From Mackichan, Finlay, Germany 1815-1939 : the Rise of Nationalism
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THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 2011 From MacKichan, Finlay, Germany 1815-1939 : the Rise of Nationalism. **For the IB exam, this would answer: results of WWI, causes of WWII, rise of Hitler, Weimar Republic essay
TIMELINE: http://www.timelines.info/history/continents_and_countries/europe/central_europe/germany/wei mar_republic/
Key vocab list: http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/timeline/naziris2.HTM
WWI: -as late as spring 1918 Germany thought could win WWI--already won east 3.18 —why? -End of war
-almost won on west with 2 major breakthroughs, but not enough manpower vs. Allies had much more manpower when the US entered the war in late 1917 -Br blockade wore down Germ ability to supply forces/feed population -sub battles had brought in fresh US troops=July counteroffensive unstoppable
-Oct 1918 Kaiser appoint new govt for the first time answerable to Reichstag incl. SDP (had fully supported war effort) (** do you remember the Kulturkampf under Bismarck/Wilhelm I=SDP not allowed in govt/discrimination) -Prince Max of Baden=chancellor--wanted Kaiser to dismiss Ludendorff, which he did at the end of Oct (Ludendorff fled to Sverige in disguise, and came back to participate in the Munich Putsch) - Nov 9, Kaiser abdicated (Prince Max announced this and then abdicated himself Government Federal parliamentary republic; Liberal Democracy President - 1918–1925 Friedrich Ebert - 1925-August 1934 Paul von Hindenburg Chancellor - 1919 Philipp Scheidemann (first), who resigns in protest to TOV, replaced by Siemens in transition…then - 1923 Gustav Stresemann - 1933 Adolf Hitler (last)
-Army leaders Hindenburg/Ludendorff 2
-they finally recommended surrender so the blame for defeat could be shared
von Hindenburg vH ask Hitler chancellor Ludendorff -Nov 1918 incredible hardships=REVOLT! ie. IN KIEL -hardships due to no food and demoralized troops due to loss -Revolt: sailors rebelled on hearing their admirals were thinking to have a last stand with Br navy=seems like Revolution (like who in Russia? Kronstadt sailor link)! meetings for peace and reform **Lenin sees this as HOPE for a European-wide revolution starting in G!
-“WORKERS” AND “SOLDIERS COUNCILS” (like “soviets” in Russia) -towns taken over with such bodies -most workers would not want dictator, but SOCIALISTIC DEMOCRACY -many leaders were independent socialists IS (minority of SDP opposed war) -went furthest in Bavaria: Nov 7, 1918 declared a Soviet Republic under Kurt Eisner (but its CATHOLIC & MOST CONSERVATIVE?!)**see Weimar Reader p 52 **This experience fuels anti-communist sentiment=key reason for Munich Beer Hall Putsch by Hitler later
-Majority of Socialists demanded Kaiser abdicate for his younger son -Kaiser was abroad (Holland) and didn’t want his son to go—Wilhelm II makes the decision to end the Hohenzollern rule of Germany (4th empire to end after WWI)
-Revolt brew in Berlin--Nov 9 one of leaders (MS--majority Socialists) Scheidemann declare Germany had become a REPUBLIC from the Reichstag
-Armistice with ENTENTE to stop fighting=Nov 11, 1918= GERMAN EMPIRE (Second Reich of the Hohenzollern) over--had lasted less than 50 years (1st=Charlemagne HRE)
-Replaced by “WEIMAR REPUBLIC” -called that as the meetings for the new govt were held there, safe from disorder of Berlin -home of the poet Goethe who some believed represented the “other Germany”, that of CULTURE not MILITARISM - -Constitution made by Hugo Preuss borrowing from Fr, US and Br which included a House of Senators and House of Representatives, the latter of which chose the Chancellor who was nominated by the President and needed a majority of Reichstag support (French system) **Weimar Reader46-48 3
-President is directly elected -Universal suffrage and proportional representation
-1919 sign peace treaty with Allies at Versailles -see MacMillan/Overy notes about the reaction of those who signed the Treaty, the revisions that were accepted, the reaction in Germany
• WAS THERE SOMETHING FATALLY FLAWED ABOUT THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC TO EXPLAIN THE RISE OF THE NAZIS? 1. Was Weimar doomed from outset? -it left the army, civil service, law, schools in hands of men of 2nd Reich--resistant to reform -left major industries of Germany (coal, steel, engineering) in same hands=favor aggressive foreign policy to boost profits/unwilling to work with trade unions to improve conditions of workers -supported by too few political parties who BELIEVED in republic (split of Majority Socialists and Independent Socialists)-=-the old system of governing had worked JUST FINE, DANKE! -had accepted Versailles decision! Art 231 + reparations cause runaway inflation 1923=destroyed savings of middle class Germans -Weimar leaders were not unifying the German people, so other parties arose to do so ie. Nazis 4
2. Was Weimar not the only practical thing to do? -could have been a success! -by late 1920s=increased prosperity, golden age for writers, artists, architects -what if the Depression had not come along?? -what if Stresemann had not died??
A REVOLUTION WHICH LEFT THE TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN CHARGE -EBERT (SPD) leading member of Council of People’s Deputies or provisional govt ran republic until constitution 1919 and then President of Republic until death 1925=lack of stability/continuity -he had prominently supported the war -day after Republic set up (Nov 19, 1918), Gen Groener (still support 2nd Reich) set up a secret telephone line with Ebert=some say: sold out the Republic! -others say not: Ebert said he wanted to protect parliamentary democracy and wanted to have an election to decide on constitutional republic, but due to chaos in the streets=needed army backing to make it happen
Friedrich Ebert Rosa Luxembourg Karl Liebknecht MASSIVE SHIFT TO THE LEFT: -Extreme socialists (“Spartakists” led by Karl Liebknecht/Rosa Luxembourg) -Ebert wanted military support to quell their uprising=prevent another Russia -Ebert feared the Allies would invade Germany if Revolution began -Industry and trade unions support INDEPENDENT SOCIALISTS who were on the fence -Ebert reached agreement w/ 2nd Reich industry leaders IE. Hugo Stinnes ie made 8hr day Nov 15, 1918 -should government have nationalized all industry/replace managers instead? No, chaos enough already
SPARTAKIST REBELLION Dec 1918--FREIKORPS -dispute about behavior of Independent Socialist police chief in Berlin/IS resign govt (not support SPD) -when Ebert dismissed the police chief=rising called Spartakist Rebellion as was joined by KL and RL (were murdered while the uprising was put down) **the rising was NOT started by the Spartakist Party, but included most Socialist groups -Ebert called in the Freikorps to put down the rebels (former members of Imperial army paid by supporters of 2nd Reich industry=PRIVATE PARAMILITARY ORG ie. do a search! Why private? B/c TOV had disbanded the milt! -IS never forgave SDP for using them=DIVISION=WEAK=Hitler easier to come in 5
Spartakists Freikorps (Bavarian unit) A REPUBLIC WITH TOO FEW FRIENDS -1919 VOTE Ntl Assembly SDP majority, then Center party -3 parties support Republic: SPD, DDP (part of old Liberals), and Zentrum (center)=76% of vote=PROMISE!...but support dropped. Proportional Rep fragments govt (see table in Hitler pkg) -armed risings against it occur regularly 1919-20 by workers in Berlin were put down by Freikorps (Republic not moving fast enough to implement reforms) -Freikorps does not necessarily support the Republic, but hates the Socialists=destroy them and wait for the party they support to come to power
MASSIVE SHIFT TO THE RIGHT: -MAR 1920: right wing uprising=KAPP PUTSCH led by Wolfgang Kapp (model for Hitler’s Beer Hall putsch) as D’Annunzio was for Mussolini -was supported by soldiers who were likely to be disbanded due to TOV (like Blkshirts Itl) -when Putsch almost succeded, the Kaiser in Holland thought he was almost home!...but it was defeated by General Strike of workers across all of Germany (Kornilov Revolt put down by St. Petersburg Soviet strike led by MRC &Trotsky!)
-ARMY DID NOT MOVE AGAINST THE KAPP Putsch as it had against worker risings ie. Spartakists rebellion: Commander in Chief: “The army does not shoot upon the army.” -trial for plotters=light sentence as generals were favored by the judges (2nd Reich) **legal precedent for what occurs to Hitler in the trial post-Beer Hall Putsch
-1920 election: SDP win 163, Center 91, DDP 75, DNVP (Ntl People’s Party 44[old conservatives])=left and right wing parties which opposed Republic made gains and those in favor of Republic=down 44%! -so much hatred of SDP and IS that SDP needed right wing support in govt=Weimar not winning the loyalty of citizens
THE LEGACY OF THE PEACE SETTLEMENT -PEACE TERMS Mar 1, 1919=outrage--Germ not allowed to attend peace conference to negotiate--terms worse than expected -Historian AJ Nicholls: “The German public was in no way prepared for a harsh peace. The Germans had always been told that the Reich was waging a defensive war, and did not therefore regard themselves as 6 responsible for the disaster which had befallen Europe. In any case, the Imperial govt and the Kaiser were gone, and so the man in the street felt free from all liability for Imperial policies.”
**ie. Austria’s end of war terms, Treaty of St. Germain, are lenient partially because the Kaiser who had started the war, had died in 1916. (MacMillan)
-Allies threaten to invade/let Germany disintegrate unless accept TOV -the Weimar Republic was always blamed for accepting its terms -440 clauses, but 2 groups were the worst:
1. WAR GUILT AND REPARATIONS. War Guilt due: Blank Cheque + invasion of neutral Belgium “the rape of Belgium”) A. ”WAR GUILT CLAUSE” (no. 231) stated Germany and allies were responsible for damage caused to Allied govt and citizens; hence Pay via 1. coal mines in Saar (run by Fr for 15 years) 2. Germ supply free coal to fr, bel and itl 3. all merch ships over 1600 tonnes (90% fleet) to Allies 4. Germ pay indefinitely “reparations” for damage done to Allied civ=6600 mill pound 5. Germ industrial areas not as damaged as fr and bel, so unfair to end war strong -Germ resent having to work for former enemies--argue when miss a payment B. CONSEQUENCES OF REPARATIONS? -Germ paid first install 50 mill in 1921 but by 1922 fell behind -could only afford if cut pensions, welfare benefits, increase taxes massively -Jan 1923 FR and Bel occup rich industrial Ruhr to take reparations in coal, steel, manuf -Jan 1922 1 USD=80 marks, 1923 1USD=18 000 marks -1 billion mark note created in 1923! -50 million mark note Jan 1924 (see above) -INFLATION vs. HYPERinflation -where there is a GRADUAL drop in the value of goods money will buy -Hyper=happens incredibly fast=Nov 1923=1 USD=4420 BILLION marks -printing presses could not keep up with demand, old notes became useless
-Food lines and unemployment -mass food lineups to buy products before they were gone -wages not keep up with prices; many lost their jobs ie GLEANERS go from Berlin to country Oct 1923 scrounging for potatoes from fields=police brought in to prevent disorder -September 1923 Germany ended passive resistance to TOV and started to pay reparations again=mark steady Nov 1923 (didn’t end on its own—did raise taxes, so in the end ended up doing what they had not wanted to do in the first place=Brinton) -but longer term problem was that middle class savings were gone **Good Brinton analogy about 2 brothers—one who spent on material goods all the time, other who saved— the one who saved lost it all +drinker/return bottles vs. saved brother -Germans blamed Republic and architects of Weimar blame Allies ie. Hugo Preuss 1923 comment (Quote): “If the Empire was born out of the brilliance of victory (Wars of German unification), the German Republic was born out of its terrible defeat. This difference in origin cast from the first a dark shadow on the new political order, as far as national feeling was concerned; but at first most still felt that the new order was necessary for the rebirth of Germany...The criminal madness of the imposed Versailles settlement was a shameless blow in the face to such hopes. The Reich constitution of Weimar was born with this curse upon it. The sight of the impotent misery of the republic made many people forget that Germany was driven into the misery under the old system. And if some fled from the hopeless present into the shadow of the past, others took refuge in heady enthusiasm for mad day-dreams which promised to build a new world on the ruins of old established order. The victorious powers, and France especially, justify their policy of endlessly beating down Germany with the argument that the weakness of the republic and the strength of its enemies means that it may not last. It is precisely this policy which has destroyed the belief that Germany could recover under the republic’s constitution.”
2. DISARMAMENT AND LAND LOST -most resent disarming of Germany and redrawing of borders A. DISARM: -ART 160=March 31, 1920 total number Army from 300 000 to 100 000; officers max 4000 -Navy reduced and no subs or air force -No German forces west of the Rhine or within 50 km of east bank -ALLIED OCCUP of Germ terr west of Rhine for 15 yrs -ALLLIED COMMISSION OF CONTROL in Germany to check forces limits set 7
B. BORDERS: -seen as breach of Allies own principles for Wilson’s 14 pts: frontiers on lines of nationality -new national states created ie. Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia -western territorial losses not so resented, but elsewhere seemed excessive -“POLISH CORRIDOR”-Poland access to Baltic sea at Danzig; East Prussia detached -Danzig--was German speaking--in actuality was not a “free port” under LON -N Schleiswig to Denm, Upper Silesia to Poland, Memel to Lithuania =DOMESTICALLY, Germany lost 13% of territory but none with a majority of Germans -Germ Austrians -some wanted to join Germany now that Hungary and Hapsburgs were gone; forbidden under TOV--separate Austrian state set up, Sudeten Germans to Czechoslov. -MANDATE LON -German colonies to be “ruled for the benefit of their peoples” by colonial rivals Br, Fr and Belg -LON=INTERNATIONAL OUTCASTS
-not allowed to join until “they proved they were peace-loving”
=RESULT: war guilt+reparations+dismantle armed forces+loss of empire=humilation!!!!
-REPUBLIC: leaders could not defend terms but believed must accept or else OCCUP by Allies AJ Nicholls on the treaty: “The REAL damage the treaty did to Germany was to disillusion more moderate men who might otherwise have supported their new Republic...The political gains of the revolution actually had been considerable, but to the public mind they remained unimpressive. The Germans had a new constitution; to many of them the old one had seemed good enough. They had more freedom politically, but most of them had thought of themselves as free before. They had responsible govt; this “responsibility” seemed to mean confusion and even bloodshed in home affairs. The one thing that the new order had brought them--peace--had been transformed by a settlement which their newspapers and political leaders all agreed was a form of prolonged slavery for Germany (Diktat). It was not an encouraging start.”
THE LATE 20S--A MORE SECURE REPUBLIC? -Hyperinflation 1923= led politicians to support the Republic in order to save it ie. GUSTAV STRESEMANN, leader of right wing PEOPLE’S PARTY (DVP: old National Liberals)=Chancellor in 1923; Foreign Minister until 1929 death =industrialists felt inflation put their businesses in danger=agree for him to be Chancellor in 1923 -he called off the passive resistance in the Ruhr and restarted payments to Allies =stopped inflation/saved the Republic 8
-DAWES PLAN -After 1923 the economy improved and grew more with this plan=restarted reparations but annual payments REDUCED -In exchange they got massive loans from US businesses that updated G factories (this investment, from companies such as General Motors, leads to such companies connections with German industry & when industry leaders became Nazis in 1930s, the investment did not stop + Coca Cola complicity ie. Fanta invented for Nazis, IBM tech)
-1927 national output higher than 1913 despite country smaller--Germ econ performance compare favorably to Br and Fr 1925-29
• CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS--a complete freedom never enjoyed before -**See WEIMAR REPUBLIC package -lively, seedy Berlin nightclub scene ie. Cabaret film -Brecht: ie. Fear and Misery in the Third Reich -novels of Heinrich and Thomas Mann -films of Marlene Dietrich -Klee paintings -Bauhaus School art/architect -Einstein -Fritz Lang & Metropolis
• FOREIGN POLICY: reest Germ--credit to Stress who was For min 1923-29 (death) A. LOCARNO PACT: Germ accepted losses in west and Germ and Fr promise not attack each other -Streseman in 1925 to Fr Foreign Minister Briand: “Together with the convulsions of the World War one facet has emerged, namely that we are bound to one another by a single and common fate. If we go down, we go down together; if we are to reach the heights, we do so not by conflict, but by common effort. For this reason, if we believe at all in the future of our peoples, we ought not to live in disunity and enmity, we must join hands in common labour.” 9
B. LON 1926 and permanent seat on Council of League -Allies so impressed by Stresseman that this was allowed
C. 1922 RAPALLO PACT -Germany and Russia cooperate on trade and military ie. German army does manuevers in Russia away from Allies (not used for full militarization until Hitler) + remember planes in BURNT BY THE SUN 1936? Streseman’s calls for peace disingenuous b/c of this pact?
****By late 1920s Weimar meeting many needs of Germ people=cooperation from political parties: 1928 parties which supported Weimar in a majority
D. 1930 YOUNG PLAN: total repar from 6600 mill to 1850 million pounds... =ended the resented Reparations Commission
****COULD WEIMAR HAVE SURVIVED? It was on its way when the Great Depression hit & Stresemann died which helped to fuel the forces to shatter it...which led to the rise of Hitler and Nazis
**Show “Rise of Hitler” segment from bbc.co.uk dvd that starts in 1929 (but reflections back to WW1 legacy)