Premier’s Macquarie Bank Science Scholarship

Iceland—Geology and schools

Dr Raimund Pohl Cheltenham Girls’ High School

Sponsored by Iceland is a remote country with a highly adapted and self-sufficient population that has developed its educational resources to suit its needs. The education process has developed into a system which maintains the concept of community as opposed to the concept of city life. The students in Icelandic schools are much more mature when entering university or the workforce, which promotes a sense of self-achievement and sound understanding of community and purpose as an independent nation. Iceland is a very tectonically active area, providing a real window into the mechanisms and processes that shape not just this country but also other countries. The level of expertise in earth sciences is very high at the senior school and university levels. Study focus The focus of the study has provided:  first hand information through fieldwork and vulcanology lectures about the shaping of Iceland;  a forum of discussion with the University of Iceland’s Science Institute and with science educators and principals in Icelandic schools; and  perspectives into university and school education. The university perspective My discussions with lecturers and the director of the Nordic Volcanos Institute of the University of Iceland regarding the schooling system were extensive. After four years of senior schooling, students sit for qualifying examinations to enter university. However, recent changes have been made. Students now may:  elect to go to specialised schools, such as performing arts or apprenticeship schools;  attend comprehensive high schools, which are similar to those found in NSW, for four years and then qualify for university entrance. The university people in Iceland are concerned, as are their counterparts in NSW, about the lack of student academic rigour. The director of the Volcanos Institute had found that it was best to teach students geology when they were young so that their interest could be further developed as they matured. University teaching methods All lectures in the earth sciences are presented in English, as the University’s Volcanos Institute has students from many different European and other countries. The lectures that I observed for the teaching and learning process were for first-year students. The methodology employed by the lecturers was a formal discussion approach based on authentic experiences based on the lecturer’s research. The material presented was supported by PowerPoint presentations, videos and questioning techniques which allowed the students to reflect on what was taught. Other lecturers who taught second and third year students taught in a much more didactic lock-step manner than those teaching first-year students. However, in general, the didactic method is not the pattern followed by the lecturers, who seem to prefer an authentic method involving real life situations in their approach when delivering course material. Many of the lecturers also teach through the use of process skills and understandings. This is done to allow for the diversity of students from the European countries whose skills in English may not be at university level. All lecturers ensure that their material is available on the university’s intranet, together with assignments and additional course material and readings. Fieldwork and practical laboratory work is based on the application of concepts learnt in lectures. It should be noted that many of the students go overseas to undertake postgraduate courses. This provides Iceland with an exceptionally diverse academic and progressive perspective and, as a result, has produced a very efficient and socially cohesive workforce. The school perspective Senior schools The Menntaskóli in Reykjavik is a typical senior high school catering for students from 16 to 20 years of age. Students on entry choose one of two strands that they would like to follow. These are the humanities or science strands. In their second year the students doing the science strand can proceed into either the life sciences or the physical sciences. These are then developed further in their third and fourth years. In their final year the course work is consolidated for entry into university. A similar situation exists for the students following the humanities strand. The students at senior high schools are extremely well versed in their subject material, which provides students with skills and knowledge at the first year level of NSW universities. The depth of knowledge that the students have prior to entering a university is of at least the International Baccalaureate standard. The current government is heavily influenced by what is happening in other countries in terms of content and duration of courses. There are moves afoot to reduce the number of years that students spend at senior high schools. This is being fiercely opposed by the senior schools as the system works extremely well for Iceland and makes Iceland one of the most educated countries in Scandinavia, Europe and the Americas. The academic rigor allows students to enter universities from around Scandinavia, Europe and the United States. Menntaskóli Geology Theory class.

It has been mentioned that the longer education period merges well with the long life span of the Icelanders. Many people wish to retain this longer education period as it has sensible implications for the Icelandic economy. Hamrahlid Senior School follows a similar curriculum pattern to that of Menntaskóli in Reykjavik. Subjects are undertaken as a term course of three months. Each subject is allocated a number of credit points, which accumulate over the year. At present there are many optional courses; however, if the government does minimise the number of years spent at school, the students will not have as many options to choose from in the future. School teaching methods It was apparent on our visits to senior schools that course work was carried out either as a class cohort or a subject-based cohort. Science practical classes are small, consisting of no more than 12 students for each group. This provides better teaching and learning, as well as giving students greater motivation to achieve high grades. In comparison to what is done in NSW schools, in practical sessions, the Icelandic schools would appear to provide a better classroom practice with a small group rather than a senior class of 24 students clustered in one laboratory. Students have ready access to the Internet and school’s intranet, and from what was observed the students are taught in a traditional manner but with all the best digital technology available. Students are able to access the teacher’s notes without any problems. What was also surprising was the high standard that the teachers had in terms of computer training. One aspect of the geology course was a real life section on their use of geothermal energy. Students learn the geology of the geothermal outputs. What temperatures are at specific locations and how to manage the long-term use of geothermal resources. This practical application of the geology they learn enables the students to meaningfully relate geology to their lives.

Geology theory room, Hamrahlid Senior School. Chemistry Laboratory, Hamrahlid Senior School.

The geology department runs four outstanding excursions to local sites within the Reykjavik area. After excursions the students have access to a web site that has been prepared by the geology teachers which helps the students write and research the material about their field trip. A picture database is also available to the students. Junior schools Essentially the schooling system is divided into early childhood followed by elementary school, which goes to year 9. There are many junior schools throughout Iceland, so that students have easy access to schooling. The Austurbæjarskóli is one such school, of many that were visited, catering for 600 students. This school has been a model for other schools. Some 200 students aged between 13 and 15 years are enrolled. Subjects studied included Icelandic, English, Maths, Science, History, Cooking, Computing and Art. Science lessons are restricted to a generalised theory and some basic practical work. There is more emphasis at this level on theory than practical work. This is in contrast to what is done in NSW public schools, where more practical is done. Biology, Chemistry, Geology and Physics are taught to students from their seventh year.

Biology at Austurbæjarskóli Háteigskóli

One aspect of interest was that the students had a topic in geology that they had selected for themselves and given some initial starting materials, were required to make a PowerPoint presentation and teach their peers about the topic. They had ready access to many scientific models, which they could use in their talks. There was very little emphasis on excursions though this is changing. For each of the sciences there is a specific textbook. It is not a generalised science text as in NSW schools. The students were very relaxed and uninhibited speaking freely with their teachers. All the students appeared to be working well and enjoying their work. Many of the teachers work using a lapel microphone to provide the instructions needed to ensure the smooth running of the class. Of interest, teachers do not do playground duty. This is a function carried out by staff employed for this purpose. Significant learning In education While in Iceland the opportunity arose to visit and talk with principals and teachers regarding the schooling system. The education system is structured differently to the NSW education system. Compulsory education in Iceland is organised in a single-structure system, i.e. primary and lower secondary education form part of the same school level and usually take place in the same school. There are no entrance requirements at this school level, and all children are accepted at the age of six years. All compulsory schools are coeducational. Compulsory school is divided into 10 grades. Three types of schools are the most common:  schools that have all 10 grades;  schools that have grades 1 to 7; and  schools that have grades 8 to 10. Nationally coordinated examinations occur at the end of compulsory education and these are composed, marked and organised by the Educational Testing Institute. Exams are based on referenced criteria. Marks are awarded and range from 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest. There are several types of upper secondary schools and these are:  senior schools that offer four years of academic programs which conclude with matriculation examinations;  industrial–vocational schools that offer theoretical and practical programs of study in skilled and some non-skilled trades; and  comprehensive schools that provide academic programs comparable to those of the grammar schools and vocational programs similar to those offered by the industrial– vocational schools, as well as other specialised vocational training programs. Upper secondary schools either have traditional classes or forms, or operate according to a unit-credit system. In a unit-credit system, the educational content of each subject is divided into a number of defined course units, which last for one semester. The unit-credit system allows students to regulate the speed at which they complete their education, i.e. to accelerate their studies or take more time, according to their personal circumstances. The unit-credit system is the most common form of upper secondary education. It was interesting to note that students in general have a very good rapport with their teachers. This may be attributed to the maturity level of the students. This may also be attributed to the cultural mores of Iceland, where communities are still small comparatively speaking, and thus speaking freely with adults is considered the norm rather than the exception. The education system is one of the factors that keep the current unemployment rate between 2 and 3 per cent. It was noted that the ratio of girls to boys going to university was in the order of three to two for most faculties other than the earth sciences. There are approximately equal numbers of males to females in geology. The numbers are made up from students who come from overseas to study. It is easier for girls to go to university than boys, as boys perceive the need to be a money earner so that they may socialise. There is also a male perception that boys should be money earners and hence get more respect. In geology Geologically, Iceland is very significant because it is no more than 25 million years old. The geology is complex, and different types of volcanos and lavas have shaped the country. The process of rifting of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge as it rises onto land over a hotspot is scientifically significant as it enables the study of processes such as fracturing, faulting and volcanism. It also shows that the rifts jump laterally every few million years. These jumps can be as large as 100 km in distance. The spreading of the plates at the current ridge in total is 2 cm per year, i.e. 1 cm east and west. While volcanism builds the land, it is also a feature of crustal spreading, which needs to be seen against the various processes of chemical and physical erosion. Where there is weathering but little erosion, rich soils form throughout Iceland, making up approximately 4 per cent of the land. Areas of slight erosion make up 26 per cent of the land. Agricultural production is limited due to the climatic conditions. Due to the rifting processes and associated fracturing of the bedrock, Iceland is in a unique position to make use of geothermal energy to produce electricity. There are many geothermal energy plants around Iceland. A unique feature is that cold water taken from the top of low-temperature aquifers and lakes is then heated by geothermally hot water derived from high-temperature bores to provide steam to produce electricity. If the steam from the high-temperature bores were used directly in the pipes, it would cause corrosion of the turbines and pipes because of the dissolved minerals it contains. The edge of a rift and fracturing of the A móberg ridge. Mid-Oceanic Ridge at Thingvellir.

Crater Surtur II. Nesjavellir Geothermal Plant.

Areas of major settlement derive their hot water from the geothermal power plants. All the fresh water is taken from covered boreholes whose depth ranges from 10 to 140 metres. The water reservoirs for Reykjavik are located in the Heidmörk area. The volcanic island of Surtsey is the youngest pristine environment on Earth. It is part of a larger submarine volcano, which is a 6-km-long east-northeast trending submarine ridge that rises from a depth of 125 metres and covers 14 square kilometres. The subaerial component of the volcano in 1998 was approximately 1.5 square km. The eruption produced two craters, Surtur I and Surtur II, with their respective tuff cones. Surtsey erupted in 1963 and the eruption lasted for three and half years. The different types of lava found on Surtsey provide a clearer interpretation of the geological forces at work. Scientifically, the island is significant because it provides a pristine environment to study the geological and biological processes that occur with minimal human interference. On the mainland, volcanic fissures or central volcanos can form under glaciers. By forming under glaciers they take on different shapes from the subaerial volcanic types. Every volcanic system is characterised by its own shape and magma chemistry. Fissure swarms are narrow, elongated strips approximately 20 km wide and 100 km long and include tensional cracks, normal faults and volcanic fissures. They are the above-ground representation of crustal magma. Fissure swarms are aligned sub- parallel to the axis of the rift zone. The swarms illustrate the fundamental forces of plate divergence. Associated with fissure swarms are fault scarps and grabens, which are features of the vertical and extension displacements of crustal blocks. Young volcanic fissures appear as a row of volcanic cones. The fissures that erupted beneath the Ice Age glaciers occur as móberg ridges. Conclusions It is apparent that the universities both in Iceland and in NSW are concerned about the degree of academic rigour, especially in the areas of science and mathematics. The university lecturers would prefer to have a greater emphasis on the sciences, particularly in the earth sciences so that students have a better understanding of the structure and the forces that shape the Earth and its resources. Sustainability of resources can only come through a better understanding of earth sciences. Both lecturers and teachers of the earth sciences agree that knowledge and understanding is best learnt through field activities coupled with commensurate theoretical instruction. In terms of teaching strategies and methods, lecturers and teachers make use of skills and understandings. In many cases, computer technology is used to a very high degree in presenting material to students. The level of computer expertise among teachers in Iceland is much higher than that of NSW teachers. All the lecturers and many of the teachers have their notes and assignments on the intranet so that students may access these at any time. The textbooks for all year levels used in Icelandic schools are written with the syllabus in mind. This is not the situation in NSW schools, where the texts are generalised. Like NSW, the students of Iceland undertake several years of compulsory education before proceeding to senior school. The difference is that there are four years of schooling before sitting for matriculation examinations. This provides the students with a greater maturity before going on to university. It enables the students to choose more wisely what they would like to do as a career. Perhaps a 13th year would be an advantage for the NSW school system. The geology of Iceland is very dramatic and complex. Learning about the tectonic processes in situ provides a gateway to a deeper understanding of the processes that shape our Earth. While Australia is subject to some tectonic activity and also is complex in its formation, it is a land that has been shaped through a long period of geological time; Iceland on the other hand is still in the making. Understanding the processes is challenging and rewarding. The use of geological resources in Iceland makes the country a world leader in the use of sustainable energy. The visit to Surtsey and Heimaey were the climax of the study, as they encapsulated the tectonic forces at work. More attention could be given to these processes in the NSW syllabus so that students achieve a better understanding of the planet Earth. Acknowledgments The following personnel are acknowledged for their generous support in providing detailed information and contributing to the education of students in NSW public schools. In Iceland Dr Thor Thordarson, University of Iceland Nordic Volcanos Institute Dr Freysteinn Sigmundsson, University of Iceland Nordic Volcanos Institute Mr. Olafur Sigurjonsson, Heimaey Senior School Mr. George Douglas, Hamrahlid Senior School Mr. Guthbjartur Kristófersson, Menntaskoli in Reykjavik Dr Sveinn P Jakobsson, Surtsey Research Institute Department of Foreign Affairs, Iceland National Energy Authority: B Steingrimsson. M Olafsson. K Sæmundsson, S Jónssen The Icelandic Coast Guard In Australia The Premier of NSW, Bob Carr Macquarie Bank NSW Department of Education and Training Mr R Gibson, Honorary Consul for Iceland in Australia Dr Martin Van Kranendonk, Western Australian Geological Survey Dr Nathan Daczko, Macquarie University Emeritus Prof R Vernon, Macquarie University Prof R Flood, Macquarie University Educational institutions visited Ministry for Education and Science in Iceland University of Iceland Menntaskóli in Reykjavik Menntaskóli in Hamrahlid Austurbæjarskóli* Framhaldsskolinn Vestmannaeyjum in Heimaey Háteigskóli* Grunnskóli* Akureyri talk with teacher Pierre and Marie Curie University Jussieu Campus (University of France)

*Most compulsory schools teach very little science; emphasis is on compulsory languages.