Unit 17 Study Questions

Unit 17 Study Questions ( any 35) Chapter 16 pages 575-588 1. How did the US abandon the Open Door Policy and why? 575 2. What was the significance of Billy Mitchell and would you have listened to him? Explain 576 3. What was a Mussolini Fascist? 577 4. What did George Kenan say about Mussolini Fascism and do you agree with his statement? Explain. 577 5. What did Breckinridge Long say about Mussolini’s taking of Ethiopia and do you agree with his statement and do you agree with the actions of the League of Nations on Ethiopia? 578 6. What pattern was set in motion with America’s and Britain’s actions in France? 578-79 7. Should have the US and the League of Nations intervened to help China against Japan? Explain. 579-80 8. What was the significance of the Flying Tigers and USS Panay? 579-80 9. US isolation only helped aggressive countries like Japan. ATVOTS. 580-81 10. Summarize the NYE Committee and assess its accuracy. 581 11. What was the tariff policy of the US and Secretary of State Hull and was the policy appropriate and effective for the 1930’s? 581 12. What were the Neutrality Acts and what countries benefited from them? What about morality? 581-82 13. Summarize the Cash – N – Carry policy of America and assess its effectiveness. 581-82 14. What message did FDR send to Hitler in 1939 and what did Hitler do with the message? 583 15. What was the blitzkrieg and do you agree with America’s neutrality during and after the blitz? 583 16. Summarize the Destroyer Deal and the Lend Lease Act and discuss if they would lead America into war. 584 17. What countries did Communist Soviet (USSR) take over in 1939? 583-84 18. How did British propaganda impact America’s involvement in WWII? 584-85 19. FDR was twice saved by the same war (WWII). ATVOTS. 586 20. Should FDR have run for a third term as President? Explain 587 21. Identify the areas that Germany had conquered and what country was the last in Europe not conquered by Germany? 588 22. FDR’s concern with the ballot box ensured that at some time the US military forces would take a beating. ATVOTS 588

Chapter 17 Chapter 17 study questions, Democracy’s Finest Hour, 1941-45 1. Compare the production capabilities of Japan to America. 590 2. Japan’s doom was sealed when General Tojo became leader of the country. ATVOTS. 590-91 3. Summarize the Japanese Bushido warrior code. 591 4. Explain the Export Control Act (Embargo Act) and assess its effectiveness. 592 5. Summarize the success and failures of the Japanese at Pearl Harbor. 594 6. US war with Germany would have happened without the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. ATVOTS 596 7. The US was not ready for war because FDR was more concerned about the ballot box. ATVOTS. 596 8. Summarize how women helped in the war effort by explaining the WAVES and the WACS. 597 9. Summarize the role DISNEY played in the war effort. 599 10. Capitalism USA buried the fascists and the imperialists. ATVOTS 600 11. Summarize the impact of Andrew Jackson Higgins in the war effort. 602 12. Identify FDR’s decisions on taxes and assess their appropriateness and effectiveness. 602-03 13. Summarize the role of Einstein in US creation of the atomic bomb. 603 14. Stalin was a real threat and FDR should have listened more to Churchill’s warning about him. ATVOTS 605 15. Summarize the Bataan Death March. 608 16. America had reasonable cause to put Japanese Americans into internment camps during WWII. ATVOTS. 608-09 17. Summarize the significance of Col. Doolittle. 610 18. Summarize the significance of the Coral Sea. 610 19. Summarize the miracle at Midway. 610-11 20. Summarize the rise and decline of the German U-boats in WWII. 612 21. June 6, 1941, D-Day , was the longest day of the war. ATVOTS 615-616 22. Summarize the Battle of the Bulge. 618 23. FDR was naïve of the intentions of Stalin. ATVOTS. In your response reference the Yalta Conference and the Atlantic Charter. 619 24. Stalin had spies in the US and knew of the Atomic Bomb before being told by FDR. ATVOTS. 619-20 25. The US could have and should have done more to help the Jews. ATVOTS 622 26. Summarize the impact of Guadalcanal and Iwo Jima. 623-25 27. Summarize Operation Decision. 625-26 28. Discuss the role of battles at Tarawa, Aleutian Islands, Sapai on US and Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb. 628 29. US use of the atomic bomb on Japan was appropriate and effective. ATVOTS 628-30 30. Summarize Japanese treatment of POW’s (Prisoners of War). 630 31. WWII was a war between barbarism and civilization and civilization won. ATVOTS 630 Unit 17 – Democracy’s Finest Hour, WWII, 1941-45

I. Summarize and evaluate the actions and decisions of America in foreign affairs.

A. In Latin America countries the Good Neighbor Policy was enacted by Hoover and continued under FDR. The goal was to improve relations with LA countries to foster better economic ties and also to establish alliances in case of a war. Examples of relations with LA countries are explained below:

1. The Montevideo Conference of 1933 saw America pledge to not intervene in Latin American countries affairs. This in effect was supposed to end the Roosevelt Corollary. The Platt Amendment from the Spanish American War of 1898 was removed although the naval base at Guantanamo remained. US troops located in Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic were removed. In Mexico, oil properties owned by Americans were confiscated by Mexico and America did not step in to stop it. US Ambassador to Mexico named Darrow helped in the negotiation process.

2. Buenos Aires Conference of 1936 America pledged to submit future disputes between Latin American countries to arbitration. Alliances between US and LA countries developed from it.

3. Lima Conference of 1938 America and Latin American countries agreed to forbid any racial or religious persecution. Also stated in the Conference was that no immigrant can be loyal to their home country.

4. Reciprocal Trade Agreement of 1934 America pledged to reduce tariffs with other countries. President FDR was authorized to reduce tariffs up to 50% as long as other countries did the same. The goal was to increase trade to stimulate the economies of America and LA. Numerous LA countries did enter into agreements with America to reduce tariffs.

B. The Tydings McDuffie Act of 1934 was made with the Philippines allowing them to have total independence as a country in 1946. According to the US Congress the Filipinos had met the qualifications of proving themselves capable of running themselves after a little more tutelage economically and politically from America they would have full control of their control which was promised to them the Jones Act of 1916. The US naval base in Manila would stay.

C.. London Conference of 1933 America pledged to enter into an agreement to stabilize world currencies at certain rates in the hope of reviving the world economy. FDR later pulled back from the agreement.

D. The Soviet Union and America relations were becoming more and more complex and strained since WWI. The problems resulted largely from a totally different political and economic ideology. Russia became a communist country in 1917 in the Bolshevik Revolution during WWI and America did not recognize their communist government until 1933. FDR finally recognized the communist government even though he said they were not housebroken yet. America along with other countries after WWI in 1919 were involved in the Archangel Expedition to remove the communists from Russia but the attempt failed which initiated much distrust between Russian and America. Russia wanted to and sought to expand communism throughout the world and establish spheres of influence in the world. America sought to expand republicanism/democracy in the world. Russian communism placed the country (state) above all else. The individual was subordinate to the country and the goal of the country was the goal of all peoples in the country. This is called statism. The goal of communism is collectivism where all people will be in a utopian state of equality. A select few of people will rule the country in this manner and determine how items will be distributed and how issues will be handled. Equality is more important than individual liberty. Conversely, America places extreme emphasis on liberty and free will and is willing to allow inequalities for the sake of choice. WWII brought America and Russia into an unusual and complex alliance to defeat Germany and Japan. The previous alliance or non-aggression pact that Russia had made with Germany and the collective conquering and then splitting of Poland in 1939 made an alliance with America and Russia at anytime highly improbable. Germany’s invasion of Russia in 1942 breaking the non-aggression pact eventually led America and Russia to become an ally with one another although trust was low. America was slow to open up a 2nd battle front on Germany in the west to help relieve German pressure on the eastern front in Russia which frustrated and upset Russia. Once allies in WWII America was reluctant to share technology and did not inform Russia they had an atomic bomb. Russia had spies in America and already knew of the atomic bomb. Although America and Russia were allies it was extremely evident there were tensions in existence. A Cold War seemingly existed before the Cold War came into being after WWII. The Cold War after WWII was an undeclared secret war between America and Russia involving spying and espionage and the building up of weapons. Diplomacy and peace would be tested many times in the Cold War from 1945-1990.

II. Summarize and evaluate the rise of TOTALITARIANISM in the world after WWI through the 1920’s and 1930’s.

A. What is TOTALITARIANISM? It is a form of government where the nation is glorified and upheld above all else. The people exist collectively for the betterment of the nation. Freedoms are greatly limited and individual liberty is viewed as a hindrance to the nation. The government is usually led by an oppressive dictator or a small group of self described knowledgeable elites who regulate and control the people. A futuristic utopian state of greatness for the country is communicated and envisioned with little specific description on how to achieve that greatness. The greatness is defined in extremely broad terms. It is often called statism. This political utopianism is disguised as desirable, workable ideology. People are expected to follow and those who do not follow the leader or leaders’ vision are characterized as unpatriotic and uncooperative and selfish, and so on. Racism and intolerance permeates the government. Militarism also is greatly associated with it. Totalitarianism is associated with tyranny. Tyranny broadly defined is the use of power to dehumanize the individual and delegitimize his individuality, nature, and liberty. No two totalitarianism utopian governments are the same and examples of totalitarianism governments are listed below.

1. The Soviet Union (Russia) became a Communist nation 1st under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin and then Joseph Stalin. Stalin killed millions. He called his killings purges. He would send troops throughout the country to find anybody not in support of the Government and then kill them. Obedience and subordination to the Government was demanded. It was a totalitarian government.

2. Germany became a Fascist nation under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. The economy of Germany was devastated after WWI and Germany as a whole was humiliated and angry about the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler sought to exploit the economical and emotional condition of Germany to gain power and put in place a totalitarian government. He presented his government in a socialist model. He tried to overthrow the German Government in the early 1920’s but was unsuccessful and was put in jail. While in jail he wrote Mien Kampf which outlined his political ideology. As a member of the Socialist Nazi Party in 1933 he was elected as Chancellor of Germany. He promised jobs, growth, and greatness for the country. He promised revenge and also he used what people feared to his advantage. Not long after he became Chancellor he invoked laws that made him in essence a dictator with all authority over Germany. (Heil Hitler) He used propaganda, intimidation, and violence to get and maintain his power. His Brown Shirt troops were first used by him to eradicate all opposition and then he used his Black Shirt troops (the SS) to remove the Brown Shirts and all other resistance. Obedience and subordination to the Government was demanded. It was a totalitarian government.

3. Italy became a Fascist nation under the leadership of Mussolini nicknamed El Duce. The economy of Italy was also devastated after WWI. Mussolini tried unsuccessfully to gain power politically in his Socialist Party. In 1922 he marched on Rome with supporters and 1000 soldiers and took over the Italian Government with little resistance. He became the supreme leader of Italy ruling like a dictator. Business was forced to allow the Government to control their affairs which was called corporatism. Individuals were forced to allow the Government to control their affairs for the betterment of the country as a whole. Obedience and subordination to Government was demanded. It was a totalitarian government.

4. Japan became a Militarist nation under the leadership of General Tojo. The economy of Japan was devastated in the 1920’s. Emperor Hirohito was the leader of Japan and was held in god like status in the eyes of the Japanese. Military leaders led by General Tojo believed Japan would not survive without expanding its empire. Japan needed natural resources to grow and their country did not have them. The military leaders concluded they must take over the Government of Japan to attain this expansion. Emperor Hirohito was made into a figure head as they could not get rid of him because of his god like status amongst the people. Hirohito had no choice in the matter. The military of Japan now controlled Japan and obedience and subordination to Government was demanded. It was a totalitarian government.

5. These 4 totalitarian governments created a setting in the world that was precarious and volatile much like the setting prior to WWI. Japan, Germany, and Italy entered into a secret alliance with one another called the AXIS Alliance in 1937. As part of the alliance each country would not impede and in some cases support the expansion of each others country. Russia and Germany entered into a secret non-aggression pact to not impede one another’s conquests as well as split Poland after Germany took it over in 1939. The totalitarian governments of the world were growing in power and the world would be drastically changed by them. The concept of liberty and individualism was being assailed and attacked by them. America and other countries were largely preoccupied with solving the Great Depression and were also weary and fearful of getting involved in another horrific war like WWI.

III. Assess the appropriateness and effectiveness of America’s position on foreign affairs in the 1930’s. (Did America lean too far towards isolationism and neutrality?)

A. The policies of the Washington Disarmament Conference of the 1920s were continued.

B. America created the Hoover-Stimson Doctrine in the late 1920’s. America declared it would not recognize the conquests of any country. For example, if Germany conquered Belgium then America would still consider Belgium to be an independent country and not part of Germany. The Rio de Janiero Conference of 1934 extended the Doctrine.

C. America signed the Kellogg-Briad Act of 1928. This Act outlawed war except in the case for defensive purposes. 62 nations of the world committed to it.

D. The Dawes Plan and Young Plan which devised schemes to get countries to pay back their loans to America for items bought during WWI were cancelled. The Debt Default Act of 1934 cancelled almost all debt that America loaned to European countries in WWI. E. The Nye Committee of 1934 which was a group Senators proclaimed that big business was the reason America got involved in WWI. Big Business loaned money and traded with countries at war (belligerents) which eventually they concluded dragged America into a war that was none of America’s business. The big businesses of WWI were called MERCHANTS of DEATH by the committee and the media.

F. A bill that forbid America from getting involved in any war was proposed in the 1930’s and it came close to passing but did fail. Legislators in America fearful of another world war then proposed and passed the NUETRALITY ACTS. * Neutrality Act of 1935 forbid America from selling war materials of any kind to any country that was at war. It also forbids any American from traveling on ships of countries that were at war. * Neutrality of 1936 forbid America from giving loans to any country that was at war. The President would have the authority to determine what constituted war. * Neutrality of 1937 forbid America from selling war materials or loaning funds to any country that was in a Civil War. * the Totalitarian Governments of the world (Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia) were pleased to hear of America’s Neutrality Acts because they basically would have little if any interference from America in their conquests and wars. America was willing to forsake the ability to travel freely in the seas of the world and the ability trade freely with countries in the world for the sake of neutrality. G. America created the Panama Declaration in 1938. This declared that no European country could have their navies in the western hemisphere. This declaration was most definitely related to the Monroe Doctrine. The Act of Havana was created in 1940 which was also related to the Panama Declaration. It stated that colonies of European countries could not be transferred from one country to another after conquests. For example, French colonies in the west hemisphere would not become controlled by Germany after Germany defeats France.

H. The America First Committee was formed in the 1930’s. This organization believed America should be completely isolationist. A main spokesman of the group was Charles Lindbergh. Lindbergh and others wanted to solely concentrate and focus on the affairs of America to improve America.

IV. Evaluate the appropriateness and effectiveness of the Appeasement policy. A. Powerful and leading world countries like Britain and France practiced the Appeasement Policy. America supported the policy as well. The goal of the Appeasement Policy was to avoid another horrific world war like WWI. The risk of another world war would be greatly reduced if the policy was followed. The policy would allow aggressive countries to keep the country they just conquered as long as they promised to not conquer anymore countries. For example, if Germany conquered Norway they could keep Norway without interference economically or militarily from Britain and France as long as they did not conquer another country.

B. How did the Totalitarian Governments of Russia, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Japan view and react to the Appeasement Policy?

* Russia (the Soviet Union) showed little respect for the policy as they supported Germany’s conquering of Poland and then split Poland in half controlling East Poland and Germany controlling West Poland. They also conquered Latvia, Lithuania, Latonia, and Finland. They showed little if any regard for the policy and after conquering one country and promising to not take any others they then took others. The policy did not deter them. * Italy showed little respect for the policy as they conquered country after country despite promises to stop the conquests. They conquered Ethiopia in 1935 disposing their leader Selassie. Selassie appealed to the League of Nations for help but no assistance was given and his country became controlled by Mussolini. In 1935 Mussolini sent Italian troops into Albania to conquer them and control the Adriatic Sea. Italy showed little if any regard for the policy and after promising to stop conquering they continued to conquer themselves or support the conquests of Germany. The policy did not deter them.

* Spain fell to fascism after a Civil War in 1939. Fascist leader General Franco took over Spain with aid from the fascist countries of Germany and Italy. Countries such as France, Britain, and America did not aid the pro republic opposition to General Franco. Germany sent money, weapons, and troops. Spain then supported and aided the conquests of Germany and Italy. They showed little regard for the policy and the policy did not deter Franco.

* Japan tired of the rule, restraints,& hypocrisy of western countries culture began to totally disregard the Appeasement policy. Japan seized control of Manchuria, a province of China, in 1931. The League of Nations opposed the conquest and then Japan dropped out of the League of Nations. Japan broke their agreement in the Kellogg Briad Pact and in the Washington Disarmament Conference. America according to the Hoover Stimson Doctrine did not recognize Japan’s conquest of Manchuria which did not deter Japan in the least. In 1937 Japan invaded China with the intent of conquering the entire nation of China. The Japanese were utterly brutal in their attacks on the Chinese. Japan’s seize of the Chinese city of Nanking became infamously called the Rape of Nanking where thousands upon thousands of Chinese were slaughtered by the Japanese. America remained neutral but did allow Americans to volunteer and aid the Chinese as they fought the Japanese. US pilots volunteered in the Flying Tigers squadron but again all help was voluntary. Japan goal was to seize and control the regions of the Western Pacific and the Far East. This goal was outlined in their Greater East Asia Company. Japan showed little regard for the Appeasement Policy and it did not deter Japan.

* Germany completely disregarded the policy and in fact took advantage of it. Germany led by Hitler totally defied the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles from WWI. France was allowed to control the German area of Rhineland after WWI to make sure that Germany would not industrialize itself and manufacture weapons. Germany took control of the Rhineland and France did nothing. Hitler also increased the military breaking another term of the Treaty and nothing was done. In 1938 Germany in effect took control of Austria. In the Anschluss Agreement Austria was forced to unify with Germany or face war with Germany. France, Britain, and other countries did nothing and hoped Germany was satisfied and not conquer any more countries. Also in 1938 Germany seized the Sudetenland which was part of Czechoslovakia. Many ethic Germans lived in the Sudetenland but Czech. did not acquiesce to Germany. The Munich Conference was then called by leaders of the world to settle the dispute of Czech. with Germany. Countries sent the following leaders to the Munich Conference: France = Daladier Britain = Chamberlain Germany = Hitler Italy = Mussolini The agreement reached at Munich allowed Germany to take control of the Sudetenland as long as Germany promised to not take any more land in Czech. or any where else. The goal at Munich was to avoid another horrific war like WWI. Czech was not consulted at Munich. Six months after Munich Germany conquered all of Czech. In 1939 Germany invaded Poland and after only 3 weeks Poland was conquered by Germany. Germany according to their agreement with Russia split Poland allowing Russia to control half while they controlled the other half. France and Britain tired of trying to appease Germany declared war on Germany after their invasion of Poland. WWII had started despite the Appeasement Policy. A period of calm existed in Europe after the declarations of war known now as the “Sitzkreig” where Germany began to mobilize to prepare for further invasions in a Blitzkrieg.

Germany not only had a disregard for the Appeasement Policy but also a total disregard for the sanctity of life. The Germans under the leadership of Hitler began a systematic planned extermination of the Jews (GENOCIDE). The plan involved three steps and Hitler’s mastermind of this three step process was Himmler. 1st = Place the Jews in a state of Terrorization through laws and violence. The Jews were stripped of all their protections under the law. Their homes and business and persons were violated and the German Government allowed it. 2nd = Place the Jews in Ghettos. They were forced from their homes and placed in prescribed areas where they were forced to work and live. They were forced to leave their possessions and their life behind them. 3rd = Place the Jews in Concentration Camps to exterminate them. They would be used as slave labor and when too weak they were killed. Concentration Camps like Auschwitz and others were created for this final stage. At times German soldiers were sent in to the countryside to find Jews and then kill them on the spot. This group of soldiers was called the Einsatzgruppen. The goal was to purify the human race by removing the Jews and others like gypsies. America fearful of entanglement in another world war like WWI did little to help the Jews once aware of the atrocities but full scale knowledge of the German atrocities on the Jews was not well known. America sent back a ship called the St. Louis back to Europe that carried over 1000 Jews. Again, America was fearful of getting in another world war and not fully aware of what was happening.

V. Describe and Examine the “Blitzkrieg” of Germany.

* Norway and Denmark were conquered by Germany in approx. 1 day.

* Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg were conquered by Germany in approx. 5 days.

* France was conquered by Germany in approx. 1 week. Britain sent troops across the English Channel to aid France but they were too late and were cornered by the Germans at Dunkirk. Hitler against the advice of his Generals allowed the British troops to evacuate which would later prove to be a costly error to the Germans. The Germans then sent up a puppet regime called the Vichy Regime in France that obeyed Germany. An underground French resistance movement was created and was run by leader Charles de Gaulle from Britain. * Britain was bombed for 3 solid months by German planes which devastated the cities of Britain and almost broke their will to fight the Germans. The new Prime Minister of Britain, Winston Churchill, lifted the morale of the British by his dogged determination to not surrender to the Germans. Hitler’s plan was to invade Germany with ground troops after the bombings but the resistance of the British prevented such. Churchill and the British implored America for help in their war against Germany but America proclaimed neutrality. The Germans and British fought constantly in the Atlantic vying for control of the seas and it became known as the Battle of Atlantic.

VI. Assess the position of America on WWII. A. America did begin to prepare for war while in a state of neutrality especially as the aggressive actions of Totalitarian countries mounted. B. America slowly began to get closer and closer to war.

* America created another Neutrality Act in 1939 after the fall of Poland to Germany and Russia. The Act allowed America to sell war materials to countries that supported freedom and liberty on a CASH-n CARRY basis. For example, Britain would send a ship to America and pay for weapons in cash and then sail back to Britain.

* America created the Selective Service Act in 1940 after the fall of France to Germany. This was the first peacetime draft in US History with men ages 21 to 35.

* America bolstered its 2 Ocean Navy preparing for a possible war with Germany in the Atlantic Ocean and with Japan in the Pacific Ocean.

* America entered into the Destroyer Deal with Britain. America gave Britain 50 older US Destroyers in exchange for the rights to 8 British Naval bases for 99 years. British ships were also allowed to be repaired in America.

* America to uphold the Monroe Doctrine occupied Greenland and Iceland to prevent German occupation and their strategic use of those countries for naval bases.

* America began to freeze German business assets and material in America and also began to arrest German sailors in America.

* America created intelligence agencies to try to break the war codes of Germany and Japan.

* America created the LEND LEASE Program. The Lend Lease ended the Cash-n-Carry program and allowed Britain to borrow money from America to pay for war materials. President FDR stated the Lend Lease was like giving a garden hose to a person whose house is on fire. He also stated America was becoming the great arsenal of democracy in the world. The Neutrality Acts were in effect voided and American ships were again traveling into war zones to trade.

* US weapons factories were put on maximum production

* US Merchant Marine ships (ships that were not war ships but only ships that were shipping goods) were allowed to arms their ships in the possible event of being attacked by the German Navy. The US Navy was escorting British ships and American Merchant Marine ships across the Atlantic Ocean in convoys to protect them. The US Merchant Marine ship the Robin Moor was the first of many Merchant Marine ships to be sunk by the Germans. America created the American Neutrality Patrol which served to warn British ships of German U-boats and ships. In 1941 after the Merchant Marine ships the Greer, the Kearney, the Rueben James were sunk by the Germans America its Navy the authority to shoot on sight any German ship or U-boat.

* America entered into the Atlantic Charter in 1941 with Britain. Russia after being attacked by Germany also joined the Charter. Germany seeking natural resources for war surprisingly attacked Russia. Hitler went against the advice of many of his Generals in attacking Russia. The Generals did not want another war on two fronts like in WWI. The harsh winter in Russia combined with Russian resistance repelled the German invasion of Russia at the BLOODY battle of Stalingrad. America was reluctant to ally with Russia but the likelihood of a common enemy in Germany made the Charter okay. America had an embargo on Russia for its conquering of Latvia, Latonia, Finland, and other countries and was reluctant to apply the Lend Lease Program to Russia but eventually did. The Atlantic Charter outlined a world after WWII. A United Nations was discussed by FDR and Churchill as was the theme of collective security to protect against world aggressive countries in the future.

* The Committee to Defend America was created. This organization supported and aided countries like Britain and considered them allies of America. They believed aid to Britain for example would in effect be aiding America by helping to protect America in long run because if Britain fell to Germany there would not be any dominant country left to fight Germany other than America. Fake companies were even created to get around the Neutrality Acts before they were repealed to allow weapons to flow into Britain to defeat the Germans.

C. All appearances made it easy to conclude that America was already involved in WWI and had decided which side to be on well before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Dec. 1941. Not everyone in America was ready or willing to engage in another world war like WWI. The American First Committee was formed and this organization supported isolationism and neutrality. They wanted to keep out of European Affairs and concentrate on American affairs domestically. Charles Lindbergh was the main spokesman of the American First Committee.

D. President FDR ran for the Presidency for an unprecedented 3rd term. He broke the precedent set by George Washington because he believed America needed consistency in the midst of the Great Depression and in the likelihood of America entering WWII. He had others nominate him so that it would not appear it was of his doing or wishes. FDR easily defeated the Republican nominee Wilkie in 1940 for his 3rd term. He won again in 1944 against Republican Dewey for his 4th term stating the same reasons. In the 1950’s the 22nd Amendment was added to the US Constitution that limited a Presidents terms to two.

VII. Describe and assess the Road to Pearl Harbor.

A. What events prior to 1930 caused tensions and conflicts between America and Japan? * America sent Matthew Perry to Japan in 1853 forcing Japan to trade with America. Japan did not want to but did so because of military intimidation and threat of America.

* America negotiated a treaty between Japan and Russia in 1905. Teddy Roosevelt received the Noble Peace Prize for his actions in ending the Russo-Japanese War. Neither Japan or Russia were happy with the Treaty of Portsmouth as both countries wanted to settled the war and disputes on their own terms.

* America in 1905 sent the US Navy to tour large areas of the world especially the Far East near Japan. It was called the Great White Fleet naval expedition and it was a display of America’s military strength.

* America segregated Japanese in American schools in San Francisco which led to the Root- Takira Agreement. This ended the segregation as long no Japanese immigrants came to America. Also, Japanese Americans in many cases were forbidden to own land in America.

* America and the allies from WWI (Britain and France) ignored Japan in the negotiation and creation of the Treaty of Versailles which upset Japan. *America and its allies (Britain and France) gave a smaller ratio of ship tonnage compared to the tonnage that Britain and America received in the Washington Disarmament Agreement. Japan did not like this but felt no choice but to agree to it in words. The ratio was 5:5:3.

* America began imposing high protective tariffs on imports coming into America from Japan and other countries. These tariffs greatly hurt the Japanese economy and Japan felt America was purposively trying to economically stagnant Japan. Japan was becoming an industrial and economic world leader and a powerful country and the tariffs were viewed by Japan as an attack on their rising status in the world. Japan was the first Asian country to industrialize.

* Generals in both Japan and America in the 1920’s predicted that war between Japan and America was highly likely to take place in the next decade. Japan viewed America as the sole country that could stop them from achieving their goals and becoming a world power.

B. What events in the 1930’s caused tensions and conflicts between America and Japan?

* Emperor Hirohito was made into a figure head and General Tojo created in essence a totalitarian military rule. This concerned America greatly especially after their goal of controlling the Far East and Western Pacific in their Greater East Asia Company was made known. Emperor Hirohito (a god like figure to the Japanese) mimicked want General Tojo wanted and the people of Japan accepted it without question. General Tojo saw territorial expansion as the only way Japan could become and maintain a world power status. Japan lacked natural resources and thus needed to expand. America again was viewed as the major obstacle in their path preventing such endeavors.

* Japan seized the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. They broke the pledge they made in the Kellogg Briad Pact to not engage in war other than for defensive purposes. America did not recognize Japan’s conquest according the Hoover Stimson Doctrine. Japan kept their conquest and then dropped out of the League of Nations.

* Japan attacked mainland China in 1937 with the goal of conquering and controlling all of Japan. The Japanese had no respect for the culture or people of China seeing them as a lower species of Asians and humans. Numerous atrocities by Japanese against the Chinese were committed. One such atrocity was the siege on the city of Nanking which became infamously known as the Rape of Nanking. America ignoring its on Neutrality Acts sent US Naval ships into the region to help the Chinese evacuate as the Japanese invaded. The US also allowed volunteers to go to China to aid the afflicted and also to fight. Some Americans participated in the voluntary Flying Tigers squadron. FDR allowed such volunteer activities because he concluded that no war actually was going on in China so therefore Americans could help and not break the Neutrality Acts. FDR also gave a speech calling for an embargo/quarantine on Japan which would stop all America trade with Japan. Americans and Congress reacted quickly against it fearing it could lead to another world war like WWI.

* Japan sunk the USS Panay in a Chinese river in 1937. The ship was in China to aid the Chinese in Nanking. On a bright sunny day with the America flag clearly visible on the USS Panay numerous Japan fighter planes bombed the ship killing US sailors and many civilians. Japan apologized saying the pilots mistook the US Panay for a Chinese ship. Although video of the attack clearly showed it was no mistake FDR accepted the apology and Japanese payment for damages. * Japan entered into a secret alliance with Germany and Italy called the Tripartite Pact and called the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis Alliance. Japan would not interfere in the conquests of Germany and vice versa. America found out about it because America had broken the secret war code of the Japanese.

C. What were the final events causing tensions and eventually war between America and Japan?

* In 1940 FDR and Congress imposed an embargo on Japan. This Embargo Act of 1940 stopped American exports to Japan like gas, iron, steel, and more. Japan which was in great need of such material and supplies to maintain its military and their conquests was infuriated.

* In 1941 FDR and Congress expanded the embargo on Japan. This Embargo Act of 1941 restricted the sale of oil to Japan which again greatly hurt the goals of Japan. They needed oil and other materials to maintain their military and conquests and Japan began to see America more and more as the major obstacle if not the only obstacle of fulfilling their goals in the Greater East Asia Company. Without proper supplies many of which came from America, it was believed by America and likely Japan that Japan would be bankrupt and unable to maintain its military by as early as 1942.

* Also in 1941 FDR and Congress froze all Japanese assets in America. This in effect allowed the US Government to confiscate Japanese possessions that were in America.

* America believed these Embargoes would force Japan to stop its conquests and also relinquish regions already conquered. Japan believed the Embargoes would force them to go to war with America. America thought that if Japan did attack America it would be in some far off Western Pacific area like the Philippines.

* Secretary of State Cordell Hull negotiated with Japanese ambassador to America Nomura on numerous occasions. Both Hull and Nomura were fully aware of the tensions between America and Japan. Hull on the authority of FDR informed Nomura that America required Japan to leave China and Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) at once and required Japan to break off its Axis alliance with Germany and Italy. Hull continued to inform Nomura that if Japan did such that then and only then would America lift the Embargoes and resume trade with Japan. Nomura on command from General Tojo stated they would leave Indochina only after they conquered all of China and that they would not stop nor relinquish its conquests of China. Hull and FDR rejected the Japanese position and started to prepare America for the likelihood of war with Japan. General Tojo started to put in place a plan that would attack America and formatted a plan to attack America at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii even as negotiations continued to take place in America between Hull and Nomura. Tojo concluded that since America was not willing to negotiate it was necessary for Japan to start preparing for war with America. Japan at this time was in perhaps in a once in a lifetime position of having a superior and more numerous Naval Fleet than America.

* American intelligence had already broken the Japanese war code and it was discovered that Japan was planning an attack on America soon some where in the Pacific Ocean. America was hoping to delay the attack as long as possible to ready the US Navy and US Army maneuver them into strategic regions and islands. American intelligence believed the likely places of attack would be in Malaya, Philippines, or the Dutch West Indies. Hawaii was not considered to be possible target because of the strength and number of US Naval ships already present in Hawaii. D. What happened on Dec. 7 1941? * A date that will live in infamy (Dec. 7, 1941), TORA, TORA, TORA where Japan successfully surprised America by attacking the US Naval Base of Pearl Harbor. Japan’s goal was to cripple the US Navy in the Pacific Ocean so that they could conquer and control the entire Far East and Western Pacific without any resistance by America. Japan one to knock out America with one solid attack and attack America where America least expected it.

* Warnings about the Japanese attack were evident but largely overlooked as America thought the attack would occur elsewhere in the Pacific. The shallow waters of Pearl Harbor would make torpedoes of the times inadequate as they would simply hit the bottom of the Harbor and explode before hitting their target. Little did America know that the Japanese made a wooden adaptation to the torpedoes to make them more buoyant so they would not hit the bottom of the Harbor. The Japanese had been practicing the attack on Pearl Harbor for months with pictures of where the US Navy had docked its ships and the Japanese fighter pilots led by Fujita religiously practiced hitting their targets. America was tracking the Japanese Naval Fleet prior to Pearl Harbor but lost track of them before Dec. 7 which was alarming to many US officials but again the possibility of the Japanese attacking Pearl Harbor seemed highly unlikely. On the morning of Sunday Dec. 7 US radar in Hawaii picked up numerous planes heading towards Pearl Harbor. A report was made and officials concluded the planes were American B-17’s coming from mainland America. A Japanese sub on the morning of Dec.7 was sunk just off the coast of Hawaii and report of the incident did not reach adequate officials with enough time to warn of a possible Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. American miscalculations and confusion did occur. The Japanese war code had been broken and America knew an attack was eminent somewhere but America did not know specifically where. Despite repeated warnings Admiral Kimmel and General Short failed to scheduled American reconnaissance planes to search and watch for Japanese possible attack and also failed to put the US Naval fleet and US airfields on full alert.

* The Japanese sent a first wave of planes that attacked Pearl at 7:55 am while people were just waking, getting ready for church, or preparing for a day of golf or some other relaxing activity. The Japanese sent a second wave of planes that attacked Pearl at 8:50 am. The American losses were staggering. 20 US warships were severely damaged with the USS Arizona sinking in approximately 10 minutes with the loss of approx. 1000 sailors. 150 planes were destroyed and only a few if any US planes got into the air to try and stop the attack. The Japanese 1st went after US air power bases and then secondly went for battleship row at Pearl hitting almost every single ship. Japan had achieved TORA, TORA, TORA.

* The Japanese lost only a miniature submarine and a few aircraft in the attack and it was a huge success. Japan however failed to cripple the America Pacific Naval fleet as it had hoped. Japan failed to damage and to destroy the US aircraft carriers. Fortunately for America the carriers were on a practice mission in the Pacific. The carriers were one of the main if not the main goal of the Japanese attack. The Japanese also failed to hit the oil supplies of America and the repair docks of America in Hawaii. This allowed America to continue to operate their naval fleet out of Hawaii instead of moving it to San Diego or San Francisco. Also, all ships hit in the Jap. attack except for the USS Arizona were repaired and fought in WWII. The Japanese could have avoided these failures and attained their knockout punch on America if a planned third wave of Japanese planes was sent to attack on Dec. 7 as well. The third wave was never sent despite pleadings by Japanese officers and the Japanese regretted not sending the last wave concluding it was an error not to do such. One Japanese Officer referencing America concluded, we have awakened a sleeping giant. * The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was just 1/3 of the entire Japanese operation. The region of the Philippines was another 1/3 and the region of Malaysia was the last 1/3. The goal of the Japanese again was to control the entire Western Pacific and Far East regions. In the operation Japanese controlled 25% of the world and conquered the following areas with more to come: * Guam * Dutch West Indies * Wake Island * Singapore * Hong Kong * Singapore * Burma * Philippines

* The US had control of the Philippines since 1901 but in lost control to the Japanese in 1941. US Army General Douglas MacArthur was forced to evacuate the Philippines leaving behind thousands of US soldiers that were eventually defeated and killed or captured. Gen. MacArthur vowed to return to get the soldiers still alive in the Philippines. Unfortunately, it would take MacArthur until 1944 to fulfill his pledge and by that time many of the soldiers were dead. The Japanese did not respect prisoners of war and viewed surrendering and not fighting to the death as cowardly. This Japanese view resulted in many horrific acts committed on the American prisoners of war (POW’s). After conquering the Philippines the Japanese marched all surrendering American soldiers across the island where many Americans died of exhaustion or were killed. The march infamously became known as the Bataan Death March.

* On Dec. 8, 1941 President FDR gave a six minute speech asking Congress for a declaration of war on Japan. He started his speech by saying, “Dec. 7, 1941, a date that will live in infamy.” All but one purpose of Congress voted in support of the declaration of war. Only one member of Congress opposed war and her name was Jeanette Rankin of Montana who was the first ever woman Congress member and who also voted against declaration of war in WWI. President FDR was always reluctant to declare war prior to the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor because he did not believe the American public supported war. He knew of the imminent danger of Germany and Japan but again wanted public support for the war and he was not convinced it was present despite knowing the likelihood of war coming was extremely high and despite there was already justification for America to declare war on both Germany and Japan. He did this despite knowledge of the conflicts arising between America and Germany and Japan like the sinking of US merchant ships such as the Rueben James and others by Germany and the sinking of the USS Panay by Japan. On Dec. 8, 1941 President received his public support for WWII and America turned to preparation and mobilization for war. Germany declared war on America 3 days after US declaration of war on Japan. America then declared war on Germany and Italy.

VIII. Describe and evaluate America’s readiness and mobilization for war.

A. America’s war plan was to focus on defeating Germany 1st to relieve and sustain Britain in their fight

against Germany. Defeating Japan would be focused on 2nd.

B. Many actions were taken to mobilize America for war. America with its industrial capacity and capitalistic economy were primed to out produce and out supply the fascists and totalitarian governments. The New Dealers who were denouncing capitalism and individualism were now counting on it to defeat the enemies of America in WWII. Americans greatly supported the war.

* War Production Board was created to control raw materials and to place priorities on production of goods. Rations were placed on oil, gas, cotton, rubber, tin, aluminum, meat, coffee, and other items. Tin can drives, tire drives, and others were done to collect goods for the war effort. Ration books were given out to Americans.

* Office of Price Administration was created to regulate and control prices of goods.

* War Labor Board was created to minimize and handle labor and owner conflicts. The Smith Connolly Act forbids all strikes during WWII. Wage increases were limited to 15%, workers had to sign a no strike pledge and wait 30 days to strike and at anytime the President could order the strike to stop.

* Office of War Information was created to produce propaganda in support of the war. Celebrities volunteered their time to promote the war effort. Disney created cartoons like, Der Fuehrer’s Face in 1943. Songs were created like, Lets find the fellow who is yellow. * Office of War Mobilization was created led by South Carolina Senator Brynes.

* Selected Service (the military draft) of 1940 was extended. Millions of Americans young and old lied about their age so they could fight in WWII. Women also volunteered in the armed services in WACS and WAVES branches of the US military as nurses, secretaries, and other jobs. Women not volunteering for the military worked in factories as the men went off to fight in the armed services and many of them were nicknamed ROSIE the RIVETORS. Many blacks moved north to work in factories and suffered racism as riots erupted in northern cities like Detroit protesting the hiring of blacks. Many blacks served in the military but were segregated. Mexicans again started to come to America to work as jobs again were available. Riots also erupted against Mexicans. They were called the Zoot Suit Riots to remove Mexicans for US. Indians served in the armed services and the Navajo Indian was a war code for America that the Japanese nor Germans never broke.

* Bond drives were created to help fund the war effort. Much higher taxes were placed on rich by FDR and Congress to help fund the war. FDR wanted a tax rate of 99.5% on incomes over $100,000 but it did not pass. FDR then made an executive order taxing all income over $25,000 at a 100% tax rate. A withholding tax was created as well which forced people to have taxes taken out of their paychecks instead of paying their taxes at the end of each year. America’s debt dramatically increased during WWII.

* Medical treatment improved dramatically. Penicillin had a lot to do with removing infections and saving lives.

* Intelligence agencies were created like the FBI, and the OSS which later became the CIA.

IX. Summarize and evaluate the European theatre and the war with Germany.

A. On Jan. 1, 1942 26 countries at war with the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan signed A Declaration of the United Nations based on the Atlantic Charter where they agreed to defeat Germany 1st and promised not to make any separate peace treaty.

B. In Jan. 1943 at the Casablanca Conference Churchill and FDR reaffirmed the commitment to defeat Germany 1st and a demand for unconditional surrender of all Axis countries was made. 80% of all of America’s war capacity would go to the European theatre. C. A massive bombing campaign was launched on Germany aimed at softening up Germany for the necessary amphibious land invasion of Germany. 1.5 to 2.6 million tons of bombs were dropped on Germany and related targets by British and American planes like the B-17 with success but with substantial losses.

D. At the Teheran Conference in 1943 Churchill, FDR, and Stalin met to discuss on opening of a 2nd front on Germany. Germany was already fighting Russia on the eastern front and Russia was pleading with Britain and America to open up a western front so Germany would be forced to divert many resources from the east to the west.

E. In the Battle of the Atlantic the German U-boats were having great success against British and then America ships making it difficult to launch an amphibious attack on Germany and making it difficult to get supplies to Britain and Russia to defeat Germany. During one six month period German U-boats sank 568 Allied (British, American) ships. US Admiral King used a combination of air cover, and escorts in a convoy system to finally to turn the Battle of Atlantic to an Allied advantage. New technology in sonar and radar also greatly helped the Allies. By 1943 the US had turned only a trickle of supplies into a flood of supplies reaching Europe to defeat Germany.

F. Germany and America both were rushing to create the Atomic Bomb. Albert Einstein who defected from Germany had warned America of Germany’s plan to create an Atomic Bomb. Germany was already developing a number of other new weapons such as an intercontinental rocket which could have an atomic bomb attached to it. Germany also had produced a jet bomber capable of flying 500 miles per hour, and a German reconnaissance plane had already flown to New York at back. FDR aware of Germany’s plan to make the Atomic Bomb created and accelerated the development of an Atomic Bomb by America with the help of Britain. The plan was called the Manhattan Project led by General Groves and Scientist Robert Oppenheimer. No expense was spared as America raced to beat Germany in the creation of the Atomic Bomb.

G. Britain tried an amphibious mini invasion of France to land soldiers to defeat Germany in Aug. 1942 and it failed miserably as Germany had created an immense wall of barricades and defense systems which greatly alerted US Commander of the European, General Eisenhower. After German success in North Africa led by German General Rommel (the Desert Fox) General Eisenhower decided to launch Operation Torch in conjunction with Britain and British General Montgomery. German and Italian soldiers were forced to surrender or withdrawal from North Africa. It was Hitler’s 1st serious defeat. The Allies had a major victory and stopped Germany from moving eastward to link up with their Axis ally Japan. The Allied victory also secured the Mediterranean Sea region for Allied navies.

H. In July 1943, America and Britain invaded Italy in Operation Husky led by British General Montgomery and US General Patton and after months of resistance Italy fell and Mussolini was removed from power and Rome was liberated in June 1944. The Second front against Germany had dramatically helped Russia repel German invasion at the Battle of Kursk.

I. An amphibious assault of German forces on France was planned for June 1944. It was called Operation Overlord and became known as the D-Day invasion led by General Eisenhower along the beaches of Normandy. Rome was liberated two days before the D-Day invasion began. The invasion would involve over 1.6 million Allied soldiers. German Rommel predicted the war would be won or lost on the beaches and observed it would be the longest day of the war. Inclement weather postponed the invasion once and was always a major concern for the success of the invasion. Involved in the invasion were 2,700 ships, 11,000 aircraft, and an immense amount of weapons and men. General Patton was used as decoy and set up a vast but phony attack on beaches other than Normandy and Germany fell for it. America had also broken the German Enigma war codes providing the Allies with invaluable knowledge of German strategy and maneuvering. The 101st and 82nd airborne on the night before the invasion would be dropped in behind enemy lines to target and secure strategic points like bridges and disrupt German communications. 5 beaches of France would be invaded on June 6 and Omaha proved to be the deadliest. Hundreds of men drowned as they hit the water. In one instance 197 out of 205 men in one Rifle Company were killed. By the end of the day all the beaches were secure and the Allies were moving inland on the Germans as far as seven miles on General Rommel’s forces. By days end 10,000 Allied soldiers were dead or wounded. Within two months the Allies had a major base in France and General Patton was reassigned and moving to liberate France from German control. French General Charles de Gaulle returned to France from Britain in August 1944. France was liberated and now the Ally plan shifted to taking Berlin and conquering Germany.

J. Hitler convinced Germany could still win mounted an offensive called the Battle of the Bulge in Dec. 1944. German Generals were not as optimistic as Hitler. Some German officers planned an assassination of Hitler at his Wolf’s Lair Bunker but it failed and they were brutally executed. The Battle of the Bulge resulted in the Germans ripping opening a 45 mile wide hole in the Allied line of forces. Once the weather cleared the Allied retaliated with a massive assault on the Germans and defeated them to end the Battle of the Bulge. The Battle of the Bulge was a victory for the US and British forces however it allowed Russia to first go to Berlin and take the capital of Germany. This proved disastrous later as Russia demanded and in fact took over parts of Germany and Poland and other former German conquests and would not relinquish them after the war. General Patton fumed as he wanted to stop Russia land spoils but General Eisenhower would not let him.

K. In Feb. 1945 Churchill, FDR, and Stalin met at the Yalta Conference to discuss the post war world. Stalin wanted to create a buffer zone with satellite countries controlled by Russia to protect against another world war. Stalin promised to hold free elections in Poland and other countries Russia took from Germany but they never did. FDR wanted to get Stalin to promise to help America defeat the Japanese which Stalin did agree to after Germany was defeated as he was seeking more land for Russian to control after the war. FDR indicated America was developing an atomic bomb but Stalin already knew of it because Russian spies in America. At the Conference, agreements were also made to put Japanese and German war criminals on trial. Another agreement was the decision to replace the League of Nations with a United Nations that would be discussed at a future conference in San Francisco.

L. In May 1945 Germany surrendered to the Allies. Hitler had communicated suicide and the defeat of Germany was complete as Germany surrendered unconditionally. It became known as VE Day (Victory in Europe Day). The German 1000 Year Reign had come to abrupt end.

M. As the Allies came close to German border Hitler began to kill more Jews between 1944 and 1945 than he did in the previous four years. Allied forces were concentrating on winning the war with all supplies and efforts focused on that end. Perhaps more could have been done to save Jewish lives as knowledge of the Holocaust became known but America and FDR were focused on defeating Germany first and foremost.

X. Summarize and evaluate the Pacific Theatre of war with Japan.

A. The battle cries for American became “Remember Pearl Harbor” and “Remember Bataan”. The Japanese after the Pearl Harbor attack successfully conquered other countries like Singapore, Philippines, and more. The Japanese marched 11,000 captured Americans on the Bataan Death March after securing the Philippines. The treatment of American POW’s was horrific and thousands were killed and the Japanese proved to be no less brutal than the Germans in their treatment of the Jews. Some POW’s were tied up with barbed wire and then the Japanese watched as they were eaten alive by ants.

B. Unconditional surrender of the Japanese was declared by the Allies in the Casablanca Conference and in the Cairo Conference the Allies declared that all land taken by the Japanese would be returned and China would be led by democratic Chaing Kai Shek.

C. After a Japanese sub launched bombs harmlessly onto the Oregon coast military planners concluded that Japanese invasion of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco was imminent. Patrols on land and sea were routine looking for Japanese and lights in cities were turned off at night. To Americans and FDR the threat of the Japanese was real and so in 1942 FDR decided to place Japanese Americans from Calif, Oregon, and Washington into relocation camps. Most of those relocated to places like Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, and Wyoming were US citizens. Only one Congressman voted against the relocation. The Supreme Court supported the Executive Order #9066 to relocate them. The relocation camps were not concentration camps like those set by Germany for the Jews. Some Japanese Americans left the relocation camps to fight bravely for America against the Germans. In the Presidency of Reagan those Japanese Americans placed in relocation camps were given reparations.

D. The Bushido Warrior Code and Shinto Religion of the Japanese contrasted greatly with the American way of fighting. The Japanese sought quick and decisive battles to win the war while the Americans strategize over the long term. The Japanese encouraged and honored those who fought to the death even in suicide attacks while the Americans valued life and would seek to live to fight another day. Japanese leadership was also less flexible and more rigid while America leadership allowed individuality and flexibility.

E. Colonel Doolittle created a small victory for America by bombing Japan’s mainland with modified B- 25’s. Although not a major victory it did help lift the morale of America. Japan was a formidable force and had conquered more territory and people than any other empire in history and done so in a matter of months. Japan was surprised by Doolittle’s Raid. The Raid also served to goad and tempt Japan into making rash military decisions at Coral Sea and Midway. F. At the Battle of Coral Sea in 1942 the American Navy and the Japanese Navy engaged in the first naval battle fought solely by aircraft carrier launched aircraft. The battle was fought to a draw with both sides losing an aircraft carrier. The USS Yorktown aircraft carrier was sent to Pearl Harbor for repairs. The remaining US carriers were the USS Enterprise and USS Hornet to battle the entire Japanese fleet. The Coral Sea Battle also helped Australia in its defense against the Japanese.

G. Japan tried to force the last two US carriers (Enterprise and Hornet) into open waters to destroy them near Midway Island in June 1942. They first attacked Midway Island two destroy the US airbase on the island. They failed in their first two attempts and while reloading and refueling for a third attack Japanese aircraft discovered where the US carriers were located. They had to reload their planes for a torpedo attack and in the process US scout planes discovered the location of their Japanese fleet. The USS Yorktown which was miraculously repaired in 48 hours sent planes and in a matter of minutes they sunk 3 Japanese carriers and planes from the Hornet and Enterprise sunk a fourth Japanese carrier. 300 invaluable Japanese fighter pilots died as the ships went down. On the way back to Pearl Harbor the USS Yorktown was sunk by a Japanese submarine. The US victory was called the “Miracle at Midway”. Japan despite brutal and intense fighting on numerous islands never recovered from the loss at Midway and Japanese hopes of defeating the Americans had vanished in a blink of an eye.

H. After Midway Japan was severely hampered and America led by Admiral Nimitz and General MacArthur controlled the skies and seas in the Pacific Ocean. Japan could do little to stop the string of island invasions by the Americans. The military strategy of America became known as Island Hopping or Leap Frogging. The end result would be for America to finally invade mainland Japan in Operation Olympic after all islands controlled by Japan in the Pacific had been conquered. Japan was still hoping for another big battle that would give them a decisive victory in the war. Japan started to construct an airfield in Guadalcanal and mount a resistance to the Americans in their island hopping strategy. America sent in 19,000 US Marines in August 1942. After four months of brutal fighting and banzai suicide attacks by Japanese soldiers America finally took the island and immediately began constructing an America airstrip on Guadalcanal.

I. Soon after Guadalcanal American forces combined with Australian forces to defeat the Japanese on New Guinea. General MacArthur then began to bypass fortified Japanese island possessions by island hopping to cut off Japanese supply lines. At Tarawa Americans used their air superiority to inflict heavy losses on the Japanese. After the bombardment 12,000 US Marines took the island in four days but it was bloody. All but 100 of the 5000 Japanese soldiers on Tarawa died. America started to use the Marianas Isles as a base to bomb the Japanese mainland with B-29 Bombers.

J. Japan desperately seeking to deliver a crushing blow to America planned an attack on the US Navy in the Marianas Isles. It became known as the Mariana Turkey Shoot because even before Japan could get started America had sunk 2 Jap carriers and by the end of the battle Japan had lost 445 pilots. These losses to the Japs virtually eliminated any Jap naval air activity. In the Fall of 1944 the US Navy wiped out the rest of the Jap Naval Fleet at the Battle of the Philippine Sea.

K. Admiral Nimitz and General MacArthur continued to successfully island hop. The island of Iwo Jima was extremely significant because the Japs had radar capability on the island to warn them as attacks by the B-29’s were launched. Despite success many B-29’s were shot down and damaged so Iwo Jima needed to be taken. In Feb. 1945 US Marines stormed the island after aerial bombardment. 7000 Americans were killed in the assault but Iwo Jima was finally taken after reaching the top of Mount Suribachi where an American flag was raised. Only 200 of the 21000 Japanese soldiers on Iwo Jima surrendered. The B-29 bombings of Japan as a result of taking Iwo Jima dramatically increased. In March a B-29 raid destroyed 250,000 homes in Tokyo. Tokyo was in a gulf of flames but astonishingly Japan did not surrender which required yet another invasion of a Japanese island.

L. America invaded Okinawa and Japan like at Iwo Jima resisted with suicidal fervor. Kamikaze (divine wind) suicidal planes were launched at American forces. The mindset was one life for a thousand lives of your enemy and Japanese volunteered as it was considered a high honor to die in such a way for your country. Clouds of Kamikazes up to 350 at a time swept down on the US force landing at Okinawa. 34 American ships were sunk and another 368 more were damaged but 4200 kamikaze were shot down and the Japanese air fleet was decimated. America pressed on at Okinawa and secured the island in June of 1945.

M. In June of 1945 the Japanese Military leaders issued Operation Decision which was a massive defense plan of the Japanese mainland in which 2.5 million troops and a civilian militia of 28 million would resist American invasion. More Kamikazes would be used and midget submarines called Kaitens would be used as manned torpedoes to ward off the Americans. Japanese women were trained to resist US tanks with bamboo spears. Although no hope of military victory remained the Jap war lords promised to fight to the bitter end. The war lords treated Potsdam Declaration with great contempt. At the Postdam Conference in July 1945 with new American President Truman(FDR had died of natural causes), new British Prime Minister Atlee, and Stalin of Russia it was declared that only unconditional surrender of Japan would be accepted. The proclamation also stated Japan would be occupied by the Allies, the Japanese would lose all its overseas possessions, and a new elected government would be put in place in Japan. The fate of Emperor Hirohito who was considered godlike by the Japanese was in question which greatly worried the Japanese. As the Americans got closer and closer the Japanese began to become even more brutal in their treatment of POW’s. N. On July 16, 1945 near Los Alamos, New Mexico successfully detonated an atomic bomb. The bomb was viewed by leaders of America as another weapon to end the war. The invasion of the Japanese mainland continued to be planned but the Atomic Bomb (the gadget as it was often called then) could alter plans. Battles such as Tarawa, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa were used as a barometer and strategists concluded that between 100,000 to 1 million Americans could lose their lives in an American attack on the Japanese mainland. Those same battles were used to estimate that between 1 and 9 million Japanese would lose their lives. President Truman without the slightest hesitation ordered the use of the Atomic Bomb. On August 6, 1945 two B-29’s flew over Hiroshima, one a recon photo plane and the other the Enola Gay under the command of Col. Tibbets carried the atomic bomb. Two days earlier American planes had dropped 750,000 on Hiroshima warning them that their city would be obliterated unless Japan surrendered. More than 66,000 Japanese died instantly, some 80,000 were injured, and another 300,000 were exposed to radiation. No surrender from Japan came and in fact the Japanese asked their scientists if they could produce atomic bomb in a short period. President Truman then ordered a second bomb to be dropped on Aug. 9 on Nagasaki. Nearly 75,000 Japanese died instantly. After Nagasaki Japanese officials cabled a message to America accepting unconditional surrender but nothing official was done as Japanese leaders continued to argue on whether to surrender or not. New Prime Minister Suzuki asked Emperor Hirohito to intervene and he sided with the Japanese leaders who wanted to surrender. Hirohito broadcast on radio the Japanese surrender. American forces were ordered to seize fire on Aug. 15 and on Sept. 2 aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz accepted the Japanese surrender.

(Read page 630 for insight on whether or not the A-Bomb should have been dropped by America on Japan. What is your conclusion?