6 Ecological Principles of Sustainability

1. Conservation: Wise use & management a. Not Preservation: No use or management

2. Recycle

3. Using renewable resources: Needs management for continued use

4. Restoration: Fixing the things we have already screwed up/destroyed

5. Population Control: For some species there is a built in mechanism that reduces reproduction.

6. Adaptability: Use of alternative fuels (solar, wind, hydrogen cells, bio-diesel).

History of Conservation 19th Century: Thomas Jefferson is cited as the first person concerned with conservation. He was concerned with Soil Erosion Practices.

1872: First National Park (Yellowstone National Park).

1892: Sierra Club – Founded by John Muir. The Sierra Club is a preservationists club that likes to protect unique areas.

20th Century: 4 waves of conservation movements:

1st Wave (1901-1909): 1908 Teddy Roosevelt; White House Conference on National Resources. This consisted of congressmen, governors, scientists, natural resource experts, hunters and anglers. Their goal was to create the first natural resource inventory.

2nd Wave (1933-1941): FDR holds the second natural resources inventory 1933: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camps of workers built firebreaks, bridges, roads and dams. They also planted trees. 1934: Prairie States Forestry Project: Planting shelterbelts in the Midwest 1935: Soil Conservation Service was established to try and teach farmers in soil conservation to help prevent soil erosion (especially in the East). 1936: N. American Wildlife and Resources Conference. 1937: Pittman & Robertson Act placed an 11% tax on sporting arms and Ammunition.

3rd Wave (1960-1980): 1962: Silent Spring; a book about DDT written by Rachel Carson. 1970: Clean Air Act; emissions on factories and vehicles. 1973: Endangered Species Act 1977: Clean Water Act

4th Wave (1980-Present) 1992: Earth Summit; held in Brazil. It was the largest international meeting ever on the environment. Main focuses were Global Climate Changing, Deforestation, and Biodiversity.

Types of Natural Resources

Renewable: Fertile Soil; products of the land; products of the water.

Non-Renewable: Fossil Fuels; precious metals (metallic minerals); non-metallic minerals.

8/25/03 Approaches to Natural Resource Management

1. Exploitation: Widespread use with no regard to future needs. Colonization – 1800’s. 2. Preservation: No use; Protection; Late 1800’s-1930’s. 3. Utilitarian: 1930’s-1980’s; Wise usage. a. Sustained Yield: Management of renewable resources so they can be used indefinitely. 4. Ecological Approach (Ecosystem Management): Manage ecosystems as a whole.

Ecology: Study of the relationship between an organism and its environment.

Environment: Anything that affects an organism in any way Biotic: Living Factors Abiotic: Non-living Factors

Species: A group of organisms that are genetically related and reproductively isolated in nature.

Subspecies: Variant or race of a species. Geography.

Population: All members of a species at a given place and time.

Community: All populations at a given place and time.

Ecosystem: All communities plus the abiotic factors.

8/27/03 Intraspecific Competition: Competition between individuals of the same species.

Interspecific Competition: Competition between individuals of different species. Energy Flow

Law of Conservationof Matter: States that matter can’t be destroyed or created by ordinary means; just converted to different form.

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy isn’t created or destroyed; just converted from on form to another.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: When energy is converted to a different form some energy is released as heat.

Types of Energy 1. Kinetic: Energy of motion 2. Solar: Energy of the sun 3. Chemical: Energy derived from chemicals 4. Nuclear: Energy of atoms 5. Heat:

The sun is the source of energy in the ecosystem

Albedo: Reflectivity of a surface.

⅓ of solar energy is reflected.

⅔ of energy is either absorbed by atmosphere or absorbed by surface → heat energy → radiated back into space.

CO2 acts as an insulator to heat and keeps it from radiating back into space. This can cause Global Warming.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 12H2O + sunlight ---> 6O 2 + C6 H12O 6 + 6H2 O (carbon dioxide + water + sunlight ---> oxygen + carbohydrate + water).

Cellular Respiration: Process cells use to break down organic molecules into usable energy.

Sugar + O 2 ---> Energy + CO2 + H2O

Gross Production: The total amount of energy (sugars) produced.

Net Production: Total energy subtracted by energy used by plants in cellular respiration.

8/29/03 Food Chain: Pathway through which energy flows though an ecosystem.

Trophic Level: Feeding level of a food chain. Food Web: Interconnected food chains.

Only about 1% of solar energy is utilized by plants. Only about 10% of plant energy is utilized by herbivores. Only about 10% of herbivores are utilized by carnivores.

Why? 1. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics 2. Some plant parts can’t be consumed/digested. 3. Some animal parts can’t be consumed/digested (bones, hair and feathers). 4. Not all members of a trophic level are consumed.

Nutrient Cycles Nitrogen: Proteins. About 78% in atmosphere in gas form.

Nitrogen Fixation: Conversion of nitrogen into a usable form. 1. Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation: Lightning; low amounts. 2. Industrial Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen is forced to combine with Hydrogen = Ammonia. 3. Biological Fixation: Bacteria living in root modules of plants.

9/4/03 Nitrification: Breakdown of nitrogen containing compounds into usable forms.

Denitrification: Conversion of Nitrogen containing compounds into N2 Bacteria or burning of organic matter

Carbon Cycle

Range of Tolerance: Limits of environmental conditions an organism can withstand.

Habitat: Where an organism lives.

Niche: An organism’s functional role in the ecosystem.

Competitive Exclusion Principle: No 2 organisms can occupy the exact same niche; If so, eventually one will out compete the other.

Niche Partitioning: The Separation of niches.

Ecological Succession: Replacement of communities through time.

Primary Succession: Starts with bare rock; where no communities have existed before.

Secondary Succession: Starts on soil where communities previously existed. 9/5/03 Sere: Entire sequence of communities in a success ional sequence.

Seral Stage: One step in a success ional sequence.

Old Field Succession

0-1 Years 1-3 Years 3-10 Years 10-30 Years 30-70 Years Crabgrass Dogfennel Pines Pines Hardwoods Ragweed Broomsedge Broomsedge Forest Pine Forest Pokeweed Rubus Spp. Blackberry

Pioneer Species: Crabgrass, Ragweed, Pokeweed.

Climax Community: Final communities that occupy a site.

Biomes: Terrestrial community defined by its climate and its plant and animal communities.

Biomes (Refer to Handout) 1. Tundra: Area from the polar cap to the timberline (where trees start occurring). Known for the perpetual ice and snow. Precipitation is very low.

2. Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)

3. Deciduous Forest: Long growing season.

4. Temperate Grassland: Rare in existence; buffalo, prong horned antelope, jackrabbit, meadowlark, burrowing owl, prairie chickens, and coyote.

5. Desert: Hot; no rain.

6. Savannah: Mainly found in Africa. There are some in South America and Australia. Consists of seasonal precipitation.

7. Tropical Rainforest: Areas around the equator. Plants such as figs and bromeliads are found.

Soils Soil: The covering of the earth naturally.

Purpose: 1. Allows plants to grow. ***Most Important*** 2. Foundation 3. Dens for animals.

Humus: Partially decomposed organic matter.

9/10/03 Inorganic Matter: Minerals

Type: Sizes: Texture: Gravel >2mm. Coarse Sand .05-2mm. Gritty Silt .002-.05mm. Floury Clay <.002mm. Sticky when wet

Gravel, Silt and Sand: Their purpose is to build a skeletal structure.

Clay: Involved in chemical reactions in a soil.

Humus: Also involved in chemical reactions in soil.

Factors of Soil Formation 1. Climate: Temperature and Precipitation 2. Parent Material 3. Topography: Lay of the land. “Slope”. 4. Biotic Activity 5. Time

1. Climate

Temperature: Freezing/Thawing; frozen soil weathers more slowly.

Precipitation: Physical – freezing/thawing; erosion Physically wearing down rocks in a stream. Chemically dissolving by water carrying other compounds.

2. Parent Material

1. Metamorphic Rock: Formed by heat and pressure (crystalline rock). Slow to weather.

2. Sedimentary Rock: Sediment that is compacted; Limestone and sandstone. Relatively quick to weather.

3. Igneous Rock: Volcanic Rock; slow to weather.

4. Cover Deposits: Glacier Till a. Alluvium: Transported materials by water. b. Colluvium: Gravity transported materials.

Chemical Reactions in Soil Nutrient Exchange

Colloids: Particles of clay and humus that are so small, they stay suspended in standing water.

Cation: Positively charged ion Anion: Negatively charged ion

Cation Exchange Capacity: Weight of nutrient ions a soil can hold in available form.

Soil Classification: Order Suborder Great Group Sub-group Family Series

Entisols (Primitive Soils): Many only have A and C horizons. They are weakly developed. The parent materials are extremely resistant to weathering.

Inceptisols (Imperative Soils): Alleghany Mountains. Weakly developed. They occur in steep mountains. Geologic erosion and leaching of minerals down slope.

Andisols: Volcanic ash soils.

Aridisols: Desert soils.

Mollisols (Grassland Soils): Extremely productive. Thick A horizons that are up to 2 ft. thick (organic soils).

Vertisols: Shrinking clay soils.

Spodosols: Very acidic, sandy soils.

Spodic Horizon: Layer in B horizon that’s rich in humus and clays.

Ultisols: Low-base forest soils. They are found in the southeast U.S. (Acidic) Warm region forest soils Leaching of nutrients and bases Highly weathered subsoils (B Horizons) Clays. Alfisols: High-Base; Forest Soils; More effective nutrient leaching.

Oxisols: Tropical soils Highly weathered Granular structure Extremely high leaching Nutrient cycling tied to vegetation

Histosols: Organic soils; Formed by layers of organic matter. Too wet or too cool for decomposition to keep up.

Soil Erosion: Soil being moved from one place to another.

Geologic Erosion: Natural erosion process; slow rates.

Accelerated Erosion: Human-caused erosion.

History of Soil Erosion

Prairie States Forestry Project: Dust Bowl (Wind erosion). Soil Conservation Service formed. Water erosion of Southeast. Kudzu “Miracle Vine”.

9/29/03 Problems with Water Resources

1. Pollution 2. Increased demand for agriculture 3. Urban use and waste 4. Industrial use (Paper plants and electrical plants) 5. Problems with unequal distribution

Water Cycle

Some water is tied up into bodies of living organisms.

Evaporation and Transpiration

⅔ of precipitation gets put back into the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration.

Most of the remaining ⅓ is put into surface water.

Aquifer: Water is held in porous (permeable) rocks (limestone or sandstone) underground. Zone of aeration: Areas of horizon that water infiltrates through.

Zone of saturation: Groundwater supplies (pores filled with water).

Water Table: The upper level of the zone of saturation.

Flooding Problems: 1. Money 2. Loss of Life

10/1/03 Controlling/Preventing Floods 1. Dams: Flood control; create reservoirs; create hydroelectric power a. Disadvantages: i. A break or failure is even costlier in damage. ii. Harmful effects on fisheries 1. Block migration 2. Drawdowns affect spawning habitat 3. Temperature increase iii. Expensive iv. Flood prime agriculture land v. Dams are ugly vi. Siltation of reservoir

2. Levees/Dikes: Made of earth and concrete a. Advantages: i. Deepens stream channel and allows barge traffic ii. Flood prevention iii. Allows construction right up to the rivers edge b. Disadvantages: i. Often fail; extremely costly in damage ii. Requires frequent maintenance iii. Increases flooding downstream which destroys wetlands iv. Allows construction right up to the river’s edge v. Siltation; dredge it and build levees higher vi. Prevents natural “soil enrichment”

3. Dredging

4. Stream Channelizing: a. Increase flow rate b. Expensive c. Damage habitat and aesthetics

5. Measuring Snowpack Depths 6. Protecting Watersheds

7. Zoning of Flood Plains

Water Shortages Drought: Below normal rainfall conditions.

Drought Effects 1. No irrigation 2. Wildlife Habitat Loss 3. Water Shortages 4. Livestock Problems

Strategies to Increase Future Water Supply 1. Conservation: a. Farming: i. Timing of Irrigation ii. Drip Irrigation iii. Lining Irrigation Ditches iv. Using Heat Sensors to Determine when to Irrigate b. Industries: i. Lots of progress c. The Home: i. Lawn Watering ii. Long Showers 2. Reclamation of Sewer Water: a. Using it for irrigation

1. Pollution Control 2. Polution Prevention a. Laws and Regulations b. Taxes c. Economic Incentives d. Process Redesign

Types of Pollutants

1. Sediment: a. Soil particles b. Suspended Sediment i. Blocks sunlight ii. Production of O2 decreases iii. Decreased food production c. Erosion i. Harmful Effects 1. Fisheries: Direct and indirect 2. Alter the pH 3. Slow barge traffic 4. Affect drinking water 5. Siltation in reservoirs 6. Damage hydroelectric turbines

Control of Sedimentation

Sediment Prevention: 1. Silk fences 2. Cover crops 3. Buffer vegetation

Sediment Control: 1. Dredging 2. Filtration

2. Organic Nutrients: Mineral Pollution

Eutrophication: Nutrient enrichment of an aquatic system.

Natural Eutrophication:

Cultural Eutrophication:

Lake Classification

1. Eutrophic Lake: Highly rich in nutrients 2. Mesotrophic Lake: Moderately rich in nutrients 3. Oligotrophic Lake: Low in nutrients

Algal Bloom: An explosion in algae population due to rapid input of nutrients into the system (Nitrogen and Phosphorus).

Harmful Effects of Eutrophication (Nutrient Pollution)

1. Algal Blooms: Blocks out sunlight which results in a decrease of dissolved oxygen. 2. Affect Lake Usage: Recreational activities and the destruction of aesthetics. 3. Excessive rooted and floating vegetation. 4. Game fish are replaced by “trash fish” (unwanted species). 5. Gives the water a bad taste and smell. Source of Nutrient Pollution

1. Agriculture Fertilizers 2. Domestic Sewage: Phosphorus in detergents 3. Livestock Wastes

10/15/03: Absent 10/17/03 Toxic Organic Compounds: Carbon-containing compounds

Causes Problems: 1. Solvents 2. Pesticides and Insecticides 3. Plastics 4. Drugs 5. PCB’s 6. Dioxin

It takes decades to break down in nature.

Biomagnification: Increase in concentration through the food chain. -Stored in fatty tissues of those who eat them

Heavy Metal Pollution: 1. Lead 2. Mercury 3. Zinc

10/20/03 Aquatic Environments

Wetlands: Areas saturated by water for a duration and depth to allow growth of vegetation that is adapted to saturated soil.

Many wetlands are transition zones between aquatic and upland habitats.

Wetland Delineation: Defining the boundaries of a wetland.

Reasons Why Wetland Delineation is Tough

1. Wetland boundaries are gradual 2. Water levels can vary seasonally and annually 3. Human activities have altered vegetation, soils and hydrology

Hydrology: How water flows in an area (above and below the surface). 10/27/03 Absent 10/29/03 Inland Wetlands

1. Freshwater Marshes: a. Sedges, rushes, cattails, floating vegetation b. Various types of freshwater marshes which is based on geologic or hydrologic processes. i. Carolina Bay: All oval shaped and North-South oriented ii. Prairie Potholes iii. Everglades: Periodic flooding of Lake Okeechobee

Hydroperiod: Variations in depth and duration of flooding through the year.

11/3/03 Lake Zonation 1. Littoral Zone: a. Shallow margins b. Rooted Vegetation c. Sunlight penetration is adequate for rooted vegetation growth d. Large amounts of plankton

2. Limnetic Zone a. Region beyond the littoral zone b. From surface down to compensation depth (the limit of sunlight penetration) c. Algae growth

3. Profundal Zone a. No plant life

Thermal Stratification

Temperature and Dissolved oxygen Dissolved Oxygen is inversely related to temperature

Winter -Colder water is near the surface -Dissolved oxygen is higher at upper water levels

Spring-Fall -Temperature and dissolved oxygen are similar at all depths

Summer -The highest temperature is at the surface -The highest dissolved oxygen levels are at the surface -No Photosynthesis

11/5/03 Stream Ecosystems Types of Streams: 1. Perennial: Flows year round; fed by groundwater. 2. Intermittent: Flows during the wet season; winter and early spring. 3. Ephemeral: Flows after huge rain events.

Physical Features of Streams

1. Channel Shape: Depth and width of the channel. 2. Channel Pattern: How curvy the channel is. 3. Pools and Riffles 4. Floodplains

Fisheries Conservation

Most fisheries management targets freshwater species and ecosystems.

Most fisheries management focuses on the recreational angler.

Freshwater management targets resident species and anadromous species.

Anadromous: A species of fish that lives in salt water but migrates to freshwater to spawn. Example: Salmon, Sturgeon, Striper.

Catadromous: A species of fish that lives in freshwater but migrates to saltwater to spawn.

11/7/03 Fisheries Habitat Requirements 1. pH 2. Temperature 3. Appropriate dissolved oxygen levels 4. Turbidity – Sediment 5. Spawning Habitat: Type of sediment on the bottom (substrate) 6. Food 7. Cover 8. Water depth and velocity

Environmental Resistance: Things that decrease the productivity of a population.

Environmental Resistances for Fish: Disease; Drought; Landslides; Siltation; Flood; Fishing; Temperature Change; Animal Activities; Pollution; Dredging; Dams; Boating Population Management Techniques

1. Restocking: Adding to native populations (Largemouth, Catfish, Redear, Sunfish, Bluegill). 2. Captive Breeding: Adding to native populations. a. Problems: i. Costly ii. Ineffective iii. Disease Transmission b. Benefits: i. Public Relations ii. Stocking Reservoirs iii. Ponds that have food but no spawning habitat (Coho and Chinook Salmon). 3. Introduction of Species: Stocking non-native species such as Rainbow or Brown Trout. Unwanted species would be Herring, Flathead Catfish, or Grass Carp. a. Problems: i. Out-Competing Native Fish ii. Predation iii. Overpopulation iv. Hybridization b. Benefits i. Pest Control ii. Stocking areas where no native fish exist iii. Fishing 11/10/03 4. Vibert Boxes: a. Plastic boxes that are used to keep Trout/Salmon eggs in stream as a protection method. b. It is a Western technique that is relatively cheap. 5. Reservoir Stocking and Drawdowns: a. Drawdowns during spawning season can be harmful. b. Results in concentration of fish c. Aerates sediment d. Increases decomposition 6. Removing Pest Species: a. Seining b. Shocking c. Water level manipulation d. Chemicals 7. Regulations and Laws a. Size and number limits for each species b. Licenses c. Seasons 8. Habitat Management a. Fertilize b. Add cover (structure) c. Improving spawning habitat

Forest Management

There are 655 million acres of forested land and ⅔ of that land is classified as commercial timberland.

58% of commercial timber is under private ownership. 14% of commercial timber is under the forest industry. 18% of commercial timber is under the National Forest System. 10% of commercial timber is under other local, state and federal agencies.

11/12/03 United States Department of Agriculture

U.S. Forest Service: Established in 1805 by Teddy Roosevelt. The first chief of the Forest Service was Gifford Pinchot. The Vanderbilts brought Pinchot back to the U.S. and he managed the Biltmore estate.

National Forest Established: Main purpose was to provide forest products. In 1960 there was the Multiple Use – Sustained Yield Act. This required the Forest Service to manage National Forests for as many purposes for the most people.

Sustained Yield: Provide a consistent supply of products indefinitely (planting the same amount that you harvest).

Functions of National Parks 1. Recreation 2. Aesthetics 3. To Produce Forest Products (over 10,000) a. Timber b. Lumber c. Paper Products d. Rayon e. Naval Stores f. Syrup g. Film h. Christmas Trees i. Pencils j. Fuel Wood k. Gun Powder 4. Wildlife Habitat 5. Rangelands 6. Flood and Erosion Control

Sustained Yield is relatively easy in the Southeast because of: 1. Faster growing species 2. Longer growing season

Wilderness Area

The Wilderness Act was instated in 1964 which was to preserve wildlands in their “native” state.

Wilderness Areas: Where man is only a visitor and leaves no signs of their presence behind. This means: 1. No roads 2. No motorized vehicles or boats 3. No timber harvesting 4. No forest management technique

The only wilderness area is in Calhutta, GA.

National Parks: 1. Tourists 2. In 1916 the National Park Service was formed

National Park System: Main Categories: 1. National Park (Yellowstone) 2. National Monument (Statue of Liberty, Death Valley) 3. National Historic Site (Valley Forge, President Birth Sites) 4. National Recreation Areas (Hells Canyon, Golden Gate Bridge) 5. National Lakeshores and Seashores (Cape Canaveral)

Timber Management

Rotation Length: Time from planting to final harvest.

Factors affecting rotation length: 1. Site Quality 2. Tree Species a. Growth Rate b. Longevity of Species 3. Desired Product 11/19/03 Types of Harvest

1. Clear cutting 2. Group Selection 3. Seed Tree Cut/ “Real Estate Cut” 4. Shelterwood Cut: Cut about 60% and leave the rest for regeneration

Fire Management

15% of fires are due to lightning 30% are intentionally set (Arson) out of 85%

Fire Policy

1800’s-Mid 1900’s: Fire Suppression 1950’s: Forest Service abolished fire suppression 1970’s: National Park Service abolished fire suppression 1988: Drought; October fires started. 20% of Yellowstone burned but resulted in 30 time more plant species regenerating after the fire.

11/21/03 Prescribed Burning: Skillful application of fire to forests under controlled conditions to achieve some management objective.

Advantages of Prescribed Burning: 1. Reduces the risks of wildfires 2. Manage species composition by the timing of the burn during the season 3. Manage under story height by the frequency of the burn 4. Improve browse conditions a. Pruning effect b. Fertilization effect c. Increase light to the forest floor 5. Increased fruit/seed production and availability a. Removes forest litter 6. Reduce populations of disease and parasites a. Ticks and Chiggers b. Brown Spot or Fisiform Rust 7. It’s cheap

Concerns with using prescribed burning: 1. Escape fires a. Liability 2. Smoke a. Clean Air Act b. Liability c. Complaints 3. Reduced site quality

12/3/03 What Good are Wild Animals?

1. Recreational Value a. Hunting b. Fishing c. Viewing 2. Economic Value a. Food b. Fur c. Leather d. Oils e. Pseudo aphrodisiacs 3. Scientific Value 4. Ecological Value 5. Aesthetic Value 6. Ethical Value

Extinct: Gone; No longer exists anywhere on the face of the earth.

Extirpated: Wiped out of a certain area.

Wildlife Management

Historical Steps of Wildlife Management: 1. Regulations and Laws (Restrict Hunting) (Good) a. Technological advances 2. Predator Control (Bad) 3. Refuge Establishment (Good) a. Pelican Island, Florida 4. Artificial Replenishment (Bad)