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Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. From Linguistic Determinism to Technological Determinism – Lessons from Sapir-Whorf

‘Technology has become autonomous. It has fashioned an omnivorous world which obeys its own laws.’

Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society

’Technology remains a relatively under-theorised category within the critical realist literature’

(Lawson 2004:1)

‘Our technologies are racing ahead but many of our skills and organizations are lagging behind’ (Brynjolfsoon and McAfee [e-book] 2011:171)

Introduction

This chapter seeks to analyse the link between linguistic determinism as espoused by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and contemporary technological determinism within a global context where equal access to technology is not yet guaranteed. Ellul (2013) and Lawson’s (2004) observations create an interesting metaphor in terms of the technological omnivore staring down human society, and the overwhelming response, if we accept Lawson’s observation is complacency at best or downright naivety at worst. Granted, Lawson made his observation in the pre-Facebook era and subsequent literature is now much more focused on all aspects of technology within our contemporary milieus. Technology is totally ubiquitous in the developed world and becoming more so in developing countries, albeit with a much stronger mobile bias for early technology adopters. That technology is rushing ahead of many individuals and institutions is almost an aphorism with many lagging in its wake. This lag as recognised by Brynjolfson and McAfree (2011) has wide social and economic implications for all members of society, in the case of business those that do not keep up go under. A further pertinent question revolves around how individuals who start from low technological literacy levels or do not keep pace with technological developments are impacted. Further, how does this technological milieu impact on the general aspects of the day to day lives of all members of society?

Language singularity and technological determinism

The concept of a singularity holds that humanity faces ‘... a future period during which the pace of technological change will be so rapid, its impact so deep, that human life will be irreversibly transformed. Although neither utopian nor dystopian, this epoch will transform the concepts that we rely on to give meaning to our lives, from our business models to the cycle of human life, including death itself’ (Ray Kurzweil: WR1). This technological future may contribute to the emergence of a language singularity, since imperative to a utopian future is a common referencing paradigm for all humans, which can only be achieved through a common tool for communication, in effect a common lexicon. Whichever outcome is associated with this rampant technological tsunami there is no doubt that the impact will be extensive for all aspects of our existential milieus. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. The decline of face 2 face communication and direct social interaction will have significant impacts on all aspects of society. Our technology has led some analysts to argue that in terms of technology and machines, ‘we have become their slaves rather than their masters’ (Thiebaud 2010: 117). While this may be overly alarmist it does represent a change in terms of the relationship with technology, for all of recorded history, technology has been a servant of human endeavours but this relationship is changing. Through this the impact on technology is moving from enhancing the possibilities for human development towards becoming an integral part of the human condition rather than an extension of it.

There is no doubting the impact of technology on day to day existence, Aviram and Talmi (2004) observe that:

 ICT has a powerful defining impact on all important aspects of our lives and hence our culture (It is a ‘defining technology’)

 The ICT revolution is a part of a group of intertwined revolutions that in the past twenty years have been transforming Western culture from a modern into a postmodern culture. (Aviram & Talmi, 2004: 4)

Technological leapfrogging

This captures the defining nature of technology. If technology is a driver in moving Western culture from a modern to a post-modern context, the impact on societies with limited exposure to technology will be possible extensive social dissonance. The role of technology in developing countries is often seen as a purely positive situation where arguments of ‘leapfrogging’ are being seen as a panacea for many of the ills that affect these countries. Although it is most often used with regard to ‘environmental leapfrogging, i.e the skipping of pollution intensive stages of development, it has attracted increasing attention’ (Sauter and Watson 2008). This term is increasingly being heard in terms of technology’s potential for empowering people in these countries. The ‘potential for leapfrogging seems even brighter owing to the emergence of Internet technologies’ (Steinmueller 2001: 2). This internet euphoria continues to be characteristic in many areas, often driven by a ‘build it’ and the rest will take care of itself mentality.

There are many positives that technology can deliver and leapfrogging will have a role to play, due to “the lack of investment in legacy systems, hardware and software, they can be in a good position to ‘leapfrog’ over some of the incremental steps and to select a new position on the technology curve” (Fleming 2003: 8). But Fleming does acknowledge one of the key limiting factors: ‘Adult literacy is a major barrier to the uptake of information technology in the developing world’ (Fleming 2003: 4). If people off low literacy levels develop digital literacy that supersedes their wider literacy the impact on thought and thinking is likely to be extensive. This highlights just one of the challenges in terms of the technological embrace; this human-computer interface is the key frontier that needs to be addressed in a robust and realistic manner, if suitable solutions are to be developed for harnessing technology effectively (Mostert 2010; Kaschula & Mostert 2011). Technology is being introduced incrementally in developed countries, and this has allowed societies to adjust to its impact and ensure that its potential can be effectively mobilized. With the opportunities represented by ‘leapfrogging’, there needs to be a IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. clear increase in training and support structures to ensure that computer infrastructures do not become glorified Facebook gateways.

Human communication has developed from gestures to orality, the written word (Ong 1982; Finnegan 1988; Kaschula 2002). Each phase has resulted in seismic changes for the socio-economic conditions of human societies. For each of these the communities were collaborators and beneficiaries of a technological change whose momentum was exogenous to the human condition. In this present technological revolution, for the first time, the meta-cognitive and epistemological tools are in place to forge technology’s benefits and to militate against the negative aspects associated with technology’s developmental trajectory.

The risks associated with the present rampant technological developments are greater than many may have recognized, and this manifests in the aphorism ‘the medium as message’, which is only too real. For example, the degree to which people in highly economically marginalized situations adopted mobile technologies is a hint of the possible future of this leapfrogging introduction, outlined above, and the possible negative impacts. This highlights the challenges that researchers must face, firstly, how to ensure that the human-computer interfaces are sympathetic to the context of the users, secondly, how to determine the impact of technology on peoples’ social and cultural identity. Finally, to create robust education and training structures that effectively mobilize the innate potential embodied within technology in relation to the development of the world and its peoples.

Technological determinism and its effects

This opens a wide plain for addressing the relationship between linguistic determination and technological determinism. Contrary to what many may think the digital divide is growing; even in developed contexts people from poor communities are being classed as ‘socially excluded’ and are finding themselves on the wrong side of the ‘digital divide’ (WR2). The scope, as outlined above, for technology to address this exclusion may be limited however it is part of the solution. Increasing the ‘technologizing’ of human existential contexts would make the role of computers integral to this initiative. In a report commissioned by the government of the United Kingdom, the following possible benefits were identified (WR2):

 acquiring knowledge and developing skills

 developing confidence and self-esteem which reinforce family and community cohesion

 pursuing leisure interests and opportunities

 publishing and broadcasting their opinions and ideas and relating that experience to that of others globally

 supporting and developing small businesses

 being empowered to campaign and participate in the democratic process. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. That technology can potentially deliver on these possible benefits is obvious, the report notes that …’it wishes to assess how individual access to the Internet can transform opportunities for people living in the most disadvantaged communities by developing new ways of accessing learning, work and leisure services’ (WR2). This goal is telling in terms of its location and context being British based, which is characterized by very inexpensive access to technology and extensive mobile networks. The challenges faced in developing countries are considerably more extensive. Further, once technological does deliver on these, what are the implications for thought and thinking?

The debates surrounding ‘leapfrogging’, in other words the positives that technology can deliver, are many and contextually driven, however, few address the relationship between ‘leapfrogging’ (positives) and technological determinism. The lack is in no small measure due to the fact that the overwhelming perspectives on technology are positive and in areas that are lacking in technological infrastructure the debate seems more of a luxury. This oversight needs to be corrected as a matter of some urgency as it is likely to contribute to the skewing of technological investment priorities. Already cries like ‘a laptop for every teacher’ (WR3) and ‘One laptop for every child’ (WR4) are heard across the globe. While meritorious in their own right, such calls tend to lack the rigorous accompanying discussions of support training and human-computer interface requirements and by extension the implications of technological determinism. The political impact in terms of these initiatives often act as drivers, a priori, a correlation between laptop initiatives and elections in democratic societies is likely to exist. This was recently experienced in the Kenyan elections when it was announced by the now elected President Kenyatta that every child in Kenya would receive a laptop. If these initiatives are to have the widest impact then the operational foundations have to be effectively laid; otherwise the downsides are likely to far outweigh the potential benefits. Not least in terms of the existential impact on technologically under resourced societies.

As indicated above, it is essential that recognition is given to the wider power of technology. ‘A sense of technology’s power as a crucial agent of change has prominent place in the culture of modernity…few departments of contemporary life remain unaffected by the new information technology’ (Marx and Smith 1994: ix). In the developed world daily life requires at least some contact with a silicon chip and by extension information technology. Increasingly those who live in these societies are becoming defined by their technological accouterments. Witness the so-called ‘Crackberry’, the derogatory term used for people who are obsessed with using their blackberries, in fact already there are dedicated sites to address the ‘Crackberry addiction’ (WR5). A brief look at the 13 steps to break the addiction gives a sense of how this technology is well on its way to defining a so-called Crackberry’s identity:

1. Admit we were powerless over our CrackBerries

2. Admit to the universe, to ourselves, and to another human being the exact nature of our CrackBerry addiction.

3. We must come to believe that only the greater power of wireless-lessness can restore us to sanity.

4. We must make a decision to turn our will and our lives over to the power of unconnectedness and eschew knowing if someone is mailing us at this very minute. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. 5. Make a searching and fearless moral inventory of our CrackBerry use

6. Make a list of all persons we have harmed through our rudeness, inconsideration and pretentious self-involvement, and make amends to them all.

7. Turn off the CrackBerry. Now.

8. Realize that you are not the center of the universe.

9. Set limits on BlackBerry use.

10. Turn off the BlackBerry during all meetings, classes, presentations, weddings and funerals.

11. Know that the world actually functioned before BlackBerries and that people managed to survive with ancient tools like phones and desktop computers.

12. Having fulfilled these steps know that you control the CrackBerry.

13. Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, carry this message to all CrackBerry addicts, and to practice these principles in all our affairs.

It could be argued that the list is frivolous but it does address a growing phenomenon in modern developed societies which is now becoming more prevalent in developing societies as more people acquire mobile technologies. For CrackBerry a list of any mobile technology providers can be substituted, Nokiophiles, IPadders, etc; people who could be labeled as such are now common anywhere in the world. One of the most telling common examples of how this technological infrastructure is coming to define many people is by simply taking the time to observe people in public spaces, often when the person they are meeting or socialising with leaves or departs their company, even briefly, almost everyone that the authors have observed reaches for their mobile or cellular phones. It is also common at airports to see people standing in cues or sitting next to each other while working on IPads and phones, thereby excluding and avoiding all other possible face 2 face human interactions.

Technology is becoming more central to defining people’s reality; the human is now truly a technological being. Language is arguably the human’s most important technological breakthrough and the cornerstone of all other technologies, much has been written on the relationship between language and technology. At the base level it is these two concepts viz. language and technology that sets us apart from animals: ‘But surely two human characteristics stand out…our ability to use language; and our ability to create and use complex tools – that is to create and use technology’ (Sproat 2010: 1). The interplay between language and technology is complex on a myriad of levels and opens many opportunities and risks that require researchers to seriously engage in an interdisciplinary manner. While language spawned many disciplines, technology will fundamentally alter them in much the same way that writing did. Perhaps Sproat’s observation captures this most effectively, ‘[n]ot a single human achievement… (from) earliest settled agricultural civilization, or the most advanced endeavors in theoretical physics, would have been possible without language’ (Sproat 2010: 1). This may seem self- IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. evident but it is important to remind ourselves of the innovative nature of language which is now totally embedded into our modern way of life, embedded in a way that technology is fast replicating.

This evolving technological determinism opens the scope for drawing lessons from language determinism and relativity, and this will in turn allow for assessing the likely impact. Language development has always been assessed ex post, however, in the case of technological developments it is possible to engage in the likely impacts more robustly before the more malicious consequences become too widespread. Combining the concepts of linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity and technological determinism opens a very wide playing field that must be embraced, if only to inform language and technology practitioners of some of the challenges that lie ahead. Some may argue that this is too little too late, and this may be correct. However, if the full promise of technology is to be captured it is imperative that this three way dialectic is addressed.

Language, thought and technology

Sociolinguistic theory recognizes a continuum between language and thought, ‘mould theories’ and ‘cloak theories’. Mould theories characterize language as ‘…a mould in terms of which thought categories are cast’ (Bruner et al 1956: 11), while cloak theories offer the role of language as ‘…a cloak conforming to the customary categories of thought of its speakers’ (ibid). This distinction is further developed when addressing the ‘Sapir-Whorf hypothesis’, which is associated with the two principles of linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity, where in the case of the former, our thought patterns are determined by our language, while in the case of the latter, speakers of different languages perceive and interface with the world differently (Chandler 1995: 89; Anthonissen & Kaschula 1995: 17).

Whether the Whorfian perspective is accepted in its strongest form, which holds that ‘language determines thought and often behavior’, (Slobin 1971: 122) or if other less extreme forms are explored, there is sufficient consensus within the debate that some degree of Whorfian perspectives are in operation. However, an alternative view holds that ‘linguistic skill depends very, very heavily upon a pre- existing perceptual capacity’ (Premack and Woodruff 1978: 606). This area is well researched, and debates abound. It is clear that language plays an integral role in the interface between all cultures and their communing with wider reality and as a consequence with technology. The separateness that is implied by the Sapir-Whorf debates address language as deterministic and relative, implicitly of a separate nature.

Obviously, the concept of technological relativity offers scope for much debate as well, at its simplest level all technology is the same. However, in the context of this chapter the term will be used to define the relative ability of the user in terms of mobilizing technology for their personal and professional development, as this is key in terms of the dialectic. However, initially the interface between language determinism and technological determinism needs to be explored, in order to garner any lessons that the comprehensive debate around this language determinism has generated over the years. This is by nature a very wide area and the goal of this chapter is to lay a suitable base for further investigation and evaluation, in order to create a framework for assessing the wider social impact of technology on the human condition. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. Developing a suitable framework for how technological determinism may be developed, Sapir’s observations offer an ideal starting point for the balance of the chapter:

Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the 'real world' is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir 1958 [1929]: 69)

The application of extreme Sapir-Whorfian theory is not widely accepted and consequently does not require any rigorous engagement in this chapter. However, the characteristics of Moderate Whorfianism, are relevant to this debate. Chandler identifies these as1: (WR6)

 the emphasis is on the potential for thinking to be 'influenced' rather than unavoidably 'determined' by language;

 it is a two-way process, so that 'the kind of language we use' is also influenced by 'the way we see the world';

 any influence is ascribed not to 'Language' as such or to one language compared with another, but to the use within a language of one variety rather than another (typically a sociolect - the language used primarily by members of a particular social group);

 emphasis is given to the social context of language use rather than to purely linguistic considerations, such as the social pressure in particular contexts to use language in one way rather than another.

This moderate approach offers an ideal framework for addressing the issues of technological determinism. Chandler observes that Marshall McLuhan argued in books such as The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962) and Understanding Media (1964) ‘that the use of new media was the prime cause of fundamental changes in society and the human psyche. The technological determinism of his stance can be seen as an application of extreme Whorfianism to the nature of media in general (WR6)’. The changes that McLuhan observes and attributes to technology precede the ubiquitous technological contemporaneous reality. At the time of his observation the only technology that could be said to be ubiquitous to all human societies was language.

In summary, the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis has two distinct parts (WR7):

1 The first two can be said to be the wider philosophical issues of language and reality, while the others are more focussed on the nature and usage of language. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. 1. Linguistic determinism – language determines thought

2. Linguistic relativity – difference in language equals difference in thought

As indicated above the hypothesis has two versions of interpretation which hold that language determines world-view and perception and the more moderate version, which holds that language influences world-view and perception (WR7). Accepting the wide impact of technology and the associate technological determinism, there are a number of possible routes that technology’s impact can take and using the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis as a reference could generate the following parts by substituting technology for language:

1. Technological determinism – technology determines thought

2. Technological relativity – differences in technology equals difference in thought

Using Moderate Whorfianism as reference ‘that thoughts and behaviour are partially influenced by language’ (Umoh and Udoh 2011: 8), it is not too much of a conceptual leap to state that moderate technological determinism would be where ‘thoughts and behaviour are partially influenced by technology’. This interchangeability between language and technology in this context is firmly located within the concept of language as technology. Consequently, the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis in all its renditions captures the essence of the present focus in terms of contemporary human existence as technologically determined. In this case the hypothesis is ideal as the nature of a technologically mediated world is likely to have significant impact on the concept of human thought and by extension the differences and similarities. As stated earlier in the chapter all technology in its most basic form is the same, but unlike languages, other technologies are more uniform, and there is no significant risk of the Tower of Babel for contemporary technologies.

Umoh and Udoh (ibid) observe that ‘the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis may be inadequate in many areas, [but] it fits well into the picture of a globalised world’ (ibid: 12). In this case the concept of a globalised world ‘is one in which political, economic, cultural and social events become more and more connected’ (ibid). This global integration, the ‘Global village’, will inevitably call for a common lingua franca, which technology is presenting through its reach and flexibility. It is not a far stretch of the imagination to foresee a ‘Facebook language’ or ‘the language of Facebook’ accessible across all cultures provided they have access and do use Facebook.

Returning to McLuhan’s observations, Chandler (WR8) argues that ‘changes in the dominate medium of communication as the main determinant of major changes in society’ held true in the 1960s and is an aphorism in the 21st century. With the invention of print, new social and economic concepts became characteristic of the new social order viz: individualism, privacy, specialization, mass production, etc. (WR8). Ironically for at least one of these the new technological applications have seen the reverse of privacy as people become extroverted existentialists broadcasting their lives to the wider world and sometimes showing very little understanding of the wider context of the audience i.e. observe the numerous Twitter comments which are later withdrawn. IGI Global Microsoft Word 2007 Template

Reference templateInstructions.pdf for detailed instructions on using this document. In order to adequately begin the journey towards a Sapir-Whorfian perspective of the technological nature of human existence requires a distinction between two very different concepts. These are both technological thought and technologically enhanced thought. The ideal starting point is Heidegger’s essay ‘The Question Concerning Technology’, which is challenging to interpret. Heidegger ‘pioneered a new way of thinking about technology’ (Waddington 2005: 568). Heidegger’s aim in his essay is to develop an understanding of the ways of thinking that underpin technology and that would allow humans to ‘enter into a “free relationship” with technology’ (ibid). Fundamentally, Heidegger dismissed the idea that ‘technology is simply a means to an end’ (ibid: 569). Essentially this represents the area of technological thought or perhaps the philosophy of technology. In terms of the present focus, it is the concept of technologically enhanced thought or more succinctly, technological determinism, where technology determines thought.

As pointed out above when language is treated as technology and the concept of language and thought are explored, a prima facie conclusion that all thought is technologically determined is easily inferred. This inference may render the topic tautological in so far as the technology of thought is language and language of technology is artificial thought. Consequently, the topic at hand is perhaps less about a static application of the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis and rather a dynamic assessment of the changing nature of technology and its impact on thought.

Conclusion

In conclusion, technology has been the defining aspect of differentiating humans from other species, from the controlling of fire and language through printing, steam engines, flying machines and the silicon chip, humans have been able to alter their environment and the path of their evolution. The key technology can be said to be language, as it is the tool through which all others are mobilized. Whichever aspects of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis are adopted, the essence of human thought is language; the internal narrative for all humans is first and foremost based on their language. As technologies, other than language, become part of this internal narrative, the impact of the medium not only on the message but as an integral part of forging the message will become more common. This will fundamentally change the nature of thought.

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