America in World War II1941-1945

America in World War II 1941-1945 The American Pageant Chapter 38 Trade Space for Time  Despite calls from west to “Get Japan first,” U.S. had agreed with Britain (ABC-1) to get Germany first.  Otherwise, Germany might become too strong.  Would potentially stronger Allies/US have time to win? Trade Space for Time (2)  Problem: US must retool for all-out war production before Hitler crushed democracies or got rocket or atomic arms.  Much larger task than WWI: feed, clothe, arm itself & allies; transport troops around the world. The Shock of War  National unity in WWII speeded assimilation of many ethnic groups.  Immigration restrictions & importance of ethnic groups to Dem coalition led to almost no gov’t witch-hunting like what had happened in WWI. The Shock of War (2)  Exception: 110,000 Japanese on West Coast placed in con-centration camps, even though 2/3 were U.S.-born citizens.  Gov’t fear: might aid Japanese invasion.  Causes: Pearl Harbor hyster-ia, West Coast prejudice. The Shock of War (3)  1944: Korematsu v. U.S. upheld gov’t action, but U.S. paid reparations in 1988.  Conservative congress elected in 1942 wiped out many New Deal programs (CCC, WPA), FDR admitted New Deal over. The Shock of War (4)  WWII not as idealistic as WWI: most Americans unfamiliar with Atlantic Charter, gov’t produced less propaganda. Building the War Machine  Huge military orders ended lingering Depression.  War Production Board organ-ized factories to enormous production, e.g. 76,000 ships.  WP Board halted prod. of nonessential items (cars), as-signed priorities for materials. …War Machine (2)  Japanese cut off US supply of rubber: gov’t used speed limit, gas rationing & built synthetic rubber plants.  Ag. machinery & new fertiliz-ers more than made up for loss of farm workers to war: record output in 1944-45. …War Machine (3)  Full employment & scarce consumer goods led to infla-tion: brought regulation by Office of Price Admin.  Rationing spared meat/butter.  War Labor Board put ceilings on wage increases, to chagrin of growing labor unions. …War Machine (4)  Despite union no-strike pled-ges, labor walkouts hurt war effort, e.g. Lewis’ United Mine Workers.  Under new Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (6/43), gov’t seized & operated coal mines, and briefly RRs. Man/Womanpower  216,000 military women served in noncombat duties: WAACS, WAVES, SPARS.  Draft help yield 15M men, but took men away from farms & factories, despite exemptions.  1942: agreement with Mexico brought braceros for harvests. Man/Womanpower (2)  Over 6M women began work in factories – 1/2 never worked before, needed daycare.  Many newly employed women remained in workforce.  But most US women remained at home, continued traditional roles. Man/Womanpower (3)  After war, 2/3 of women war-workers left labor force.  Some forced out by employers, unions, but 1/2 left willingly for family obligations.  Post-war saw no widening of job opportunities, but a rush into suburban domesticity. Wartime Migrations  Returning GIs & war indus-tries brought migration, esp. to boomtowns LA, Detroit, Seattle, Baton Rouge.  FDR attempted to help depres-sed South through large share of defense contracts: planted seeds of postwar “Sunbelt.” Wartime Migrations (2)  But 1.6M blacks left South for jobs in West, North: race rela-tions became national issue.  Racial tensions over jobs, housing, segregation, and opportunities in military led to call for “Negro March on Washington” (Randolph). Wartime Migrations (3)  FDR prohibited discrimina-tion in defense industries and established FEPC.  Blacks were drafted, but still segregated in service branches.  But war emboldened blacks to rally for “Double V.”  NAACP up to 1/2 million. Wartime Migrations (4)  Introduction of mechanical cotton picker (1944) led to 5M blacks heading north in 3 decades after war.  By 1970, 1/2 of blacks lived outside South, black became synonymous with urban. Wartime Migrations (5)  War led many Native Ameri-cans off reservations: some worked in cities, more joined military – used as “code talkers.”  Migrations led to violent friction: “zoot-suit” riots in LA, race riot in Detroit. Holding the Home Front  War led to doubling of US GNP & corporate profits.  Overtime helped disposable personal income more than double.  Once price controls lifted in 1946, prices grew 33% in 2 years. Holding the Home Front (2)  Through rationing, draft, war production, housing projects, daycare, etc., gov’t touched American lives extensively.  Led to post-1945 era of big-government interventionism.  Depression gone, but post-war economy req’d military spend. Holding the Home Front (3)  War bill came to $330B: 2x all federal spending since 1776.  4x more Americans paid in-come tax, max. rate was 90%.  But 60% of war costs was borrowed: national debt grew to $259B in 1945. Rising Sun in the Pacific  Japan knew they must win quickly or lose slowly: rapidly conquered Guam, Wake, Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya (rubber, tin).  Japan stopped US supplies to China (Jiang Jieshi) over Burma Road. Rising Sun in the Pacific (2)  After defeat of British, Aus., Dutch & US naval forces, Japan took Dutch East Indies.  Gen. MacArthur’s forces slowed Japan for 5 mos. in Phil., after surrender forced on 85-m. Bataan death march.  Mac. vowed “I shall return.” Japan’s High Tide  5/42: Japan’s southward push through New Guinea, Solomon Islands stopped at Coral Sea by US carrier group: 1st naval battle fought entirely by air.  Japan focused on Midway for easy attack on HI, force US fleet into combat, or cease-fire. Japan’s High Tide (2)  June 3-6, ‘42: Adm. Nimitz directed smaller carrier force vs. enemy at Midway – sunk 4 Japanese carriers.  Coral Sea & Midway stopped Japanese thrust, though they did capture 2 Alaskan islands, diverted US strength to defend. Japan’s High Tide (3)  Japan overextended themselves to win quick victory: would have been tougher to defeat if they had dug in and consolidat-ed gains. Leapfrogging to Tokyo  After Midway, US able to go on offensive: captured Guad-alcanal (2/43) after winning naval control, protected supply routes to Australia.  Japan lost 20,000 to 1,700 for US: 10:1 ratio persisted during Pacific war. Leapfrogging to Tokyo (2)  US & Aus. troops under Mac-Arthur had held on to tip of New Guinea.  Momentum shifted as US navy (incl. subs) sunk Japanese supply ships, troop carriers.  MacArthur won New Guinea by August, ‘44. Leapfrogging to Tokyo (3)  Navy’s island-hopping stra-tegy was to capture less-fortified Japanese- held islands, then est. airbases to bomb heavily fortified islands.  Japanese bases would wither from lack of supplies. Leapfrogging to Tokyo (4)  Nimitz guided naval, air, ground units: took Attu (5/43), Kiska (8/43), Tarawa & Makin (11/43), & key Marshall Islands outposts (Jan- Feb/44).  6/44: US began assault on Marianas (incl. Guam), which would let B- 29s reach Japan. Leapfrogging to Tokyo (5)  Recent US advances of “Hell-cat” fighter & proximity fuse led to 250:29 plane kill ratio in “Turkey Shoot” (6/19/44).  6/20/44: Naval battle of Philip-pine Sea resulted in sinking of several Japanese carriers. Leapfrogging to Tokyo (6)  Japanese navy never recover-ed from losses.  July/August: after fanatical resistance, incl. suicide leap, Marianas fell to US.  With new bases, round-the-clock bombing of Japan began in Nov., ‘44. Allied Halting of Hitler  1942: 500 merchant ships sunk in Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico by modern German subs in “wolf packs.”  War against subs helped by air patrols, radar, & bombing of sub bases: British code cracking gave location of subs. Allied Halting of Hitler (2)  Spring, ‘43: Allies had upper hand vs. U-boat – subs could have prevented 2nd front. Land-air war turned against Hitler in late ‘42: 1. British & US air forces bomb-ed Germany. Allied Halting of Hitler (3) 2. 10/42: Rommel turned back by Montgomery in Egypt. 3. 9/42: Germans stopped at Stalingrad – over 20 divisions crushed or surrendered. 4. 11/42: Russians began counteroffensive that was never reversed. North African 2nd Front  1942: Soviets had lost millions, most of western USSR – pled for Allied 2nd front.  FDR wanted it too: afraid of Soviet separate peace.  Sec. of War Stimson afraid of Soviet victory & postwar spoils. North African 2nd Front (2)  But British reluctance, prefer-ence for “underbelly” attack, & lack of adequate shipping prevented assault on France.  N. Africa invasion of Nov., ‘42 was compromise 2nd front.  Eisenhower led joint Allied operation w/ mostly US troops. North African 2nd Front (3)  Invasion of 400,000 & 850 ships was largest waterborne invasion in history up to then.  Forces of puppet French gov’t put up token resistance.  German-Italian army of 266,000 captured in Tunisia.  Was “end of the beginning.” Rough Road to Rome  1/43: FDR & Churchill met in Casablanca – agreed to step up Pacific war, invade Sicily, pressure Italy, and insist on “unconditional surrender.”  Meant to ease Soviets who feared separate peace, & pre-vent broken armistice terms. Rough Road to Rome (2)  But declaration was sign of weakness: words over actions.  “Uncond. surrender” criticiz-ed for encouraging last-bunk-er resistance & discouraging German opposition groups.  Also made post-war recon-struction more difficult. Rough Road to Rome (3)  US, British & Canadian forces took Sicily in August, ‘43.  Mussolini deposed, new Italian gov’t surrendered in Sept., just as Allies invaded Italy.  But German forces in Italy fiercely resisted: Italy declared war on Germany in Oct., ‘43. Rough Road to Rome (4)  6/4/44: Rome fell to Allies.  D-Day diverted attention, manpower: German troops continued fight until 5/2/45.  Italian campaign opened Med., gave Allies air bases, but delayed main invasion & let Soviets advance in E. Europe. D-Day Invasion of France  11/28-12/1/43: FDR, Stalin & Churchill meet at Teheran: planned simultaneous attacks on Germany.  Almost 3M troops w/ arms & supplies were assembled in Britain for cross-channel invasion. D-Day Invasion (2)  Conciliatory Eisenhower given command of mostly US troops.  6/6/44: 4,600-ship D-Day inva-sion hit less-fortified Norman-dy, met stiff resistance.  But Allied air supremacy blocked reinforcements, hit RRs & gasoline plants. D-Day Invasion (3)  US armored divisions, esp. Patton’s, sped across France.  8/44: US-French force landed in S. France – quickened German retreat.  8/44: with help of French underground, Paris liberated.  10/44: 1st German city fell. FDR: Fourth-Termite  1944: GOP nominated NY gov. Dewey: young, liberal, internationalist, prosecutor.  Ticket balanced w/ isolationist Sen. Bricker of OH.  Platform: win war, create new international org. to maintain peace. FDR: Fourth-Termite (2)  FDR renominated by acclama-tion, but focus of convention was on VP due to FDR’s age.  Conservative Dems distrusted VP Wallace, convention chose Truman w/ FDR’s blessing.  Sen. Truman (MO) was some-what unknown, no enemies. FDR Defeats Dewey  Dewey campaigned against “12 long years” of New Deal-ism, “lifer” in White House: said would fight war “better.”  But 4th term was not big issue.  In closing weeks FDR hit stump to answer charges over dog, failing health. FDR Defeats Dewey (2)  CIO formed PAC, rang door-bells for FDR – campaigned on relief of Depression.  Though typically opposed by newspapers (most were GOP), FDR won 432-99.  FDR won b/c war going well, GOP hurt by isolationism. Last Days of Hitler  Mid-Dec., ‘44: Soviets entered eastern Ger., Allies were bombing cities non-stop, west-ern front seemed ready to fall.  12/16/44: Hitler secretly amassed reserves, struck at US troops in Ardennes forest – goal was Antwerp. Last Days of Hitler (2)  10-day German advance created “bulge” in Allied line.  Stopped when 101st Airborne held at Bastogne.  3/45: US forces reached Rhine River – found intact bridge.  4/45: reached river Elbe, met up with Soviets. Last Days of Hitler (3)  US troops horrified by recent-ly active concentration camps.  US gov’t knew something of genocide, but FDR’s admin. had refused Jewish refugees, & military commanders wouldn’t divert resources to bomb camp rail lines. Last Days of Hitler (4)  But full details of “Holocaust” unknown until war’s end.  4/45: Soviets captured Berlin in house-to-house fighting, followed by rape, pillaging.  4/30/45: Hitler married mistress, committed suicide in underground bunker. Last Days of Hitler (5)  But FDR would not see surrender, died of cerebral hemorrhage in GA (4/12/45).  Unbriefed Truman took oath.  5/7/45: Germany surrendered.  5/8/45 was proclaimed V-E Day. Japan Dies Hard Japan was collapsing: 1. US subs sunk 1,042 ships, 1/2 of Japanese merchant fleet. 2. Bombers hit cities, e.g. March 9-10, ‘45 raid on Tokyo killed 83,000, destroyed 1/4 of city.  10/20/44: MacArthur returned to Philippines w/ 250,000 men. Japan Dies Hard (2)  Japanese navy tried last effort to stop MacArthur: Leyte Gulf clash was 3 sea/air battles, all won by US (Oct. 23-26, ‘44).  Lost of 60 ships in greatest naval battle in history marked end of Japan as sea power: US controlled Pacific. Japan Dies Hard (3)  1/45: After taking Leyte, Mac-Arthur landed on main Phil. island of Luzon.  Manila fell in March, but Phil. not conquered until July with 60,000 US casualties.  3/45: Bomber-haven Iwo Jima taken with 4,000 US dead. Japan Dies Hard (4)  April-June, ‘45: well-defended Okinawa would be closer air-base to Japan – cost 50,000 US casualties to root courageous Japanese from caves.  Okinawa invasion cost Navy heavily: “kamikaze” pilots sank over 30 US ships. Atomic Awfulness  US military began planning invasion of Japan: likely hun-dreds of thousands US deaths.  Japan secretly contacted Sov-iets about peace, but showed no outward willingness to surrender unconditionally. Atomic Awfulness (2)  July, ‘45: Potsdam conference brought ultimatum to Japan: surrender or be destroyed, but no response.  1940: exiled German scientists, esp. Einstein, persuaded FDR to research atomic bomb.  Congress appropriated $2B. Atomic Awfulness (4)  Fears of German use of tech-nology spurred program, but was too costly for Germans.  Atomic project based in Los Alamos, NM: used many refugee scientists.  7/16/45: 1st detonation. Atomic Awfulness (5)  8/6/45: dropped on military-base city Hiroshima: 70,000 killed instantly, 60,000 later.  8/8: Stalin entered war vs. Japan on Allied deadline – took Manchuria, Korea, preserved place for Soviets in division of Japan. Atomic Awfulness (6)  8/9: With still no surrender, US dropped bomb on naval-base city Nagasaki.  8/10: Japan proposed condi-tional surrender – Hirohito to be left as nominal emperor.  8/14: Allies accepted condition. Atomic Awfulness (7)  9/2/45: Surrender ceremonies conducted by MacArthur on Missouri, US celebrated V-J day. Allies Triumphant  US suffered 1M casualties in war, 1/3 were deaths (less deaths due to penicillin, etc.).  But Soviets lost maybe 20M.  US mainland untouched, except for 2 harmless sub attacks & incendiary balloons.  But much of world in ruins. Allies Triumphant (2)  Best-fought war in US history: had 1 1/2 years of preparation.  Military leadership brilliant, e.g. Eisenhower, MacArthur, Marshall, Nimitz, etc.  US won by more: men, arms, $.  Democracies beat dictators with civil liberties intact.