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ENVIRONMENTAL DATA MANAGEMENT and DECISION SUPPORT for RIVER BASINS Application in Alfeios River

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ENVIRONMENTAL DATA MANAGEMENT and DECISION SUPPORT for RIVER BASINS Application in Alfeios River UNIVERSITY OF PATRAS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL DATA MANAGEMENT AND DECISION SUPPORT FOR RIVER BASINS Application in Alfeios River PhD Thesis Eleni S. BEKRI Dipl. Civil Engineer, MSc PATRAS 2015 The authors thank the European Social Fund (ESF), Operational Program for EPEDVM and particularly the Program Herakleitos II, for financially supporting this work. “Since all measurements and observations are nothing more than approximations to the truth, the same must be true of all calculations resting upon them, and the highest aim of all computations made concerning concrete phenomena must be approximate, as nearly as practicable, to the truth. But this can be accomplished in no other way than by a suitable combination of more observations than the number absolutely requisite for the determination of the unknown quantities.” Gauss, K.G. (1963) Theory of Motion of Heavenly Bodies, New York, Dover. Dedicated to my husband Panagiotis and my two daughters Aimilia and Konstantina …When you bend down and look at the waters of the Alfeios river near Olympia, their clarity is such that your face and soul are mirrored in them... The nature becomes here spirit. The clarity of waters becomes clarity of thought … Panayiotis Kanellopoulos (1902-1986) Professor of Sociology Prime Minister of Greece ΕΚΤΕΝΗΣ ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ Εισαγωγή Η αναγκαιότητα για την ανάπτυξη και την εφαρµογή σχεδίων διαχείρισης υδρολογικών λεκανών έχει εισαχθεί στην Ευρώπη µε την Κοινοτική Οδηγία για το Νερό 2000/60/EC (WFD, 2000). Ένα από τα θεµελιώδη στάδια αυτών των σχεδίων είναι τα προγράµµατα παρακολούθησης της ποσότητας και της ποιότητας των υδατικών πόρων τους. Αυτά τα προγράµµατα είναι απαραίτητα µεταξύ άλλων για τον καθορισµό µιας συνολικής εικόνας της κατάστασης των υδάτων και για τον προσδιορισµό όχι µόνο του επιπέδου καθορισµένων ρύπων αλλά και του ρυπαντικού τους φορτίου. Το φορτίο qij µιας ρυπαντικής ουσίας j σε µία επιλεγµένη διατοµή i ενός ποταµού µπορεί να υπολογιστεί έµµεσα µέσω του συνδυασµού παράλληλων µετρήσεων της υδατικής παροχής Qi και της συγκέντρωσης του εν λόγω ρύπου cij από την σχέση: = cQq ijiij (E.1) Για µία καθολική και πλήρης εικόνα της κατάσταση των υδάτων, ποιοτικές και ποσοτικές µετρήσεις πρέπει να πραγµατοποιηθούν σχεδόν ταυτόχρονα σε κατάλληλα επιλεγµένες διατοµές καλύπτοντας όλο το εξεταζόµενο ποτάµι και τους παραποτάµους του. Ωστόσο, τροχοπέδη αποτελεί η απουσία τέτοιων οργανωµένων και συστηµατικών µόνιµων σταθµών µετρήσεων υδατικών χαρακτηριστικών από πολλά ποτάµια ανά τον κόσµο. Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση κινητά όργανα µέτρησης (π.χ. µυλίσκοι) χρησιµοποιούνται για τον υπολογισµό της επιφανειακής ταχύτητας ροής µε ταυτόχρονη εκτίµηση της υγρής διατοµής. Πληθώρα κινητών µεθόδων µετρήσεων παροχής έχουν αναπτυχθεί και εφαρµοστεί (WMO, 1980b, ISO 1100, 1981, 1981, 1981; Inuiguchi and Ramik, 2000). Παρά ταύτα, ο διαθέσιµος χρόνος για την πραγµατοποίηση αυτών των µετρήσεων σε πολλαπλές διατοµές σε όλο το εύρος ενός υδατορρεύµατος είναι σηµαντικά µικρότερος σε σχέση µε τον απαιτούµενο για τις προαναφερόµενες µεθόδους µετρήσεων πεδίου. Γι’ αυτόν τον λόγο καθώς και σε περιπτώσεις µειωµένου οικονοµικού προϋπολογισµού για προγράµµατα παρακολούθησης, αντιπροτείνεται η χρήση ταχέων µετρήσεων υδατοπαροχής χαµηλού κόστους και αξιοπιστίας, όπως αυτές του επιπλέοντος αντικειµένου, αναδυόµενων φυσαλλίδων αέρα και ανηρτηµένης σφαίρας (Yannopoulos, 1995; Yannopoulos et al., 2000; Yannopoulos, 2008). Ωστόσο, για χρήση αυτών των i µετρήσεων υδατοπαροχών απαιτείται η κατάλληλη προεπεξεργασία και διόρθωσή τους. Επιπροσθέτως, η εν λόγω Κοινοτική Οδηγία έχει εισαγάγει πολλαπλές προκλήσεις και πολυπλοκότητες όσον αφορά την διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων. Ταυτοχρόνως, οι λεκάνες απορροής έχουν δεχθεί πληθώρα περιβαλλοντικών πιέσεων µε άµεσο επακόλουθο την µείωση των ποιοτικών και ποσοτικών τους χαρακτηριστικών. Σ’ αυτό το πλαίσιο η µείωση των διαθέσιµων, κατάλληλων προς χρήση, υδατικών πόρων έχει δηµιουργήσει συνθήκες ανταγωνισµού µεταξύ των διαφόρων χρήσεων, οδηγώντας στην ανάγκη βέλτιστης διαχείρισής τους σε επίπεδο υδρολογικής λεκάνης. Σε διάφορες χώρες, µεταξύ αυτών και αρκετές Μεσογειακές, τα απαραίτητα στοιχεία και δεδοµένα για την διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων χαρακτηρίζονται είτε περιορισµένα και ελλιπή, είτε µειωµένης αξιοπιστίας, είτε τέλος ασαφούς και ανακριβούς φύσεως. Τέτοιας φύσεως στοιχεία µπορούν να προσεγγιστούν στο στάδιο της µοντελοποίησης µε εκτιµήσεις της µορφής διαστηµάτων τιµών (intervals). ∆εδοµένων αυτών των συνθηκών έχει παραστεί η ανάγκη ανάπτυξης και εφαρµογής µεθοδολογιών βελτιστοποίησης της διαχείρισης των υδατικών πόρων υπό συνθήκες ασαφών και ανακριβών δεδοµένων. Η έρευνα της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής αποτελείται από δύο µέρη, τα οποία φιλοδοξούν να συµβάλλουν µέσω µεθοδολογικών προτάσεων και πρακτικών εφαρµογών θετικά στα δύο επιστηµονικά θέµατα που αναλύθηκαν στις παραπάνω παραγράφους και αφορούν στη διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων. Το πρώτο µέρος στοχεύει στην ανάπτυξη του θεωρητικού, µαθηµατικού και υπολογιστικού υποβάθρου µιας πρότυπης µεθοδολογίας διόρθωσης υδατοπαροχών, που έχουν µετρηθεί µε χρήση ταχέων µεθόδων, ώστε να είναι εφικτός ο υπολογισµός πιο αξιόπιστων τιµών παροχών σε σχέση µε τις αρχικές µετρήσεις, και κατ' επέκταση και πιο αξιόπιστων ρυπαντικών φορτίων (Yannopoulos, 2009; Yannopoulos and Bekri, 2010; Bekri et al., 2012). Το δεύτερο µέρος αφορά στον συνδυασµό υπαρχουσών µεθοδολογιών και λογισµικών για την δηµιουργία και την προσαρµογή ενός κατάλληλου πλαισίου λήψεως αποφάσεων για την βέλτιστη κατανοµή των υδατικών πόρων υπό ασαφείς και ανακριβείς συνθήκες. Στόχος του είναι η εφαρµογή σε πραγµατικές λεκάνες απορροής, λαµβάνοντας υπόψη πολλαπλές θέσεις εισαγωγής υδάτων (multi-tributary) και για πολλαπλές χρονικές περιόδους (multi-period). Τέλος, και τα δύο ερευνητικά µέρη βρίσκουν εφαρµογή στην υδρολογική λεκάνη του Αλφειού Ποταµού στην ∆υτική Πελοπόννησο, η οποία περιγράφεται συνοπτικά στη συνέχεια. ii Συνοπτική Περιγραφή Λεκάνης Αλφειού Ποταµού Η λεκάνη απορροής του ποταµού Αλφειού (Σχ. Ε-1) έχει έκταση 3660 km2 και αποτελεί µία από τις σηµαντικότερες υδρολογικές λεκάνες του Υδατικού ∆ιαµερίσµατος της ∆υτικής Πελοποννήσου (01) όσον αφορά την φυσική, οικολογική, κοινωνική και οικονοµική της σηµασία. Ο ποταµός Αλφειός, µε συνολικό µήκος 116 km, είναι συνεχούς ροής µε µέση παροχή 67 m3/s και µέση ετήσια απορροή που κυµαίνεται µεταξύ 1500-2100 hm3. Η λεκάνη απορροής του εκτείνεται στη ∆υτική και Κεντρική Πελοπόννησο και κατανέµεται κυρίως στις περιοχές Αρκαδία, Ηλεία και Αχαΐα, ενώ έχει διαπιστωθεί υπόγεια τροφοδότηση του παραποτάµου Λάδωνα από την περιοχή Φενεού του Νοµού Κορινθίας (230 km2) και από την περιοχή Χοτούσα ανατολικά του υδροκρίτη του Μαινάλου του Ν. Αρκαδίας (280 km2). Το µέσο ετήσιο ύψος βροχοπτώσεων στην λεκάνη απορροής είναι 1070 mm µε εύρος τιµών από 800 έως 1600 mm, ενώ ο µέσος ετήσιος όγκος υετού είναι 3852 hm3. Η µέση ετήσια θερµοκρασία στην λεκάνη είναι 19 οC µε διακύµανση τιµών µικρότερη των 16 οC. Το γεωµορφολογικό ανάγλυφο της λεκάνης χαρακτηρίζεται ως ήπιο στην παραλιακή και πεδινή ζώνη και στο εσωτερικό υψίπεδο της Μεγαλόπολης, µε οµαλή και ήπια µετάβαση στη λοφώδη και ηµιορεινή ζώνη και ως ορεινό και απότοµο στο εσωτερικό και ανατολικό τµήµα του, όπου και βρίσκονται διάφοροι ορεινοί όγκοι, όπως Ταΰγετος, Μαίναλο, κ.α. Η λεκάνη απορροής του Αλφειού ποταµού µπορεί να χωριστεί σε τρία µέρη (υπολεκάνες), την άνω υπολεκάνη (250 km2), που περιλαµβάνει το τµήµα του ποταµού Αλφειού στο οροπέδιο της Μεγαλόπολης µε κυριότερους παραποτάµους τους Λούσιο, Ελισσώνα και Ξερίλα, τη µεσαία υπολεκάνη (3048 km2), που περιλαµβάνει το ενδιάµεσο τµήµα άνωθεν του Φράγµατος Φλόκα µε κυριότερους παραποτάµους τους Σελινούντα, Κλαδέο, Ερύµανθο και Λάδωνα, και την κάτω υπολεκάνη (362 km2), που περιλαµβάνει το χαµηλό τµήµα από το Φράγµα Φλόκα έως τις εκβολές στον Κυπαρισσιακό Κόλπο µε κυριότερο παραπόταµο τον Λεστενίτσα ή Ενιπέα. Η λεκάνη έχει δεχθεί διάφορες περιβαλλοντικές πιέσεις τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες καθιστώντας αναγκαία την βέλτιστη διαχείριση των υδατικών της πόρων. Σχήµα Ε-1. Η υδρολογική λεκάνη του Αλφειού Ποταµού αποτελούµενη από 11 υπολεκάνες σε διάφορες αποχρώσεις του γκρι. Με κόκκινες κουκίδες δίδονται οι διατοµές εξόδου των υπολεκανών (που συµπίπτουν µε τις διατοµές µετρήσεων). Με διακεκοµµένες γραµµές παρουσιάζονται οι τέσσερις κόµβοι. Η γεωλογική δοµή της λεκάνης του Αλφειού είναι σύνθετη και πολύπλοκη. Τις ορεινές περιοχές σχηµατίζουν πετρώµατα Άλπεων (Μεσοζωικής περιόδου), τις ηµιορεινές iv και λοφώδεις περιοχές σχηµατίζουν µεταλπικά πετρώµατα (Τριτογενούς περιόδου) και τις χαµηλού υψοµέτρου κοιλάδες δοµούν πρόσφατες αποθέσεις ιζηµάτων (Τεταρτογενούς περιόδου). Το έδαφος στη λεκάνη του Αλφειού συνίσταται από αλουβιακές αποθέσεις, αποτελούµενες από άµµους, χαλίκια και κροκάλες, καθώς επίσης και από νεογενή ιζήµατα που χαρακτηρίζονται από ασυνέχεια και ανοµοιογένεια, µε επακόλουθο την εµφάνιση επάλληλων υπό πίεση υδροφόρων οριζόντων. Σε µερικές περιοχές παρατηρούνται αυξηµένα επίπεδα σιδήρου και µαγγανίου, που καθιστούν τα υπόγεια νερά ακατάλληλα για ύδρευση. Τα πιο σηµαντικά κατασκευαστικά έργα που αφορούν τη διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων του Αλφειού Ποταµού φαίνονται στον ακόλουθο πίνακα. Οι βασικές χρήσεις νερού στην λεκάνη περιλαµβάνουν: (1) την παραγωγή υδροηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στον Λάδωνα σε συνδυασµό µε τον αντίστοιχο ταµιευτήρα και το φράγµα, (2) την άρδευση κυρίως γύρω από το Φράγµα του Φλόκα (20 km ανάντη της εκβολής του ποταµού στον Κυπαρισσιακό κόλπο), (3) την παραγωγή υδροηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στο µικρό υδροηλεκτρικό εργοστάσιο του Φλόκα και (4)
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