014 [p. 83] 1. 2004 defeat of BJP-Led National Democratic Alliance a. Congress victory attributable to feared rise of “communal forces” b. BJP lost over 100 seats in Lower House (Lok Sabha) 2. Singh as leader of UPA (United Progressive Alliance) program a. 2009 National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) 48 1) guaranteed to all rural residents 100 days’ of income/year 2) inadequate redistribution of wealth considering the rapid growth of urban economy b. increased concentration of wealth among the few90 c. corruption reached unprecedented proportions, e.g. 2G spectrum scam when $400 million lost after failure to auction bid91 d. Legislative efforts to address corruption 1) 2005 Right to Information Act (RTI) a) similar to FOIA in US b) right of ordinary citizen to obtain state information about working of government i. decision-making ii. finance iii. hiring iv. firing c) in conjunction with internet has unveiled nexus of government-industrial corruption 2) Anna Hazare a) social reformer in Gandhian mold b) led dharnas (sit-ins) against corruption c) Hazare collaborated with i. RTI leader Arvind Kejariwal ii. the Am Admi Party (Common Man’s Party) a. which joined INC party coalition b. failed in 2014 elections with only four seats in Lok Sabha G. Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the 2014 Elections [p. 84] 1. failure of Congress and United Progressive Alliance due to a. corruption b. slowed economic growth 2. the BJP victory a. 282 seats for BJP b. additional 54 seats with its coalition partner, the NDA c. Congress lost 162 seats, leaving only 60 for its coalition 3. Modi a. Gujarat head of government during riots in 200292 b. many see as complicit in death and displacement of Muslims, including US (which denied him a visa) c. BJP strategy to build campaign around personality of Modi in “presidential-style referendum” 4. BJP platform a. anti-corruption b. ending FDI to Indian economy c. greater efficiency for middle class in 1) education 2) health services d. reconstruction of the Hindu temple at the Babri Masjid 5. Modi and the US a. unlikely to gain US support in Kashmir b. visited in 9/14 after earlier denial of visa H. Development as Freedom? [p. 85] 1. contributions to development theory a. Dr. Amartya Sen in Development as Freedom (1999) 1) nobel-prize winner in economics 2) argued importance of a) human rights b) women’s empowerment c) secure civil liberties 3) these non-material measures needed to be valued comparably to a) industrial markets b) consumer markets 4) continues the legacy of Nehruvian socialism in context of India 5) subsequent popularization in The Argumentative India (2005): economics tied to social development b. Yunus Khan and the Grameen Bank 1) originated in Bangladesh 2) pioneered micro-lending to women as mode of empowerment 2. Public Interest Litigation a. historically legal system similar to US to locus standi wherein only those harmed by unjust law have standing in court b. locus standi, however, generally undermined by the inability of poor people
90 Again, on this issue India is little different from the rest of the world! 91 The exact nature of this incident is not well-explained 92 These riots, I believe, were part of the background story to Slumdog Millionaire 49 1) to fund their own legal affairs 2) to articulate their own interests in legal format c. two innovations 1) concerned citizen can approach courts on behalf of disenfranchised group 2) Supreme Court can use even a postcard notification to begin an abuse investigation 3) Court can order bodies within society to undertake investigations93 a) branches of government b) associations c) journalists d) local judges 4) courts can offer different forms of relief to victims a) compensatory b) rehabilitative c) restitutive d) preventive e) curative94 3. The Missing Girl Child95 a. the problem: biology does not appear to match reality 1) projected female:male = 1.05:1.00 2) actual female: male = .93: 1.00 b. causes of the problem 1) higher rates of mortality for a) women b) girls 2) natality inequality due largely to sex selective abortion 3) unequal facilities a) lack of basic nutrition b) education c) medical care 4) inequality to rights in property 5) unequal sharing of household a) benefits b) chores 6) domestic violence 7) physical victimization c. problems extend to damage the society as a whole 4. Naxalbari and Maoism a. centered in forested heartlands of India 1) central 2) eastern b. named after village in West Bengal c. derived from persistent underdevelopment of adibasi communities d. uprising triggered in response to Delhi’s use of paramilitaries to suppress adibasi resistance to natural resource extraction e. effective use of guerrilla tactics with broad popular support f. Naxalite vision of total revolution along Maoist lines
93 This reminds me of the investigative undertakings that Gandhi and his cohorts made in the Champala campaigns during the independence movement 94 it seems interesting that punitive awards are not mentioned here 95 This section based entirely on Sen’s work in The Argumentative Indian 50