Understanding Social Capital

CDHS Social Capital and Adolescent

Development Training Resource Manual [k] Key Point Jonathan Trinidad, M.A., Ph.D. Candidate Department of Sociology New York State University at Buffalo Michael Farrell, Ph.D., Department Chair Department of Sociology New York State University at Buffalo

Funding for this research project was provided by NYS Office of Children and Family Services, Contract year 2006: Project 1052594, Award: 34852; Contract year 2007: Project 1059880, Award 41779, through the Center for Development of Human Services, College Relations Group, Research Foundation of SUNY, Buffalo State College.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 1 of 86 ≡ Table of Contents Keeping it organized [k] Key Point Introduction • Human capital • Social capital • Comparing human and social capital • Adolescent development • Research examples • Case scenarios • Cultural capital • References

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 3 of 86 Introduction 6 Using this resource manual 7 ♫ Additional resources 8 ♫ Moving on 10 ♫ 2 Human Capital 12 Multiple forms of capital 13 ♫ Defining human capital 14 ♫ Alternate definitions of human capital 15 ♫ Measuring human capital 16 ♫ Comparing human capital 17 ☻ Moving on 18 ♫ 3 Social Capital 19 Defining social capital 20 ♫ A second definition of social capital 22 ♫ Alternate definitions of social capital 23 ♫ Building social capital 25 ♫ Mapping social capital 26 ☻ Measuring social capital 27 ♫ The importance of civic engagements 28 ♫ Why does social capital work? 29 ♫ Information flow 30 ♫ Illustrating information flow 31 ☻ Influence 32 ♫ Illustrating influence 33 ☻ Social credentials 34 ♫ Illustrating social credentials 35 ☻ Reinforcing identity 36 ♫ Illustrating reinforcing identity 37 ☻ Moving on 38 ♫

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 4 of 86 Comparing Human and Social Capital 39 The fundamental difference 40 ♫ What can you do for others? 42 ☻ One versus many 43 ☻ Moving on 44 ♫ 5 Adolescent Development 45 The young adult transition 46 ♫ The rise of the young adult transition 47 ♫ Not all transitions are equal 49 ☻ Rates of success 50 ♫ Social capital and the transition 52 ♫ Moving on 53 ♫ 6 Research Examples 54 Social capital varies by race 55 ♫ Social capital is lower in single parent homes 57 ♫ The impact of low parental social capital on children 60 ♫ Success despite low human and financial capital 64 ♫ Community as social capital 66 ♫ Moving on 67 ♫

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 5 of 86 Case Scenarios 68 Agatha 69 ☻ Noah 71 ☻ Ursula 73 ☻ Moving on 75 ♫ 8 Cultural Capital 76 Cultural capital 77 ♫ Who would you hire? 78 ☻ Low cultural capital 79 ♫ Moving on 80 ♫ 9 References 81 Bibliography 82 ♫

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 6 of 86 1 Introduction Getting started [k] Key Point Using this resource manual • Additional resources • Keep in mind

This manual was designed to be used as a complete guide or as a series of independent handouts. + Additional Point The recommended sequencing of pages is listed in the table of contents. However, you may choose to omit and reorganize pages as needed. Most pages are designed to stand-alone if needed. x Example You may, for example, only want to present information on human capital. In that case, you could use the pages dedicated to human capital as handouts.

This Manual comes with a Participant Guide and PowerPoint presentations. + Additional Point What you are reading now is the Training Resource Manual. Use it to educate yourself on social capital and adolescent development. Pages in this Manual can be used as handouts during a presentation. + Additional Point The Training Resource Manual PowerPoint (see CD) contains all the same material in this Training Resource Manual. Since this PowerPoint contains a lot of information, it is best used as an educational tool for instructors, not for students.  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 9 of 86 [k] Key Point If you plan on making only the Participant Guide available your students, prepare your lecture using both the Manual and Guide. Teach using the Participant Guide PowerPoint. Generally speaking, the Training Resource Manual and PowerPoint are for Trainers/Presenters. [k] Key Point If you plan on making both the Participant Guide and Manual available to your students, prepare using both the Manual and Guide. Teach one section at a time by first reviewing a section from the Guide and then reviewing the corresponding pages from the Manual. Teach using the Manual PowerPoint. + Additional Point The Participant Guide is a simplified version of the Training Resource Manual. It contains only key points. It is best used as a workbook for students. Blank space is provided on most pages for taking notes. + Additional Point The Participant Guide PowerPoint (see CD) contains all the same material as the Participant Guide. Consequently, it is best used for presentations. The slides contain only key points.

To maximize the utility of this handbook, keep the following in mind as your read: + Additional Point Learn how the material stands alone. The young adult transition and social capital theory are two independent bodies of literature. Depending on your interests and needs, one area may be more interesting and/or useful. + Additional Point Learn how the material works in conjunction with each other. The young adult transition is a useful case study in explaining capital/network theory. Conversely, capital/network theory is a useful perspective in explaining the young adult transition. + Additional Point Focus on how human and social capital may impact successful transition into adulthood. Do the two forms of capital impact the transition equally? Why or why not?  Continued

Learning about human and social capital makes it easier for you to identify it in the real world. + Additional Point Learn new vocabulary. Network theorists have used this vocabulary for years. Once you learn the vocabulary, you are better suited to identify these concepts in the real world. + Additional Point Learn to mobilize these concepts in the real world. Social workers can take active and appropriate measures when they see low social/human capital at work.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 12 of 86 2 Human Capital Knowledge and skills [k] Key Point Multiple forms of capital • Defining human capital • Alternative definitions of human capital • Measuring human capital • Comparing human capital • Moving on

The word, “capital,” is used repeatedly in current research. As Schuller reports, “the list of different types of capital is growing fast: to natural, physical and financial capitals are added organizational, intellectual, environmental and many more.” Schuller (2001:90) [k] Key Point

In this handbook we distinguish between human and social capital. + Additional Point Social workers today should know differences and similarities between the human and social capital. They should be able to identify and predict how each form of capital affects the wellness of their clients. + Additional Point In this resource manual we are primarily concerned with social capital. However, we begin with human capital as a point of comparison.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 14 of 86 ♫ Notes Defining Human Capital You and the economy [d] Definition Human capital is defied as, “the knowledge, skills, competences and other attributes embodied in individuals that are relevant to economic activity.” Schuller (2001:90) + Additional Point Another way to think about human capital is, what knowledge and skills do individuals possess which allows them to make economic contributions to society? What can the individual do for the economy? “” Reference “The underlying implication of human capital perspective is that investment in knowledge and skills brings economic returns.” Schuller (2001:91)

There are many ways to define human capital. What follows is a collection of important citations. Some may make more sense to you than others. “” Reference Human capital refers to, “the specific skills or abilities that one may acquire in order to increase his or her personal efficacy.” Young Jr. (1999:204)

♫

The basic measure of human capital is years of schooling and qualifications achieved such as degrees and certifications. Schuller (2001:98) + Additional Point Human capital is often measured by years of schooling and highest earned degree. That is, how qualified is an individual? In theory, the higher one’s education, the higher one’s financial contribution to the market and society. + Additional Point Understandably, assessing a person’s skills based solely on education can be inaccurate. It continues to be a common measurement because it is a quick point of reference.

☻ Discussion

Human capital varies between individuals. Some people are more educated. Some people have better skills. Whether we know it or not, we frequently make judgments about others’ human capital. Consider the following Example. ? Question You are the owner of corner store and are in need of a new cashier for the evening shift. The job involves working alone. There are three applicants. Who do you hire? What factors do you consider?

Agatha is 16 and currently in high school. She is a C+ student and does not plan on attending college when she graduates. If hired, this would be her first job.

Mark is 19 and sophomore in college. He is B- student majoring in business administration. Last summer he worked as a stock boy for a local hardware store.

Jane is 26 and is in her final year of law school. She has an extensive résumé including several internships at prestige law firms. = Answer Mark is the common choice because his human capital best matches the cashier position. Agatha lacks human capital. Jane has too much. The point is we make accurate judgments on human capital relatively easily. ♫ Notes

Having reviewed human capital, we now turn our attention to social capital. In the following chapter we define social capital and explain why and how it works.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 19 of 86 Social Capital The network [k] Key Point Defining social capital • A second definition of social capital • Alternative definitions of social capital • Building social capital • Mapping social capital • Measuring social capital • The importance of civic engagements • Why does social capital work? • Information flow • Illustrating information flow • Influence • Illustrating influence • Social credentials • Illustrating social credentials • Reinforcing identity • Illustrating reinforcing identity • Moving on

♫ Notes Defining Social Capital According to Coleman [d] Definition Two definitions of social capital frequently appear in the research. The first definition was popularized by Coleman. According to Coleman, social capital of the family is strength of the relationships between children and parents. Coleman (1988); Mitchell (1994:653); Qian & Blair (1999:606)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 20 of 86 + Additional Point It is social capital – the bond between parents and children – which makes the flow or resources possible. Parents may be rich with resources, but children only benefit from those resources if there is a strong relationship between them. “” Reference “The social capital of the family is the relations between children and parents… That is, if the human capital possessed by parents is not complemented by social capital embodied in family relations, it is irrelevant to the child’s educational growth that the parent has a great deal, or small amount of human capital.” Coleman (1988:110)  Continued

[q] Quote “A child may have a talented and highly educated parent and thus be genetically endowed with great potential…, but interactions with that parent are needed to convey encouragement and expectations…” Bianchi & Robinson (1997:333)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 21 of 86 “” Reference “Parents with high educational attainment and/or high income tend to pass on their educational and resource advantages to their children in a variety of ways. They can become involved in their children’s school programs, and they have higher aspirations for the children, ultimately resulting in higher educational aspirations by the children themselves. However… these two types of capital do not benefit the children if social capital is not in place. It is social capital – strength of the relationship between parents and children – that is critical in shaping youngsters’ human capital…” Qian & Blair (1999:606) “” Reference “Social capital, like human capital, increases children’s future productivity, but investments depend on the relationships in which children are embedded… Social interaction with parents thus can create resources that will enhance the child’s realization of his or her potential for achievement and later success.” Bianchi & Robinson (1997:333)

♫ Notes A Second Definition of Social Capital According to Lin [d] Definition

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 22 of 86 Social capital is also defined as, an investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace. Lin (2001:19) + Additional Point Said another way, when individuals interact with each other they build a social network of resources. Individuals often rely on their networks for profit. “” Reference “Social capital may be defined as investment and use of embedded resources in social relations for expected returns.” Lin (2000:786) “” Reference “This general definition of social capital is consistent with various renditions by all scholars who have contributed to the activity (Bourdieu 1980, 1983, 1986; Lin 1982, 1995a; Coleman 1988, 1990; Flap 1991, 1994; Burt 1992; Putnam 1993, 1995a; Erickson 1995, 1996; Portes 1998)” (Lin 2001:19).

♫ Notes Alternate Definitions of Social Capital Because it helps to say it another way [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 23 of 86 The study of social capital spans several disciplines including political science, economics, psychology, sociology, history, and education. As a result, social capital has been defined numerous ways. What follows is a collection of important citations. Some may make more sense to you than others. “” Reference “For the majority of writers, social capital is defined in terms of networks, norms and trust, and the way these allow agents and institutions to be more effective in achieving common objectives.” Schuller 2001:91 “” Reference “Social capital is defined as a resource which inheres in the structure of relations between actors and among actors and is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible.” Mitchell 1994:653

“” Reference “Social capital focuses on networks: the relationships within and between them, and the norms which govern these relationships… trusting relationships are good for social cohesion and for economic success.” Schuller 2001:92  Continue [q] Quote “Social capital refers to social relationships from which an individual is potentially able to derive institutional support, particularly support that includes the delivery of knowledge-based resources, for example, guidance for college admission or job advancement.” Ricardo (1995:119)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 24 of 86 “” Reference “Social capital refers primarily to resources accessed in social networks.” Lin (1999:471) “” Reference “Through social capital, actors can gain direct access to economic resources (subsidized loans, investment tips, protected markets); they can increase their cultural capital through contacts with experts or individuals of refinement or, alternatively, they can affiliate with institutions that confer valued credentials…” Portes (1998:4) “” Reference Social capital refers to the, “ability to secure benefits through membership in networks and other social structures.” Young Jr. (1999:204)

♫ Notes Building Social Capital The marketplace [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 25 of 86 According to Lin, we build social capital by investing relationships for returns in the marketplace. But what exactly is the marketplace? Traditionally, we think of it as economic sector, but the marketplace also includes the political, occupational and community sectors. Lin (2001:19) + Additional Point Our network of resources extends beyond the economic sector. We can profit from political, professional, and social ties. We can build social capital in any of these sectors. x Example Not all profit is economic. Living next door to a police officer won’t improve your financial situation, but it will make you feel safer. Being friends with a carpenter won’t make you more popular, but it will help when your teenager drives her car into your living room.

☻ Discussion Mapping Social Capital Real Examples of social capital [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 26 of 86 In the same way material resources travel between people, so too does social capital. As such, we can build a “road map” outlining the flow of resources. The first step in mapping social capital is to know the members of your social network and the resources they provide. Lin (2001:20) ? Question Make a list or a diagram mapping out your social network. What social relations are important to you? Why? What resources are made available because of your network? What resources do you provide in your network? = Answer A lawyer friend may provide you with free consultation. A doctor friend may give you free medical advice. A self-employed sibling may offer you part-time work. A friend may drive you to the hospital. All are Examples of personal gain from our network.

♫ Notes Measuring Social Capital How much do I have? [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 27 of 86 Unlike human capital which is relatively easy to measure (i.e. years of education, income), measuring social capital is more abstract. The most popular measurements include attitudes, values and civic engagements. + Additional Point As Schuller argues, the abstract nature of social capital allows it to give, “greater prominence to informal modes of learning, and the skills acquired through learning-by-doing. Network membership provides access to important information and ideas.” Schuller (98)  Continued

♫ Notes The Importance of Civic Engagements Why social capital works [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 28 of 86 Social capital works because of civic engagements. Volunteer associations such as churches, block clubs, political parties, and special interest groups increase the size and depth of one’s network which in turn increases one’s social capital. + Additional Point As the following Example illustrates, resources become available through civic engagements. As a general rule, the more engagements one has, the more social capital. Similarly, the stronger one’s engagements, the more social capital. x Example Becoming an active member at a local church provides much more than religious support. Church members frequently rely on each other for instrumental support services such as child care, youth programming, family or marital counseling, etc. In addition, members of a church often provide their professional services to each other for free or reduced cost.

The point is, these resources become available because of one’s civic engagement with the church.

♫ Notes Why does social capital work? Four reasons [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 29 of 86 Like economic capital, social capital improves the outcome of our actions. Lin names four broad benefits of social capital which include information, influence, social credentials, and reinforcement. + Additional Point Said another way, social capital can improve our lives because it is a resource. According to Lin, information, influence, social credentials and reinforcement are four characteristics of social capital that make it a resource. x Example When we are deprived of economic capital we lack buying power. Likewise, when we are deprived of social capital, we lack information, influence, social credentials, and reinforcement.

♫ Notes Information Flow Why social capital works: Reason 1 [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 30 of 86 Social capital works because it facilitates the flow of information. Being ideally located in a network makes you better informed to market needs. + Additional Point In any network there are strategic and hierarchical positions privy to information and opportunities not available to others. Individuals with high social capital often have better access. x Example Consider the social capital differences between a boss and his employee. Generally speaking, when a job opportunity opens up at work, the boss becomes aware of it before the employee. Consequently, the boss is able to capitalize on it first.

☻ Discussion Illustrating Information Flow How does information travel? [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 31 of 86 It’s impossible for one person to know everything. Consequently, individuals often use their networks to access missing information. “If I don’t know, I may know someone who does.” ? Question To demonstrate information flow, describe a situation where you were granted information or an opportunity because of your social capital. In other words, why was the opportunity available to you and not others? = Answer A common Example is employee discounts. Individuals may receive prior notice on a clearance sale or an additional discount because they know an employee. Another common example is job promotions. Individuals may receive prior notice on a job opening because they are friends with the boss.

♫ Notes Influence Why social capital works: Reason 2 [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 32 of 86 Social capital works when members of our network exert their influence on important actors for someone else’s benefit. x Example A co-worker may have better standing with your boss than you do. Asking your co-worker to put in a good word for you is an example of influence. Your personal gain is made possible when a member of your network exerts their influence.

☻ Discussion Illustrating Influence Put in a good word for me [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 33 of 86 We all know what it’s like to have a friend exert their influence for our benefit. We all know what it’s like to exert our influence for a friend’s benefit. Let’s talk about it. ? Question Describe a situation when you used your good standing to help a friend. Or, describe a situation when a friend used their good standing to help you. = Answer A common Example is job promotions. Your chances of standing out for a promotion increase when you have a colleague influencing your boss.

♫ Notes Social Credentials Why social capital works: Reason 3 [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 34 of 86 Social capital works because others are aware of your social credentials or your accessibility to resources through social networks. Others see you as a gatekeeper to specific resources. [d] Definition

Think of social credentials as the collection of resources available to you. The more valuable the resources available to you, the higher your social credentials.

☻ Discussion Illustrating Social Credentials I not only see you, I see what you can do for me [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 35 of 86 Social credentials is an abstract concept. To better understand how social capital relies on social credentials, let’s consider how financial capital relies on financial credits. Time for an analogy. x Example Consider the following analogy. Paper currency has no real value. It is merely ink and paper. It gains its value because we recognize it as a gateway to resources. ? Question What would happen if individuals failed to recognize paper money as a financial credit? How can we use this analogy to explain social credentials and social capital?

= Answer Financial capital relies on our ability to see value in money. So too, social capital relies on our ability to see value in a good working relationship with the boss. The flow of financial and/or social capital would collapse if we failed to view and capitalize on such things as gateways to resources.

♫ Notes Reinforcing Identity Why social capital works: Reason 4 [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 36 of 86 As Nan Lin explains, social capital works because, “social relations reinforce identity and recognition.” The reinforcement of identities reassures us of our worthiness and claims to particular resources. Lin (2001:20) + Additional Point

Said another way, the flow and control of social capital works because individuals are entitled to resources. Members within our network recognize us as individuals with social capital rights. Said simply, social capital is legitimized by our identity and reinforced by our social network.

☻ Discussion Illustrating Reinforcing Identity You are worthy [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 37 of 86 Doctors, by virtue of their profession, are entitled to a certain level of income. But what else are they entitled to? Let’s consider how identities merit not only financial capital, but also social capital. x Example Doctors and cashiers are both entitled to financial capital. The type and degree is determined by the societal recognition of the identity. Doctors are held to higher esteem, thus they get paid more. ? Question Based on the above Example, explain why social capital differs between a doctor and cashier?

= Answer Social capital works like financial capital. Recognition of the identity determines the type and degree of social capital. Doctors are held to higher esteem than cashiers, which legitimizes their claims for higher social capital. As Lin argues, there is, “public acknowledgment of one’s claim to certain resources.” Lin (2001:20)

♫ Notes Moving On A comparison [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 38 of 86 Having reviewed human and social capital, it’s now time to make a quick comparison. How does human and social capital differ? Why is it important to distinguish between the two?

4 Comparing Human and Social Capital Key differences [k] Key Point

♫ Notes The Fundamental Difference In simplest terms [k] Key Point The key difference between human and social capital is that human capital focuses on individual agents versus social capital which focuses on relationships between agents and the networks they form. Schuller (97)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 40 of 86 + Additional Point Said another way, human capital focuses on one’s personal resources. What am I capable of? Social capital focuses on one’s access to collective resources. What resources are available to me because of my relations with others? “” Reference “Lin argued that there are two types of resources an individual can gain access to and use: personal resources and social resources. Personal resources are resources possessed by an individual and may include ownership of material as well as symbolic goods (e.g., diplomas and degrees). Social resources are sources accessed through an individual’s social connections. Depending on the extensity and diversity of their social connections, individuals have differential social resources.” Lin (2001:21)  Continued

[k] Key Point

The differences between human and social capital have been explained numerous ways. Some of the following references may make more sense to you than others. [q] Quote “In order to create well-being in children, financial and human capital must be accompanied by social relationships that allow resources

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 41 of 86 to be transmitted to and used by children.” Teachman et al. (1997:1356) “” Reference “Social capital represents a filter through which the financial and human capital of parents is transmitted to and used by children.” Teachman et al. (1997:1345) “” Reference Human capital is, “the skills and capabilities of individuals that are used in the service of goals, and social capital, is the resources inherent in relationships that assist in this process.” Gore (2003:372)

☻ Discussion What Can You Do For Others? A simple illustration [k] Key Point

Schuller sums it best when he states, “individuals and their human capital are not discrete entities that exist separately form the rest of other social units.” Schuller (98).

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 42 of 86 + Additional Point Don’t forget individuals are embedded within networks. Within a network, your human capital can become another’s social capital. ? Question Bob is a doctor. What is Bob’s human capital? Explain how his human capital can be social capital to his friends. = Answer Bob’s medical qualifications and schooling as a doctor are his human capital. He uses human capital to pursue his career. Bob’s friends, however, also benefit from his human capital. As a doctor, Bob can provide them with medical resources. When Bob’s friends call on him, they mobilize his human capital as their social capital.

☻ Discussion One Versus Many Strength in numbers [k] Key Point Another way to illustrate the difference between human and social capital is by comparing the resources of one versus the resources

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 43 of 86 of many. Often times, a group of people can complete a task better and more efficient than one person alone. + Additional Point Again, human capital is likened to one’s personal resources, mainly socio-economic status. Social capital is likened to the resources one has access to because of group membership. ? Question Describe a time when a team of people were able to accomplish a goal no one person could do alone. What kind of resources did you provide to the team? What kind of resources did your co-workers provide? Explain in your own words how this is an example of social capital. = Answer The key point is that some resources are only available because of one’s social connections. Without the connections, one is restricted to his/her own power.

♫ Notes Moving On Applying what we’ve learned [k] Key Point

Having reviewed and compared human and social capital, we can now apply these concepts to the real world. Specifically, we focus on effects of social capital on the young adult transition, the stage in the lifecourse when

5 Adolescent Development How does social capital enhance the young adult transition? [k] Key Point

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 45 of 86 The young adult transition • The rise of the young adult transition • Not all transitions are equal • Rates of success • Social capital and the transition • Moving on

♫ Notes The Young Adult Transition Moving beyond adolescence [k] Key Point The period of life between adolescence and adulthood has often been referred to as the young adult transition. It is a particularly volatile time for development whereby individuals learn to balance freedom and responsibility.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 46 of 86 + Additional Point The young adult transition is the stage of life when individuals weigh internal desires, personal needs and unique skills against the external pressures of finding a career, becoming independent, and raising a family. x Example Lucia may want to be an artist, but it might be more financially responsible to attend business school. Paulo might want to by a new pair of sneakers, or he could pay his car insurance. Nancy may want to go out for drinks, or she could care for her unborn baby.

♫ Notes The Rise of the Young Adult Transition The Basics [k] Key Point As was described earlier, the period of life between adolescence and adulthood has often been referred to as the Young Adult Transition. Let’s consider how this transitional stage developed.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 47 of 86 + Additional Point Three major factors have contributed to creation of the Young Adult Transition as a stage of life, the first of which is prolongation of education. Increasingly, jobs in today’s workforce require advanced and professional degrees, forcing adolescents to refrain from paid work in favor of additional school.

A second major factor is the growth of the period of non-family living after leaving the parent’s home and before forming one’s own household. That is, individuals are spending more time living away from their families and are in less of a rush to start their own families.

A third major factor that has contributed to the creation of the young adult transition as stage of life is the delay in marriage and childbirth. Individuals are not in a rush to assume the responsibility of becoming a spouse or child-rearing adult.  Continued

[k] Key Point

Cumulatively, these factors – Continued education, non-family living, and delay of marriage and childbirth – result in a prolonged period of transition from child to adult.

+ Additional Point Said another way, Continued education, growth of the period of non-family living, delaying marriage and childbirth are major factors that have contributed to

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 48 of 86 the creation on the young adult transition as a stage of life. + Additional Point Individuals aren’t assuming adult responsibilities such as full-time work, marriage, and raising a family as early as their parents and grandparents did. + Additional Point The transition from adolescence to adult is about taking on the responsibility of adult roles. Delaying entrance into paid work, parenthood, marriage, and family life prolongs the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Individuals effectively evade adult responsibility. x Example

I don’t want to work yet. I don’t want to get married yet. I don’t want kids yet. I don’t want to live with my family anymore.

☻ Discussion Not All Transitions Are Equal What makes for a successful transition into adulthood? [k] Key Point

The young adult transition is a difficult period of life for all adolescents, but not all adolescents experience the same degree of difficulty. What makes the transition easier or more difficult for some?

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 49 of 86 ? Question From your experiences in the field, what factors make the adolescent experience more difficult? What factors make it easier? Are there any variables that are a good indicator of how difficult the transition will be? For example, how do family income and/or size affect adolescent development? = Answer Research, for example, indicates that African Americans are more likely than whites to come through the young adult transition in ways that can negatively affect later life development. To explain this trend, some literature has pointed to the, “disappearance of marriage” among African Americans. Others talk about the additional handicaps experienced by African American men and women during this stage of life including the lack of suitable role-models, cycles of poverty, and “the consequences of slavery.” In this manual, we focus on the effects of social capital.

♫ Notes Rates of Success Successful Transition Varies by Race [k] Key Point Research suggests the ease and success of the young adult transition varies by race and ethnicity. Hardships during adolescent

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 50 of 86 development may account for future socio-economic status discrepancies along racial and ethnic lines as young people transition into paid work. + Additional Point One of the markers of a successful transition into adulthood is education, such as earning a high school degree. High school completion rates for those 25 years old and older differ according to race: [k] 94% of whites, 86% of blacks, and 62% of Hispanics Key Point have completed their high school degree. What Demographic research done in accounts for the discrepancy between whites and the last decade and a half non-whites? indicates that African Americans are + Additional Point more likely than Regarding work, secondary education is increasingly whites to come needed to participate in the changing technology and through the young service-driven economy. The best jobs are reserved for those with advanced degrees. College adult transition in completion rates for those 25 years and older also ways that can differ according to race: 28% of whites and 16% of blacks have completed their college degree. negatively impact later life  development. Continued + Additional Point The growing divide between the middle and working class follows ethnic and racial lines. The median family income for white families is 51,224 versus 21,778 for blacks. + Additional Point Amongst the poorest households in the nation are those headed by single mothers. The percentage of 25 year old black women who are single mothers is 17% compared to 4% for whites.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 51 of 86 ♫ Notes Social Capital and the Transition Enhancing the Transition [k] Key Point To explain the racial and ethnic differences in the young adult transition, some scholars have pointed to social capital. Social capital, it is argued, can affect the timing and preparedness of adolescents transitioning into adulthood. + Additional Point Higher levels of social capital, for example, ensure adolescents do not leave the nurturing home environment too early and engage in high-risk behavior. Parents can provide support and encouragement as their children progress through school. This role-modeling, a form of social capital, reduces a child’s interest to leave the home prematurely. “” Reference “It is theorized that the family environment provides young adults with various material and nonmaterial resources. The resources are expected to influence the timing of home-leaving and pathways out of the parent home because they can provide important benefits that prevent premature extrusion from the parental home. Access to these resources are hypothesized to deter early home-leaving and leaving home for marriage rather than Continued schooling. One important hypothesis is that social capital is expected to discourage high-risk, early home-leaving…”

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 53 of 86 ♫ Notes Moving On What does the research say? [k] Key Point We now turn our attention to the social capital literature with a specific interest on racial and ethnic differences. Said another way, what do researchers say accounts for racial and ethnic differences in successful adult transition?

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 54 of 86 6 Research Examples What do the experts say? [k] Key Point Social capital varies by race • Social capital is lower in single parent homes • The impact of low parental social capital on children • Success despite low human and financial capital • Community as social capital

Social capital is not equal between races. Most research indicates blacks have lower social capital than whites. This discrepancy has profound impacts on black children undergoing the young adult transition. + Additional Point One reason blacks have lower social capital than whites is homophily, the tendency for individuals to associate with those who are similar. This has been detrimental to blacks who have established their own social worlds separate from whites. Even the black upper class has not yet fully succeeded in integrating into mainstream white society. Blacks are effectively cut-off from important social circles rich with human capital. Lin (2000:789) “” Reference “Homophily, also known as the like-me hypothesis, is that social interactions tend to take place among individuals with similar lifestyles and socio-economic characteristics.” Lin (2001:39)  Continued

Social capital is related to socio-economic status. To the extent that blacks have lower socio-economic status than do whites, they are likely to have less social capital, resulting in fewer educational advantages.” Hallinan (2001:56) “” Reference

“Social capital… provides an explanation for racial disparities in educational outcomes. It accrues from membership in social networks that provides valuable information and resources to students… “” Reference “The research literature, by and large, confirms the disadvantages of minority group members in social capital… For the disadvantage to gain a better status, strategic behaviors require s accessing resources beyond the usual social circles and routine exchanges… finding ties outside the neighborhood… and finding ties across ethnic boundaries…” Lin (2000:792-3)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 57 of 86 ♫ Notes (2) Social Capital is Lower in Single- Parent Homes Two parents are better than one [k] Key Point Research shows social capital is higher for children who live with both parents. Reason being, children can benefit from two social networks versus one. + Additional Point Adult advocates are important for child development not only for the resources they directly provide, but for the resources they have access to via social capital. Consequently, children with only one parent in the house are at a disadvantage. “” Reference Social capital tends to be lower for children in single- parent families because they lack the benefit of a second at-home parent and because they tend to change residences more often, leading to fewer ties to other adults in the community. This deficit is not the only casual factor but certainly plays an important role in bringing about less desirable educational and personality outcomes among single- parent children.” Portes (1998:11)  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 58 of 86 [k] Key Point The structure of the family has been argued as a form of social capital. As a form of social capital, family structure can influence the rate of high-risk, early home-leaving. + Additional Point Research has shown that children receive varying forms of support depending on the structure of the family (i.e. single parent, both parents, step-parents). The kind of support influences the age at which children leave the family. Early departure is linked with high-risk behavior such as dropping out of school. “” Reference “The most striking finding is that youths exposed to biological and single-parent family environments are between five and six times more likely to remain at home than those exposed to stepfamily structures for the ages 15 to 24...” Mitchell (1994:651)  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 59 of 86 [q] Quote “This relation between family structure and achievement has profound consequences for the racial gap, since black students are nearly twice as likely as white students to live in nontraditional households.” Roscigno (1999:158) “” Reference “This research reveals the importance of social capital as a resource within the family and the community that may be associated with lifelong benefits. Closer familial relationships and the physical presence of biological parents are found to be positively related to the timing of home-leaving and the tendency of these children to leave home to pursue additional schooling… “ Mitchell (1994:655) “” Reference A lack of social capital associated with family structure can disrupt the flow of other valuable resources.” Mitchell (1994:655)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 60 of 86 ♫ Notes (3) The Impact of Low Parental Social Capital on Children When parents can’t provide [k] Key Point Children are the beneficiaries of their parent’s social capital. When parents have high social capital, those resources can be passed along to their children. Conversely, when parents have low social capital, children are often deprived of important resources. x Example Alexander, et al. for example, noted that parents who did poorly in school often avoid interacting with the school bureaucracy for the sake of their own children. Parents, “who themselves often struggled in school, tend to defer to the schools.” Alexander, et al. (1994:284) + Additional Point Understanding the flow of information from schools to parents to children, meeting with teachers and administrators, signing up for extra circular activities, and volunteering are all forms of social capital. If a parent avoids the school network, his/her children are deprived of these important resources.  Continued

Baker and Stevenson illustrate the importance of social capital. Although economic capital does play an important role in a child’s academic success, a parent’s ability to be informed and integrated in the school system is also important. + Additional Point In a study conducted by Baker and Stevenson, it was shown that higher income students did better in school than lower income students, partly because their parents had better management skills and were, “more likely to have accurate knowledge about their child’s schooling and to have contact with the school.” Baker & Stevenson (1986:164-5) “” Reference

“Whereas middle-class parents often involve themselves in curriculum planning and in decisions about their children’s educational placements, poor parents, who themselves often struggled in school, tend to defer to the schools, relying on the professional authority of the institution to do what needs to be done.” Lareau (1987) See also (Baker & Stevenson 1986; Singer et al. 1986; Useem 1991) “” Reference “Highly educated parents are generally more sophisticated advocates of their children’s interests at school…” Baker & Stevenson (1986:290)  Continued

“The most cruel aspect of discrimination and disadvantage lies in the ability to deprive the individual of that competence which is essential to effective functioning once the formal barriers to free competition have been breached.” Inkeles (1966:65)

[k] Key Point

Again, the lack of parent’s social capital has a profound impact on children’s development, especially in the school environment. “” Reference “We presume that members of advantaged groups differ from those of disadvantaged groups in possessing social skills and resources that allow them to interact more effectively with the school bureaucracy and to forge closer, more productive home-school partnerships. Such resources can be regarded as elements of human and social capital…” Alexander, Entwisle & Bedinger (1994:290) “” Reference “Lower-SES and minority parents and their children are less adept in interacting with the school bureaucracy, in understanding the flow of information from school to home, and in relating that understanding to their own situations. These skills and understandings can be regarded as aspects of human and social capital; when they are relatively lacking… the supporting infrastructure is less conductive to following through on conventional success goals.” Alexander (1994:284)

“One of the main consequences of a lack of social capital is a tendency to drop out of high school at an early age.” Mitchell (1994:653) “” Reference “High school dropout rates depend on such factors as strong familial relations, the physical presence of parents, smaller family size (i.e., fewer number of siblings), and stronger religious and communities ties.” Mitchell (1994:653)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 64 of 86 ♫ Notes (4) Success Despite Low Human and Financial Capital The significant impact of social capital [k] Key Point Parental human and financial capital are important factors affecting children’s educational performance. However, “when human and financial capital are insufficient, high expectations for minorities may be achieved through social capital.” Qian & Blair (1999:607) + Additional Point Said simply, a parents’ socio-economic status may hurt their children’s academic success, but parents can still become involved in their children’s academic activities. This latter support can make-up for the lack of finances or status. “” Reference “Parents’ human capital cannot be valuable to the children if it used only in the workplace, nor can parents’ financial capital be valuable if it is not used for children’s educational achievement. These two types of capital do not benefit the children if social capital is not in place.” Qian & Blair (1999:606)  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 65 of 86 [q] Quote “It is likely that African-American and Hispanic parents who encourage their children to move ahead give enough attention to their children despite the deficiency of human and financial capital. It is one of the cultural strategies that minorities design to increase their children’s school success.” Qian & Blair (1999:622) “” Reference

“When individual characteristics and human, financial, and social capital are introduced, racial/ethnic minorities have greater educational aspirations than whites.” Qian & Blair (1999:605)

Good news. “Social capital outside of the family can compensate, at least in part, for a lack of social capital within the family.” Mitchell (1994:666) + Additional Point Thus, even if a family cannot provide sufficient social capital for their children, children can still benefit from the social capital of their community. Often times, support comes from churches, after-school activities, organized sports, and other youth programs.

Again, these networks are important because they provide social capital and build children’s network of resources. “” Reference “Children who have stronger community or religious affiliations are more likely to stay in school longer is also supported by a strong association between timing of nest-leaving and religious participation.” Mitchell (1994:665); Coleman (1988)

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 67 of 86 ♫ Notes Moving On Applying what we have learned [k] Key Point What follows are three scenarios that illustrate financial, human, and social capital in action (or lack of action). Take what you’ve learned so far and apply it to the following cases.

[k] Key Point Agatha • Noah • Ursula

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 69 of 86 ☻ Discussion (1) Agatha At 16 she wants move out and have her own child [k] Key Point Agatha is 16 years old and wants to begin working in the “real world.” Although she is intelligent and has the potential to excel in school, her grades are mediocre, mostly due to poor attendance and lack of motivation. Agatha can’t understand the point of an education and would rather drop out and begin working full time. [k] Key Point

Ultimately, Agatha is eager to be independent and knows she wants to become a mother but not a wife. She believes finding a part-time job will be the first step towards becoming an adult. [k] Key Point Her school guidance counselors blame the lack of suitable role models for Agatha’s under-whelming goals. They believe Agatha is throwing away her natural intelligence for an unrealistic dream.  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 70 of 86 [k] Key Point Agatha is the oldest of four children and lives with her mom in a low income community. Her mother is on welfare and rarely leaves the house. She has never met her father or any other members of her extended family. ? Question What resources are unavailable to Agatha because of her poor social network? How is her mom’s withdrawal from the world hurting Agatha? = Answer Agatha has little in terms of a social network because her mom is disconnected from the world. Not only is Agatha deprived of financial resources, she is also deprived role models and advocates that could help her transition into adulthood.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 71 of 86 ☻ Discussion (2) Noah His parents are upstanding citizens who are never home [k] Key Point Noah is 13 years old and not doing well in school despite having a personal tutor and being enrolled in several after-school booster classes. He understands the material but does not care about it. “What good is it to me? I don’t need anyone’s help.” [k] Key Point His school counselors believe Noah might have a learning disability. He’s been tested several times, but the results always come back negative. Noah is fine. [k] Key Point Noah’s parents are both college educated and are well respected in the community. The father is a county lawyer and the mother is a surgeon at the local hospital. Both work full time so money is not an issue, hence the personal tutor and after-school classes. “We can’t always be there for Noah, so we provide him with the best alternatives He has everything he could ever need or want available to him.”  Continued

Noah is an only child and is anti-social at school. ? Question What resources are available to Noah? What resources are unavailable? What factors are detrimental to Noah’s development? Why? = Answer Despite having parents rich with human and financial capital, Noah’s limited relationship with them results in low social capital. He is developing a skewed sense of reality, one that is isolated and independent. He needs quality time with his parents.

In short, Noah has limited access to the rich networks he belongs to.

Ursula is 17 years old and is the fourth child of six in her family. Because her family is so big, money is always tight. [k] Key Point Her mother died before Ursula became a teenager and her father works two full-time jobs to make ends meet. He’s a plumber and cab driver. As a result, Ursula was raised by her brothers and sisters, and aunts and uncles. “We live paycheck to paycheck so my family has learned to be there for each other. I have a big extended family and we always manage to make things work… somehow.” [k] Key Point

Academically, Ursula is a B- student. She studies when she has to, but is more interested in learning from her family. “My family teaches me things I don’t learn in school like how cook or how to speak to a boss. Those kinds of things.”  Continued

Ursula’s school counselors like her very much because she’s very polite and can carry an entertaining conversation forever. However, they’re worried Ursula isn’t serious enough about going to college. “They don’t think I have enough money or book smarts to get accepted. But I’m not worried. I’m friends with all my teachers and they’re willing to write me excellent references letters. Plus, one of my aunts has already been talking to her boss about hiring me. If I don’t get into college, I’ll work with my aunt.” ? Question Identify the human, financial, and social capital at work in Ursula’s life. What are her weakest resources? Strongest? = Answer Because of her big family size, financial capital is limited. Because of her average grades, human capital is limited as well. Her biggest asset is social capital. Ursula has a very strong family network which has taught her how to talk to others and be resourceful. What Ursula lacks in grades, she makes up for in her ability to network with others.

There is at least one last form of capital that is related to the material at hand. The following section briefly introduces cultural capital.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 76 of 86 8 Cultural Capital Further Considerations [k] Key Point Cultural capital • Who would you hire • Low cultural capital

Cultural capital is a separate but important form of capital. It refers to, “the credentials and cultural assets embodied in individuals and their families. It is used to explain the reproduction of social hierarchy, as elite families endow their children with the cultural capital which enables them to succeed in maintaining their elite position.” Schuller (2001:91). + Additional Point Cultural capital is like, “knowing the code,” or being properly attuned. x Example In some social circles it might be an asset to play golf, to know the difference between De Kooning and Da Vinci, and to know how to tie a double Windsor. It might also be an asset to be a republican, to have a basic understanding of the stock market, and know how to sail. These are all forms of cultural capital

Again, in some social circles a lack of cultural capital can be inferred by not knowing which fork to eat a salad with, not having seen a Broadway musical, and owning a yellow colored car. “” Reference Cultural capital is, “widely shard, high status cultural signals (attitudes, preferences, formal knowledge, behaviors, goods, and credentials) used for social and cultural exclusion.” Lamont & Lareau (1988:156)

Cultural capital is more of an academic notion, but it is easily understood in the following scenario. ? Question Two applicants with the comparable experience and qualifications are interested in the same job. The first applicant, however, correctly identified the wall hanging in the office. “It’s by Monet.” He also complimented the boss’s, “British cut,” suit and talked about a theater show they had both recently seen. The second applicant, though equally qualified, could not find a common point for discussion.

Although there is no real difference in their abilities, why is the first candidate at an advantage? = Answer The first candidate is rich with cultural capital, the second is not. Again, cultural capital can be understood as, “knowing the code.” It is being well versed in the culture of a particular social status. Mentioning the painting, suit, and musical reveals to the boss, “I’m one of you guys. I belong.”

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 79 of 86 ♫ Notes Low Cultural Capital Keep it within the circle [k] Key Point As the argument goes, minorities and females are at a disadvantage because they lack cultural capital. Although they may be equally qualified as their white, male counterparts, they are often overlooked because they don’t know the code. + Additional Point Cultural capital has been used to explain the reproduction of social hierarchy. Elite families, for example, “endow their children with the cultural capital which enables them to succeed in maintaining their elite position.” Schuller (20001:91) “” Reference “Cultural capital… is one mechanism through which the intergenerational transmission of class advantage occurs.” Roscigno & Ainsworth-Darnell (1999:159) “” Reference “Cultural capital, or socially valued knowledge of high-brow culture and cultural cues, is more likely to be manifested in families of high socio-economic status and translated to greater likelihood of educational success.” Roscigno & Ainsworth-Darnell (1999:159)

This training manual concludes with a bibliography of important articles. If you are interested in learning more about social capital, the following articles are helpful.

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 82 of 86 ♫ Notes Bibliography Important articles [k] Key Point Alexander • Baker & Stevenson • Bianchi & Robinson • Hallinan • Lamont & Lareau • Lareau • Lin • Mitchell • Portes • Qian & Blair • Roscigno & Ainsworth-Darnell • Schuller • Stanton-Salazar & Dornbusch • Teachman, Paasch, & Carver • Young Jr. + Additional Point Alexander, Karl L. et al. (Dec., 1994). When expectations work: Race and socioeconomic differences in school performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(4), 283-299. + Additional Point Baker, David P. & Stevenson, Dario L. (1986). Mothers’ strategies for children’s school achievement: Managing the transition to high school. Sociology of Education, 59, 156-66. + Additional Point Bianchi, Suzanne M. & Robinson, John. (1997). What did you do today? Children’s use of time, family composition, and the acquisition of social capital. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59(2), 332-344.  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 83 of 86 + Additional Point Hallinan, Maureen T. (2001). Sociological perspective on black-white inequalities in American schooling. Sociology of Education, 74, Extra Issue: Current of Thought: Sociology of Education at the Dawn of the 21st Century (pp. 50-70). + Additional Point Lamont, Michele & Lareau, Annette. (1988). Cultural capital: Allusions, gaps, and glissandos in recent theoretical developments. Sociological Theory, 6, 153-68. + Additional Point Lareau, Annette. (1987). Social class differences in family-school relationships: The importance of cultural capital. Sociology of Education, 60, 73-85. + Additional Point Lin, Nan. (1999). Social networks and status attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 25(1), 467- 487. + Additional Point Lin, Nan. (2000). Inequality in social capital. Contemporary Sociology, 29(6), 787-795.  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 84 of 86 + Additional Point Mitchell, Barbara A. (1994). Family structure and leaving the nest: A social resource perspective. Sociological Perspectives, 37(4), 651-671.

+ Additional Point Portes, Alejandro. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24. + Additional Point Qian, Zhenchao & Blair, Sampson Lee. (1999). Racial/ethnic differences in educational aspirations of high school seniors. Sociological Perspectives, 42(4), 605-625. + Additional Point Roscigno, Vincent J. & Ainsworth-Darnell, James W. (1999). Race, cultural capital, and educational resources: Persistent inequalities and achievement returns. Sociology of Education, 72(3), 158-178.  Continued

© 2006-2007 CDHS/Research Foundation of SUNY/BSC College Relations Group social capital 85 of 86 + Additional Point Schuller, T. (2001) The complementary roles of human and social capital. ISUMA Canadian Journal of Policy Research, 2(1), 18-24. + Additional Point Stanton-Salazar, Ricardo D. & Dornbusch, Sanford M. (1995). Social capital and the reproduction of inequality: Information networks among Mexican- origin high school students. Sociology of Education, 68(2), 116-135.

+ Additional Point Teachman, Jay D., Paasch, Kathleen, & Carver, Karen (1997). Social capital and the generation of human capital. Social Forces, 75(4), 1343-1359.

+ Additional Point Young Jr., Alford A. (1999). The (non)accumulation of capital: Explicating the relationship of structure and agency in the lives of poor black men. Sociological Theory, 17(2), 201-227.