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Griffith Business School Doctor of Philosophy Profit and Proliferation: A Study of Australian and Canadian Nuclear Policy Author Moloney, Cathy Anne Published 2014 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School Griffith Business School DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/2935 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/366235 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au GRIFFITH BUSINESS SCHOOL Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By CATHY ANNE MOLONEY October 2013 Profit and Proliferation: A Study of Australian and Canadian Nuclear Policy Cathy Anne Moloney B. International Relations M. International Politics School of Government and International Relations Griffith Business School Griffith University This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. October 2013 Abstract This thesis will investigate how Australia and Canada developed the nuclear export and non-proliferation policies, challenging the idea that middle powers behave similarly in the nuclear realm. Australia and Canada are active participants in the nuclear fuel cycle. Whilst there are some exceptions, there is surprisingly little discussion in contemporary literature comparing Australian and Canadian nuclear policy, and the literature in this area fails to focus on their nuclear policies as a whole. Thus far, there have been cursory attempts at analysing and evaluating certain aspects of their policies, but no substantiative examination has covered the broad framework and key drivers that underpin these policies. This thesis seeks to fill a gap in the literature by providing a study of Australian and Canadian nuclear export and non-proliferation policy. Prima facie, Australia and a Canada fulfil the requirements of being good international citizens in the nuclear realm and demonstrate political will to develop effective export policy controls over uranium sales. Moreover, Australia and Canada have much in common, from a shared commonwealth history, political culture and economic systems to a similar standing in the international arena. This thesis seeks to explain Australian and Canadian behaviour and concerns that influences the development and decision making underlying their nuclear export and non-proliferation policy, and how this contributes to their balancing of non-proliferation activism with the economic benefits of being nuclear suppliers. The analysis is informed by two research questions: What factors and concerns influence and explain Australian and Canadian choices and behaviour on nuclear export and non-proliferation policy? Have these two countries balanced their commercial and non-proliferation objectives? This thesis argues that Australia has not exploited the full economic benefits of its nuclear exports in the same way as Canada. By constraining its nuclear exports, Australia has never achieved the dominant standing in the export market that would be required to make the withholding of supply of its uranium a meaningful instrument of leverage. By contrast, Canada has balanced its role as an active member of the non-proliferation regime, whilst keenly pursuing the commercial benefits of a nuclear export industry. Canada is driven by economic interests, and its participation in the nuclear regime, ensures that international safeguards and guidelines that govern the export of nuclear material, do not damage Canada’s economic interests. Statement of Originality This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. Disclosure The research project was undertaken under the ARC Linkage: Australia’s Nuclear Choices, and human ethical clearance (ER2) protocol IBA/01/05/HREC. One publication has been drawn from this research although in different form than what appears in the dissertation: "Australian and Canadian Nuclear Policy: The Challenge of India." In Australia's Uranium Trade: The Domestic and Foreign Policy Challenges of a Contentious Export, edited by Michael Clarke, Stephan Fruling and Andrew O'Neil. Surrey: Ashgate, 2011. Acknowledgements My utmost thanks, respect and admiration goes to my supervisor Professor Andrew O’Neil (AON). His patience with me has been nothing short of extraordinary. My associate supervisor, Dr Michael Clarke (Clarkey), deserves an equally loud applause for his support and skill at unravelling the jumble of ideas and thoughts. This thesis would not have begun without the generous scholarship afforded me by the Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant for “Australia’s Nuclear Choices” in association with the Lowy Institute for International Affairs, Department of Defence, and Griffith University. Alongside this scholarship, it would be remiss of me not to mention the Association of Canadian Studies in Australia and New Zealand (ACSANZ). Through their generous post-graduate funds, I was able to attended and present at, international conferences as their representative, which afforded me access to international Canadian researchers, and invaluable feedback on my own research. Quite possibly, my PhD would not have come to fruition without the amazing support I received from Griffith Asia Institute and Griffith University. Some PhD students are not lucky enough to secure a desk for their tenure let alone a support staff (and office)! My heartfelt thanks go to Kathy Bailey, Meegan Thorley and Natasha Vary, for encouragement and support. My thanks also go to my PhD running mates, Greta Knabbs-Keller and Julie Rayner, who often went beyond the call of duty with their help and encouragement. i | P a g e My appreciation is also extended to the Research Associates at Griffith Asia Institute and Lecturers at the School of Government and International Relations. In particular, I would like to thank Dr Dan Halvorson, Dr Vlado Vivoda, Dr Line Liss, Associate Professor Martin Griffiths, Professor Jason Sharman and Associate Professor Michael Heazle, for offering advice, help and support even when it was not in their area of service. Finally, and without further ado, I want to say THANK YOU to my family, Tom, Joan, John, Susie, Helen and Joe and my nieces and nephews. I think you know I would not be able to put into words how much you all mean to me. To my amazing and patient friends from all over the world; some deserving special mention, Roisin, Katie, Billy and the Burt Family, Olivia and Jules, the Millen’s, the Kemp’s, the O’Neill-Rogers’, the Brady’s, Alli, Aaron, Wes, Sara and Paul, Dan and Enzo, Avi, Chris, Brie, and Kat ‘n’ Kevin. Extra special mention goes to Seany K, Bobbie, Cate and the Gazal Family, and Sarah Jean. Cathy ii | P a g e Contents INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 APPROACH OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 5 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 1. ............................................................................................................ 14 RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS ............................................................................ 14 PART I: GROUNDS FOR COMPARING AUSTRALIA & CANADA: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 15 The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime and Australian and Canadian engagement ........................................................................................................ 21 IAEA and NPT ............................................................................................ 23 Challenges .................................................................................................... 27 Australia ....................................................................................................... 31 Canada .......................................................................................................... 35 Canada and Australia as Middle Powers .......................................................... 38 PART II: EXISTING LITERATURE ............................................................................. 41 Australia and Canada ........................................................................................ 42 Export Controls ................................................................................................. 47 Political Will and Capacity ........................................................................ 48 Political Aspects .......................................................................................... 49 International Obligations and Regime Adherence ................................ 50 Economic Factors ........................................................................................ 51 Critical Junctures: Explaining Chapter Choices ............................................... 53 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 60 CHAPTER 2. ............................................................................................................ 64 HISTORICAL CONTEXT: AUSTRALIA AND CANADA ........................... 64 AUSTRALIAN
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