Professor Zhang Hongling (Shanghai International Studies University) • Hywel Coleman (University of Leeds)

The Role of Languages in Higher Education in East Asia

• Nicola Galloway (Edinburgh University) • Professor Zhang Hongling (Shanghai International Studies University) • Hywel Coleman (University of Leeds)

One of the arguments given for introducing English as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) in higher education (HE) in East Asia is that it facilitates mobility within the region. Other arguments have also been proposed. As the fever for EMI reaches epidemic proportions, this session provides an opportunity to step back and examine what research tells us about this phenomenon through three case studies.

Moderator: Colm Downes (British Council Indonesia) The Role of Languages in Higher Education in East Asia

Nicola Galloway University of Edinburgh

26th Sep, 2019

2 Overview

1. Growth & driving forces

2. Definitions & approaches

3. My studies

4. Recommendations

3 Internationalisation of universities

• Internationalise curricula • Establish international partnerships • Exchange and collaborative degree programmes • Publishing in international journals • Raise global profile of an institution

• English Medium Instruction (EMI)

4 The world-wide growth in EMI

• Half of the world’s international students are learning through English (Ball and Lindsay, 2013)

Learning through Learning through English other languages

Internationalization and English Medium Instruction are intertwined (Kirkpatrick, 2011) 5 The world-wide growth in EMI

• World-wide shift towards EMI (Dearden, 2014)

• A “galloping” phenomenon, “pandemic in proportion” (Chapple, 2015, p.1)

6 The world-wide growth in EMI

• “the most significant trend in educational internationalization” (Chapple, 2015, p.1)

• An “unstoppable train” (Macaro, 2015, p.7)

7 The world-wide growth in EMI

EMI in Europe • Tenfold increase in EMI

Master’s programmes in a 8089 decade • Business, economics, engineering and technology • Increase from 725 in 2001 to 2,389 in 2007, and 8,089 in 2389 2014 (Wächter and Maiworm, 2014) 725

2001 2007 2014 EMI in European Higher Educaon (Source: Wächter and Maiworm, 2014) 8 The world-wide growth in EMI

Europe A 1,115% growth in EMI in 13 years (Wächter and

Maiworm, 2014) 8089

725

2001 2014

9 The world-wide growth in EMI The world-wide growth in EMI

Japan • 29.2% of all undergraduate (Chapple, 2015) • Over 30 undergraduate and over 70 postgraduate degree programmes offered in English (MEXT, 2015, 2017).

10 The world-wide growth in EMI The world-wide growth in EMI

China • 132 of 135 HEIs offer EMI by 2006 • 44 per institution (Wu et al., 2010, cited in Lei and Hu, 2014).

11 The world-wide growth in EMI

• Spread from the traditional hotspots (e.g. the Netherlands or Northern Europe)

12 The world-wide growth in EMI

• EMI - “the general trend is towards a rapid expansion” (Dearden, 2014, p. 2) • Knock-on effect – EMI becoming common in Turkey, the Middle East and Southeast Asia

– Vietnam • ‘Advanced programmes’ since 2008 - Government’s project “Innovation in Vietnamese Higher Education” • “educational institutions are encouraged to develop and implement bilingual programs” (Vietnamese Government, 2008). • National Foreign Languages 2020 Project

13 • EMI as an important criterion in faculty hiring decision

Can you teach in English?

14 The world-wide growth in EMI • Growing as a phenomenon and field of research

– full length books • (e.g. Blaj-Ward, 2017; Bradford & Brown, 2017; Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra, 2012; Earls, 2016; Fenton-Smith, Humphries & Walkinshaw, 2017;Macaro, 2018; McKinley and Galloway, forthcoming; Murata, 2018; Slobodanka, Hulgren and Jensen, 2015; Toh, 2016) – special editions in journals • (Taguchi (ed), 2014; Pecorari and Malmstrom, 2018)

– Textbooks for TESOL • (Galloway, Mckinley and Rose, forthcoming).

15 Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

– lack of educaonal materials in certain languages (Gill, 2004; Shamin, 2008).

– seen as a neutral language.

16 Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

Access to cung-edge knowledge

Language shares in total academic publicaons over the past 100 years (Montgomery, 2013, p. 90) Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

• Increase global competitiveness to raise the international profile University Ranking 1 2 3 4 5 EMI in China

‘Excellent’: Higher education institutions (HEIs) offering 10% of all courses in English ‘Poor’: HEIs offering few courses or none in English

(Hu and Lei, 2014) Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

Enhancing student and lecturer mobility • Aract talented students • ‘Brain gain’ (Wächter and Maiworm, 2014) • Raise research proﬁle of HEIs

19 Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

• Enhancing the employability of graduates

• Fostering intercultural competence that is attractive for the increasingly internationalised job market

20 Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming)

• increase income (and compensating for shortages at the domestic level)

Japan

MEXT explicitly states two goals of HE policy:

1. ‘Increase the number of classes taught in foreign languages’

1. ‘Increase the ratio of international students in the total student population’ (MEXT, 2018, p. 2) Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming) EMI policies in Japan

Global 30 Project (2009 - 2014) − Backed up by funding of ¥400 million − Establish EMI programmes at 30 top universities − Aimed to attract 300,000 international students by 2020 − Funding froze in 2014 - only 13 universities had participated

Go Global Japan Project (2012 - 2016) – finance the development of international education in 42 HEIs – foster an outward-looking, global perspective amongst its student body

Top Global University Project (2014 – present) 22 - 37 HEIs selected for funding - “to enhance the international compatibility and competitiveness of higher education in Japan” Driving forces (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming) • English proficiency • developments in English language teaching (ELT)

– The Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) • -pressure on the Ministry of Education to improve the quality of English education – Vietnam –hope of enhancing the quality of English learning • adoption of EMI is hoped to “produce a future labor force which is sufficiently qualified in terms of professional knowledge and foreign language competence to meet tough human resource requirements in the new epoch and also to upgrade the teaching quality in HEIs” (Le, 2012, p. 104). DEFINITIONS & APPROACHES

24 Defining EMI • Macaro (2018: 19) defines EMI as: – The use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English’.

• Alternative definitions see EMI as closer to CLIL: – EMI is curricula using English as a medium of instruction for basic and advanced courses to improve students’ academic English proficiency(Taguchi, 2014: 89) .

• “the labels given to the phenomenon of EMI and their definition are inconsistent and problematic” (Macaro et al, 2018: 48) . 25 Some institutions purport that EMI “is a relatively simple and cheap solution to both the problems of internationalisation and upgraded local language proficiency” (Hamid et al, 2013: 11).

Content-driven Language driven INTRODUCING THE STUDIES

27 • EMI promoted as part of internationalisation processes and the development of students’ English proficiency

• Top-down policies have not taken into account the attitudes and the impact on stakeholders.

• Bottom-up processes Overview of EMI work

– East Asian British Council Study (Galloway et al., 2017, forthcoming, forthcoming; Galloway and Curle, under submission; Galloway and Fenton- Smith, under submission; Galloway and Ruegg, forthcoming; Kruikow & Galloway, 2018; Rose & Galloway, 2019)

– South East Asia British Council study

– Brazil (Dr Luciane Sturm – 14 universities in Rio Grande do Sul (RS).

– Teacher training - textbook, 30 MOOCs, materials & online EMI practitioner (Content and EAP/ESP) network

– Programme evaluation

– International students’ needs

29 Overview of EMI work

Galloway et al ( 2017) – Japan and China ( 11 universities) – questionnaires - students (n=579) ; staff (n=28) – interviews - students (n=18); staff (n=28) – focus groups - students (n=4); staff (n=4) – Observations – still to be analysed • Galloway et al ( forthcoming, Higher Education), Galloway and Ruegg ( forthcoming, EAP journal), Galloway and Fenton-Smith (under submission). – supplemented Galloway et al ( 2017) with questionnaires (n=123), interviews (n=21) and three focus groups with international students

• Galloway and Curle (under submission) – 102 international students in six Japanese universities. – open-ended questionnaires (n=102), interviews (n=10) ; focus groups (n = 3)

• Kruikow and Galloway (2018) – 3 academic staff and 3 PhD students

• Vietnam & Thailand (further data collection Jan’20) – Questionnaires – staff (n=132); students (n=569) – Interviews - staff ( n=20); students (n=18) in Thailand at 3 universities – Staff ( n=22); students (n=10) at 4 institutions. • No one-size-fits-all approach to EMI • Needs analysis • Curriculum evaluation to ensure that EMI adapts to context-specific needs. • Does not have to be a monolingual endeavour – Rich diversity of students’ educational, cultural and linguistic backgrounds – examination of the changing sociolinguistic landscape. – “Taking an EMI class alongside international students provides students from a traditionally monolingual classroom with an opportunity to use ELF [English as a Lingua Franca]” (Galloway et al., 2017, p. 34) – Switch to L1 usage and parallel language use (Sweden) Perceived Benefits • Careful planning required • Expected benefits vs. reality • The lack of research measuring the outcomes of EMI

• Emerging EMI contexts different to mature EMI contexts (Northern and Western Europe) Difference between staff and student attitudes towards EMI (Galloway et al., 2017)

Code-switching is a sign of their Code-switching helps students to instructor’s limited English competence. understand contents. Rose & Galloway (2019)

I prefer it to be English only, because the reason why I wanted to come to [this university] was because I would be able to speak English on a regular basis, when I’m in school.

It might be narrowing the potential of global interaction by simply forcing the students to only speak in English.. If students are allowed to use their own language, it might bring better result for all of us.

I think that we should be able to speak a little of our native language in order to make sure we don't leave anybody behind.

I am not a big fan of English only. Having the availability to [use another language] when you don’t understand is a very convenient tool to have. Challenges

• Language-related issues (English proficiency and the impact on national language(s))

• Too challenging; detrimental effects on subject learning and understanding lessons and lectures ; longer time to complete the course; chance of dropping out

• CEFR B2 - starting point - B1 students can succeed with extra support. • The STEP-Eiken as a common benchmark in Japan • Pre-2 level is roughly equal to CEFR A2, which is a full level below B1. • in 2015, only 11.5% of high school graduates had achieved this (MEXT, 2016).

Are you • Cultural issues (Westernisation) following me? • Social issues (inequalities) - awareness in Thai data • Management, administration and resources (staff training, support for international students, management) • Domain loss • concerns in Thai data amongst staff and students Models of EMI (Macaro et al., 2018)

The preparatory year model

• e.g. year-long intensive English for academic purposes and study- skills courses.

The institutional support model Learning in English is • modified content courses in early years difficult… • EAP or ESP courses. • reduced over time • Desire for more ESP

The pre-institutional selection model

• minimal language support provided in favour of language

proficiency benchmarks 36 Business Content Courses (English)

EAP EAP ESP 1 2 A & B Limited teacher training Lack of collaboration

Environmental constraints Scarcity of Language- materials related and other challenges resources RECOMMENDATIONS

39 • Curriculum approach – Needs analysis – Aims/Goals – Syllabus – Methodology – Assessment – Evaluation Student and teacher language and skills support – Students benefit most from tailored language support while taking EMI courses – ESP courses to match the needs of the EMI courses • EMI teachers need support from language experts (teachers): – teacher training is essential. – Content expertise or proficiency alone are not credentials in themselves to undertake EMI teaching. – Questions about skills and qualifications required

41 EMI Network http://www.globalenglishes- emi.education.ed.ac.uk/

(39 coordinators) Thank you

[email protected]

https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/2019EMISTAFFsurvey

QUESTIONNAIRE about your views on English Medium Instruction (EMI) in university settings 2019 43 The Role of Languages in Higher Education in East Asia

• Nicola Galloway (Edinburgh University) • Professor Zhang Hongling (Shanghai International Studies University) • Hywel Coleman (University of Leeds)

Moderator: Colm Downes (British Council Indonesia) A Refletive Review of EMI in China

Dr. Zhang Hongling

Shanghai International Studies University September 26, 2019, Bankok Facts and figures • 2663 Institutions of higher education, 1245 offer bachelors’ degrees or above 1418 vocational colleges • 38.33 million college students (45.7%), 20.33 million bachelors’ or above degree colleges • 38 million college English learners (not including English majors) • 100 thousand college English teachers

English teaching is a big issue in China! Outline

1. Research methods and background

2. China's EMI: the Status Quo

3. China's EMI: Challenges and Problems

4. China's EMI: Suggestion for Future Development I. Research methods and background

Research Methods：

• Documentary research

• Surveys and interviews EMI has been developing very fast in China over the past two decades. National and regional policies are the major driving force behind this momentum. Chinese National Policies relevant to EMI Document Year 《中国教育发展和改革纲要(1990－2000)》 1993 《全国教育事业第十个五年计划》 2001 《2003―2007年教育振兴行动计划》 2004 《国家教育事业发展“十一五”规划纲要》 2007 《国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010-2020年）》 2010 《留学中国计划》 2010 《国家教育事业发展“十二五”规划纲要》 2012 《国家教育事业发展“十三五”规划》 2017 《加快推进教育现代化实施方案（2018－2022年）》 2019 《中国教育现代化2035》 2019 Shanghai Governmental Policies relevant to EMI

Document Year 《上海市中⻓期教育改革和发展规划纲要（2010—2020年）》 2010 《上海市教育国际化工程“十二五”行动计划》 2012 《上海高等教育布局结构与发展规划（2015-2030年）》 2015 《上海市教育改革和发展“十三五”规划》 2016 《上海教育对外开放“十三五”发展规划》 2016 《上海市基础教育改革和发展“十三五”规划》 2017 Key words identified: • enhance international education exchange and cooperation; adhere to education opening-up policy; • introduce foreign experts; • promote Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs; • attract international students; • increase English proficiency; • develop university disciplines and majors for more competitive higher education. II. China's EMI: the Status Quo

1. EMI in Chinese universities: a Survey of the Internationalization of Higher Education in China (2016)

2. EMI in Shanghai 1. EMI in Chinese universities

A Survey of the Internationalization of Higher Education in China • by China Education Association for International Exchange in 2016; • participating colleges: 579/633 completed the survey, 86.01% provincial colleges, 13.99% national key universities; • focusing on their undergraduate programs; • relevant indicators: English-taught majors, English-taught courses, Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs

Other surveys and rankings are regularly implemented in China， e.g. university rankings by internationalization, by evaluation research center for university internationalization (1) English-taught majors • Average number: 4.81 • Average number of certified English-taught majors by international certification organizations: 0.63 • Colleges with no English-taught majors: 69.43% • Colleges with no certified English-taught majors: 83.42%

(2) English-taught courses • Average number (language courses excluded) : 41.81 • Colleges with no English-taught courses: 56.3% (3) Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs • Average number of cooperation institutes: 0.13 (93.95 students) • Average number of cooperation programs:1.18 (213.73 students)

By June, 2019, there are 2431 Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs and institutes in China, 90% are at the level of higher education, involving 550,000 students, • mainly focused on 11 disciplines : economics, law, education ,literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, medical, management, art, in over 200 majors. • Over 800 foreign colleges from 36 countries and regions cooperate with over 700 Chinese colleges in running the institutes and programs. 2. EMI in Shanghai Pre-college level (1) In the first dacade of 21st century, the Shanghai government implemented a plan of bilingual teaching experiment to meet the demand for international education and foreign language talents. Schooling Stages Bilingual Subjects

Mathematics, Music, Fine Arts, P.E., Nature Science, Primary School Labor Skills, etc.

Mathematics, Geography, Physics, Music, Fine Arts, Middle School P.E., etc.

Mathematics, Biology, Geography, Physics, Chemistry, High School History, P.E.,etc. (2) In the recent ten years, more and more high schools in Shanghai have started introducing and offering international courses.

International Courses Number of High Schools Number of Students

IB 5 892

A-LEVEL(UK) 2 1200

BC(Canada) 3 311

AP(USA) 6 223

PGA(Sino-US) 2 56

DSD(Germany) 3 130

SAT(USA) 1 14

Others 6 302 Since 2013, Shanghai Education Commission has been experimenting with less-commonly-taught language courses in 16 or more middle schools.: Persian, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, etc. The purpose is to increase interests and to enhance education for international understanding. College level

(1) Model English-taught Courses (since 2009) and Majors (since 2014)

(2) Model English-taught Courses for International Students (since 2015)

(3) Overseas Training Program for Teachers of International Courses (since 2010)

(4) Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs Model English-taught Courses (2009-2018)

Year of Approval Number of Projects

2009 45

2010 43

2011 49

2012 43

2013 41

2014 52

2015 44

2016 56

2017 60

2018 61 12 Model English-taught Majors (2016)

Universities Majors

Fudan University Clinical Medicine

Shanghai Jiao Tong Univrsity Physics

Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Clinical Medicine

Tongji University Civial Engineering

Shanghai International Studies University Science of Business Administration

Shanghai University of Finance and Economics Accounting

Shanghai Maritime University Navigation Technology

Shanghai University International Economics and Trade

Shanghai University of International Business and International Economics and Trade Economics

University of Shanghai for Science and Technology Material Science and Engineering

Shanghai DianJi University Automation

Shanghai Business School Science of Business Administration 43 Model English-taught Majors (2017) Universities Majors Fudan University Psychology Shanghai Jiao Tong Univerrsity Information and Communication Engineering Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Basic medicine Tongji University Architecture Psychology East China Normal University Geographic Sciences East China University of Science and Technology Bioscience Shanghai International Studies University International Economics and Trade Donghua University Marketing Finance Shanghai University of Finance and Economics Law Shanghai Maritime University Accounting (ACCA) Shanghai University of Sport Sports Rehabilitation East China University of Political Science and Law LAW Aquaculture Shanghai Ocean University Food science and technology Shanghai University of Electric Power Business Administration Law Shanghai University Economics Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Rehabilitation Therapy Universities Majors Shanghai Normal University Mechanical Design & Manufacturing and Their Auto-mation Shanghai University of International Business and Finance Economics Sanda University Finance Tourism management (Cruise Economy) Shanghai University Of Engineering Science Flight technology Energy and power enginnering University of Shanghai for Science and Technology Optoelectronic Engineering International Economics and Trade Shanghai Institute of Technology Mechanical Design, Manufacturing and Automation International Business Shanghai Polytechnic University Information Management and Information System International Economics and Trade (Internationalization) Shanghai Lixin University of Accounting and Finance Business Administration Shanghai DianJi University Software Engineering Hotel Management Shanghai Business School Finance Shanghai University of Political Science and Law Law; International Economy and Trade International Economy & Trade Xianda College of Economics and Humanities, SISU Law Early Childhood Education Shanghai Normal University TIANHUA College Telecommunication Engineering Shanghai Jian Qiao University Tourism Management Shanghai Customs College Customs Administration Model English-taught courses for international students (2015-2017)

2015（共68门） 2016（共39门） 2017（12门）

病理学、药理学、中药学、内科学、外科学、妇产科外科学、眼科学、耳鼻咽喉科学、口外科学、口腔医学、老 Medical 学、眼科学、耳鼻咽喉科学、口腔医学、肿瘤学、骨腔医学、肿瘤学、骨科学、老年医学年医学（共3门）科学、老年医学（共13门）（共7门）

航海仪器、纳米技术、数据结构与算法设计、计算机纳米技术、数据结构与算法设计、移网络、人工智能、计算机图形学、数据库设计、移动动应用开发、Java 程序设计、计算机航海仪器、数据库设计 Engineering 应用开发、Java 程序设计、计算机安全与密码学、云安全与密码学、传感器原理及实验、、移动应用开发、云计计算技术、传感器原理及实验、自动控制原理（共13 计算机组成原理、软件工程、人机交算技术（共4门）门）互技术（共9门）

投资学、国际贸易、货币银行学、计量经济学、审计审计学、网络金融、行为经济学（共3 审计学、网络金融（共 Economics 学、国际结算、税收学、网络金融、报表分析与估值门） 2门）、行为经济学（共10门）

法理学、民法、民事诉讼法、刑法、刑事诉讼法、行民法、民事诉讼法、刑法、刑事诉讼 Law 政法、行政诉讼法、中国投资政策与法律、国际商业刑事诉讼法（共1门）法、行政法、行政诉讼法（共6门）争端解决（共9门）

管理会计、管理经济学、组织行为学、数据模型与决策、公司财务、营销管理、企业战略管理、运营管理管理会计、管理经济学、数据模型与 Management 、管理沟通、中国人力资源、创业管理、战略博弈论决策、中国人力资源、创业管理、战创业学（共1门）、运筹学、创业学、中国电子商务、商务统计学（共略博弈论、创业学（共7门） 16门）

中国教育现状、教育心理学、课程规中国教育现状、教育心理学、课程规划、教育国际比划、教育国际比较、教育统计与测量 Education 较、教育统计与测量、数学教学法、教育研究方法（教育心理学（共1门）、数学教学法、教育研究方法（共7门共门） 7 ） Chinese-foreign cooperation education programs in Shanghai

• 《上海教育对外开放“十三五”发展规划》(2016) By the end of 2018, 188 cooperation programs have been running in Shanghai, including 29 institutes and 159 programs.

• Problems： ① Many undertaking Chinese colleges are vocational colleges; some are non-degree programs. ② Percentage of top-notch world university partners is rather low. ③ Disciplines and majors are not extensive enough. Summary of Current EMI in China 1. EMI has been developing fast and has achieved huge success. 2. China’s Ministry of Education, the Municipal Education Commission and the individual universities have been promoting 3. EMI, but have different motives. 4. EMI is mainly implemented at the college level, though some middle schools, especially international middle schools also provide EMI courses. 5. EMI development in China is imbalanced, depending very much on the availability of teachers with strong English proficiency. 6. The subject areas of EMI courses or programs are mostly focused on medical, economics, engineering, management, law, education. 7. International students have become a major motive force for EMI development in China. 8. EMI for domestic Chinese students faces more challenges. III. Challenges and Problems Seemingly prosperous, but full of challenges and difficulties! • A Survey of Chinese teachers on EMI: 137 participants Your understanding of EMI is..... The reason why don not want to offer an EMI course ... In your opinion, the difficulties and problems with EMI implementation in China are ... Your suggestions on EMI implementation in China ...

35.0% 32.1% 30.0%

25.0%

20.0%

15.0% 13.1% 11.7% 9.5% 10.0% 8.8% 5.8% 6.6% 6.6% 5.0% 3.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2.2% 0.0%

Others Incentive Pilot projects Online courses Financial support

Teaching and research Support from schools Professional curriculum Governmental policies Basic education of English

Student's proficiency in English Teaching materials and resources

Teaching staff construction and training To sum up, the biggest challenges for EMI in China are: 1. People are confused: English learning or content learning, how to balance? 2. People don’t think EMI is necessary. 3. Teachers and students do not have the necessary English proficiency. 4. Teaching outcome is often disappointing. 5. Teacher support and training is not enough. 6. EMI takes up much resource and energy. EMI in China is also faced with doubts and criticism! 1. English has become a hegemonic language. What about other less-commonly taught languages? 2. The mother tongue status is threatened. How to maintain and improve the academic discourse power of the Chinese language? 3. It may result in education inequality. My English is poor. EMI courses are not for me! IV. Suggestions

1. Answer the call for “mother tongue-based multilingual education”. Enhance mother tongue education to increase cultural identity, and encourage the learning and using of other languages to develop linguistic and cultural diversity. 2. Use translation and interpretation in EMI courses when necessary. 3. Enhance CALP in English education. The three-dimensional value goal of English education: BICS, CALP and ICC (Zhang Hongling, 2018). 4. Promote CLIL and use a cross-curricular approach to students learning content in an L2 (Lin 2016:3-4). ① How to facilitate the collaboration between content teachers and language teachers? ② How to provide language support using a cross-curricular approach to students learning content in an L2? How to design materials that offer that support? ③ How to design classroom scaffolding strategies that address both the content and language learning needs of students? ④ How to raise the language awareness of content teachers, how to raise the content awareness of language teachers? ⑤ How to design appropriate ways of providing extra support in different school contexts? ⑥ How much of the academic language support should be made through explicit or implicit instruction, or through inductive, discovery or deductive explanatory approaches? ⑦ How can assessment be designed to give due weight to both the language and content leaning outcomes? ⑧ What is the role of school leadership in facilitating a whole-school approach in the provision of cross-curricular language support and how can parents be involved in this process? Thank you!

Contact me at [email protected] The Role of Languages in Higher Education in East Asia

• Nicola Galloway (Edinburgh University) • Professor Zhang Hongling (Shanghai International Studies University) • Hywel Coleman (University of Leeds)

Moderator: Colm Downes (British Council Indonesia) Languages in higher education in Indonesia

Hywel Coleman, University of Leeds, UK, on behalf of

Nur Fauzan Ahmad, Diponegoro University, Semarang Nilawati Hadisantosa, Atmajaya Catholic University, Jakarta Harry Kuchah, University of Leeds Martin Lamb, University of Leeds (project coordinator) Dana Waskita, Bandung Institute of Technology Partners:

- Ministry of Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia - School of Education, University of Leeds - British Council, Indonesia - Bandung Institute of Technology - Diponegoro University, Semarang - Atmajaya Catholic University, Jakarta OBJECTIVES “to gain a sufficient understanding of (a) the languages used as medium of instruction (MOI) in HE across the Indonesian archipelago, (b) the rationales offered by institutions for their choices and (c) the challenges they currently face, to inform the design of an implementation strategy for languages in higher education.”

APPROACH “We adopt an ecological approach in this research, with an emphasis on interpreting policies, activities and words with close reference to local conditions, historical and contemporary. … We take a neutral stance on the desirability [or otherwise] of English.” World University Rankings, 2015 (2,000 institutions)

Rank 13: ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal University of Technology) Rank 23: University of Tokyo Rank 29: Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen Rank 1,986 Northampton University, UK Rank 1,988: Gloucestershire University, UK Rank 1,993: University of Derby, UK

There is no correlation between medium of instruction and quality. Using English does not guarantee high quality. RESEARCH METHODS

Interviews with policymakers and lecturers Semi-qualitative questionnaire for policymakers (N=12) Semi-qualitative questionnaire for lecturers already using EMI (N=132) Lecture observations Focus group discussions with students ANY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TEACHING IN INDONESIAN AND ENGLISH? No 37% A bit different 37% Very different 16% If it is different, why? Students’ understanding is rather different (49450274) The discourse of Indonesian and English is different (494465774) Students’ competence in English is low and on average their understanding declines (49472487) The scope for/Freedom in presenting material is limited because of students’ limited proficiency in English (49652996) I have to be patient … I speak more slowly, use various alternative ways of explaining things and alternative vocabulary (49812082) ARE YOU KEEN TO USE EMI IN THE FUTURE? Yes 86% Maybe 10% No 5% If so, why? It is compulsory in my institution (49454506) So that Indonesian students can compete globally (49469519) To improve the profile and quality of our graduates (49491204) -0- I love English (49573233) For my own self-development (49469026) To increase my knowledge and my own competence in English (49472487) I want to improve my own English (49590234) ‘need more confidence to talk in front of students who are more fluently in English’ (49686512) THE LEGAL POSITION

Interview with Head of Language Development & Literacy Body

Law No 24 of 2009 states clearly that the national language, Indonesian, is the medium of instruction in education. Therefore using English is clearly against the law.

Either we obey the law or, if it is no longer considered to be necessary, we can change the law.

It is open for parents or other stakeholders to take the issue to the Constitutional Court (as happened when the Government tried to introduce English-medium upper secondary schools) ALTERNATIVES TO THE EMI ‘EPIDEMIC’

Beware the risk of finding ourselves with a new ‘monolingual habitus’ Multilingualism in higher education is desirable and a possibility (Reilly 2019) Beware the risk of increasing pressure for using EMI in secondary schools Beware the risk that EMI becomes an instrument of social divisiveness

Two universities in Mexico are now using Mexican languages (not Spanish) as the medium of instruction

Consider current discussions about ‘decolonising the mind’ The Role of Languages in Higher Education in East Asia

• Dr Nicola Galloway (Edinburgh University) • Professor Zhang Hongling (Shanghai International Studies University) • Hywel Coleman (University of Leeds)

Moderator: Colm Downes (British Council Indonesia)