Applications of Instrumental Conditioning

Ormond Chapter 5 Applications of Instrumental Conditioning To measure thinking, thought processes must be tied to behavior that can be measured objectively - Context of the learner has profound influences on what learner learns Applying Behaviorist Principles to Classroom Mgmt - Problem in our school systems – teachers teach behaviors that will be useful to students in future rather than present o Effect – behaviors most likely will not lead to naturally positive consequences now that they will yield later - “As Skinner put it, teachers ‘induce students to learn by threatening them for not learning’ (Skinner, 1968, p. 57)” p. 82 Concerns About Using Reinforcement and Punishment in the Classroom - Bogus Complaints: criticism twds use of reinforcement and punishment in classrm reflects misunderstanding of behaviorist principles or lack of awareness of empirical findings o Reinforcement is bribery – really, using reinforcement appropriately leads to fulfilling educational objectives that involve academically and socially desired behaviors o Reinforcement leads to dependence on concrete, external rewards for appropriate behavior – critics claim kids get too dependent on the teacher’s rewards, but not all reinforcers are material items (i.e., social, intrinsic), and even if it is, it brings about the changes that will not occur in any other way o Reinforcing one student for being good teachers other students to be bad – “Praise and positive feedback should not be limited to a handful of chronic misbehavers but should be regularly given to all students” (84) If material reinforcement is necessary, do it in private with your discretion o Punishment reduces self esteem – some do, but when it leads to productive and socially acceptable behavior, it can enhance their self-esteem in the future o Eliminating a problem behavior does not eliminate the underlying cause of that behavior, and so other behavioral manifestations of that underlying cause may appear – “When problem behaviors are reduced through a systematic application of behaviorist techniques, symptom substitution rarely occurs” (e.g., Rimm & Masters, 1974) (Ormrod 84) – changing the behavior may indirectly address its underlying cause. - Genuine Concerns of using reinforcement and punishment in instructional contexts o Encouraging productive behaviors through reinforcement alone ignores cognitive factors that may be interfering with learning – If a student is capable of learning but lacks motivation, you may resort to reinforcement, but if there are cognitive deficiencies (i.e., learning disability) that interfere, then reinforcement may be insufficient o Reinforcement of some behaviors may interfere with maximal learning and performance over the long run – kids focus attention and effort on getting task done quickly to gain the reinforcement, and never really learn the task. o Extrinsic reinforcement of a personally enjoyable behavior may undermine the intrinsically reinforcing value of the behavior – research shows that enjoyable behaviors can be increased by extrinsic reinforcers but will then decrease considerably once the reinforcers are removed (85). Intrinsic motivastion to complete a task is undermined when initial interest is high and the reinforcer is a material item, and when people know what the reinforcer is. o A punished behavior is not ‘unlearned’ and may return – punishment suppresses a response, but this may be only temporarily o Punishment can have a variety of side effects – obviously if it’s physical, but are also emotional responses that can be formed. As a teacher, beware of causing students anxiety or fear, as this can lead to escape or avoidance behavior in the future. o Improving behavior in one context may lead to more frequent behavior problems in another . behavioral contrast – when reinforcement or punishment is constantly used in one situation, and as a result, overall behavior may improve in that situation but decline in another Using Reinforcement to Increase Desirable Behavior (86) - Specify desired behavior up front o terminal behavior – the desired end result (describe in concrete, observable terms; specify quality as well as quantity) - Use extrinsic reinforcers only when desired behaviors are not already occurring on their own – many extrinsic reinforcements lose their effectiveness when used repeatedly - Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing for each learner – immediate feedback really works; can be social (praise) reinforcers or activity (free time, free choice of activity); a certain reinforcement that works for one kid may not work for another; in fact, this could actually be a punishment for the other kid. For other students, only material reinforcers will do o to figure out what works best, ask parents or the students themselves o can also observe the student to see what consequences effect their behavior. . Reinforcers won’t maintain its reinforcing value indefinitely - Make sure the larners will gain more than they lose by changing behavior – needs to be worth their while - Make response-consequence contingencies explicit o Contingency contract – agreement that specifies certain expectations for the student (the terminal behavior) and the consequences of the student’s meeting those expectations (reinforcer) . Negotiate conditions in one or more meeting . Both sign and date contract . Can encourage academic achievement or modify classroom behavior - Be consistent with your reinforcement – continuous reinforcement of a specific behavior makes the response increase more quickly. - Gradually shape complex behaviors – each response needs to be well learned before going to a closer approximation (89) - When giving reinforcement publicly, ensure that all students have equal opportunity to be reinforced – can teach kids how to receive reinforcement (i.e., sit quietly, raise your hand) - Use objective criteria to monitor progress – assess change in concrete and objective terms before and during attempts to increase behavior via reinforcement o Baseline – the frequency of a behavior before reinforcement begins . Compare baseline frequency with frequency of response after reinforcement so you can see if reinforcement is the cause of the behavioral change (90) - Foster the ability to delay gratification – especially for older kids and adults, who “respond more favorably to large, delayed reinforcers over small, immediate ones… know the larger ones will eventually appear” (90; lots of people cited) o Delay gratification – the waiting period between behavior is reinforcement is increased gradually and as a result, the learner finds ways for coping with this wait (90) - Once the terminal behavior has been acquired and is occurring regularly, gradually wean learners off of extrinsic reinforcers – use intermittent reinforcement schedule to maintain the learned behavior indefinitely Strategies for Decreasing Undesirable Behavior - Extinguishing responses o Extinction . If kids don’t get attention, the behavior may stop . Do not allow reinforcers to be based on inapporopriate responses (i.e., cheating when it leads to a higher test score) . Not the best strategy to get rid of unwanted behavior  1 – not always possible to recognize specific consequence reinforcing the response  2 – several reinforcers may be involved in maintaining a response, including some that are difficult to remove  3 – may be an extinction burse (increased frequency before decline)  4 – might be spontaneous recovery, possibly in a new context  may have been previously reinforced on an intermittent schedule - Presenting Noncontingent Reinforcement o Children do not learn more appropriate behaviors to replace counterproductive ones, and it may lead to superstitious behavior - Reinforcing Other Behaviors o identify specific reinforced behavior and avoid reinforcing inappropriate behavior . identify a response that is incompatible with response to be eliminated (cannot be done at the same time as undesirable response) and the incompatible response gets rewarded  put simply, have a behavior that can’t be done with the bad behavior, and only reward the good behavior - Using Punishment – advised when behavior may harm self or others; make consequence strong enough to be effective without being severe, needs to display limits of acceptable behavior have been exceeded (93) o Tell ahead of time what will cause punishment and what the punishment will be in clear, concrete terms, and punishment needs to be distributed directly after wrong behavior for effectiveness; good working relationship with learner means they will take punishment seriously; give reasons why behavior cannot be tolerated (reasons given as to why on pp 95) *maintain consistently with what behaviors are being punished; reduce temptation to engage in misbehavior (environmental factors – ie.e, move seats). Helps to combine punishment with more productive behavior . multiple baseline approach – intervention starts at different times for different students Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) – aka behavior modification, behavior therapy, or contingency management. ABA is based on the assumption that serious problem behaviors are, like most human behaviors, the result of past and present response- consequence contingencies. Involves a variety of behaviorist perspectives to create an environment more conducive to productive behaviors (96) - Components of Applied Behavior Analysis o Behaviors that are the focus of intervention are identified in observable, measurable terms . Focus attention on target behaviors – specific, concrete responses o Behavior is measured before and during intervention – can see whether a particular intervention effectively changes target behavior . time sampling – involves dividing the time period when the individual is being observed into equal intervals and then seeing whether the target behavior occurred in each interval . in ABA, record info as objectively as possible; one person gives ABA intervention; two others observe and record if target behavior occurred in each interval.  interrater reliability – agreement between the recordings of the two observers o Environmental conditions may be encouraging problem behaviors are identified – find out about events that precede and follow behavior using ABC approach (97) . Antecedets: stimuli and events that the individual encounters . Behaviors: responses that the individual subsequently makes . Consequences: stimuli and events that immediately follow the behaviors  functional analysis – teacher or therapist who administered intervention looks for patters in data and identifies specific events that may be triggering or reinforcing target behavior o A specific intervention or treatment plan is developed and implemented – determine method for target behavior to be modified o The treatment is monitored for effectiveness as it progresses and is modified if necessary (modification is warranted when little change is observed from baseline to treatment) o Measures are taken to promote generalization of newly acquired behaviors (strategies are as follows) . Teach target behavior in wide variety of contexts . Teach many different versions of behavior . Teach relationship of desired behavior to naturally occurring reinforcers in the environment . Specifically reinforce generalization (occurs in situations other than as modeled) o Treatment is phased out after the desired behavior is acquired (phase out ABA once terminal behavior is reached) Using Applied Behavior Analysis with Large Groups (101-102) - Group Contingency – entire group must perform a desired behavior in order for reinforcement to occur - Token Economy – individuals who behave appropriately are reinforced with tokens, that can later be traded for backup reinforcers (objects or privileges of each individual’s choice o Involves set of rules, tokens that can be immediately rewarded, a variety of backup reinforcers (objects, activities, privileges) and a “store” at which to use the tokens o Can reward individual behaviors immediately and conveniently in group setting; kids benefit from the choice in reinforcers …cognitive component to ABA – model desired behavior, helps kids understand desired behavior and helps with the learning process; also involved with problem solving coaching – teacher instructs/guides student as they practice appropriate behaviors Effectiveness of ABA Improves academic performance and study habits, promotes improvements in classrm attention, social skills, personal hygiene, reduces “undesirable behavior” (hyperactivity, impulsivity, aggression, violence); benefits learners who must be continually motivated to engage in appropriate social or academic behaviorsl know exactly what is expected of them because of concrete descriptions and immediate feedback. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES – descriptions of what students should know and be able to do at the end of instruction (104) Behavioral Objectives – three components – stated in terms of observable and measurable behavior; specifies the conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited; includes a criterion for judging the acceptable performance of the behavior Usefulness and Effectiveness of Objectives - general instructional objectives play key role in design and assessment o determines effective method of teaching, are easily communicated between teachers, make evaluation of students and instructional program easier . students know what to focus on and what they are striving for and can judge success of their learning because of this  problems with “high stakes tests” like No Child Left Behind – focuses on increasing test scores and accountability, not supporting and rewarding instructional practice (pp. 106-7) Formulating Different Levels of Objectives – need to reflect knowledte and skills that are most important for learners to acquire (make them sophisticated, esp. as students get older) Taxonomies of objectives – descriptions of various behaviors we may want to see students demonstrate, often in order of increasing complexity (107). See Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, p 108 . can be based on national standards PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION AND COMPUTER-ASSISTED NSTRUCTION Skinner developed programmed instruction (PI) – involves a “teaching machine” which is a box enclosing a long roll of material a student could advance past a display window, exposing small portions of information successfully and systematically – eventually this led to programmed textbooks then computer software. (109) - Frames – material to be learned presented through series of discrete segments. First frame has new info and has a question about it. - Involves behaviorist concepts and principles o Active responding, shaping, immediate reinforcement, individual differences in learning rate) - Went from linear program (all students progress to same sequence of frames in the same order) to branching program (provides remedial instructional frames for kids who have trouble with a specific concept) PI presented through computer; can monitor student progress - PI and CAI are effective when behaviorist principles are followed MASTERY LEARNING (111) – an approach to instruction where students must learn one lesson well before proceeding to next lesson. Assumption – if given enough time and instruction, students can learn content. Components are - Small, Discrete units - Logical sequence o task analysis – process through which component parts or course content are identified and sequenced, going from simpler to complex - Demonstration of mastery at completion of each unit - Concrete, observable criterion for mastery of each unit - Additional, remedial activities for students who need extra help or practice Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) – alternative approach to teaching college students that involves discrete units, logical sequence, self-pacing, and frequent measures of mastery characteristics, as well as - Emphasis on individual study – learning occurs through independent study - Unit exams – assesses mastery of material for each unit - Supplementary instructional techniques – group instructional methods sometimes given to supplement material (optional, but works to motivate and stimulate students) - Use of proctors – more advanced students give the exam and tutor students PSI – less lecturer, more curricular developer, exam writer, proctor coordinator and record keeper – students find their own way through the content (113) PI has some standard features… Effectiveness for Mastery Learning and PSI - facilitates student learning; leads to higher achievement than traditional approaches - retain what they learned for longer - PSI – better study habits (less procrastination and cramming_ - Those who learn quickly get less instruction (inequitable treatment) - Fast learners need to wait for slow learners to master material (may learn less) - Teacher management is very difficult if all move at own pace - Difficulty in required mastery of material – cant meet criteria for exam despire many assessments - Self-paced nature – low motivation students are likely to procrastinate and then withdraw from the course Appropriate use for teachers – main objective is for students to learn specific skills or a specific body of information prerequisite to later topics When behaviorist techniques are most appropriate – beneficial to students who have had little success in academic careers with little motivation to engage in acedemic tasks, with chronically high levels of anxiety, for those students where nothing else works (can be effective to change even the worst and most resilient of problem behaviors). Risk - Smart students may find this slow and tedious and token economy can undermine intrinsic desire of high achieving students