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Solutional Landforms in Quartz Sandstones of the Sydney Basin Robert Arthur Wray University of Wollongong

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Solutional Landforms in Quartz Sandstones of the Sydney Basin Robert Arthur Wray University of Wollongong University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 1995 Solutional landforms in quartz sandstones of the Sydney Basin Robert Arthur Wray University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Wray, Robert Arthur, Solutional landforms in quartz sandstones of the Sydney Basin, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, 1995. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1981 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Solutional Landforms in Quartz Sandstones of the Sydney Basin A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY from The University of Wollongong by Robert Arthur Lassau WRAY B.Com., G.Dip.Sci., B.Sc (Hons.) School of Geosciences (Geography) 1995 ii This work has not been submitted for a higher degree at any other University or Institution and, unless acknowledged, is my own work Robert A. L. Wray iii ABSTRACT Solutional landforms have been described for over one hundred years from limestone terrains and are termed karst. In many tropical regions landforms of similar morphology but on highly siliceous sandstones and quartzites have also recently been identified. The similarity of these features in morphology and in genetic solutional processes to those on limestone has prompted recent calls for these quartzose landforms to also be regarded as true karst. Although not unknown in temperate latitudes, these highly siliceous solutional landforms have been most commonly studied in present-day tropical regions, or areas believed to have been tropical in the recent past. This concentration of research in hot-wet areas, allied with the long held assertion of the insolubility of silica, especially quartz, led to a belief that tropical climatic conditions are necessary for karstic solution of these rocks. However, some of these quartzose solutional landforms are known in areas of temperate climate where there is little evidence for prior tropical climates. A comprehensive worldwide review of these landforms, and the processes involved in their formation, has not previously been conducted and forms the basis from which this study stems. The Sydney Basin in southeastern Australia has had a stable temperate climate for much of the Cainozoic with no evidence of tropical climate. The highly quartzose Permo-Triassic sandstones of this area have little carbonate, but nevertheless display a wide range of landforms morphologically similar to those both on limestones and also tropical quartzites. These include large bedrock towers, grikes, caves, smaller solution basins and runnels and even widespread silica speleothems. This study describes the morphology of this suite of landforms in detail, and provides a comparative analysis of these sandstone forms to those reported from quartzites of tropical areas and also their limestone analogues. Microscopic and chemical analyses are then utilised in examining the poorly understood natural processes responsible for their formation. The process of sandstone solutional weathering in the Sydney Basin is also compared with that reported from the tropics, demonstrating very little difference in either the form or magnitude of attack between these two climatically distinct regions. No previous studies have examined the wide range of solutional features found on quartz sandstones in one region of a climate comparable to Sydney, nor of the processes involved in the genesis of these forms. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have assisted in the preparation of this study, and without their help it would not have evolved into the form which it now is. Thanks must be given to all these people. The University of Wollongong provided financial assistance with APRA research funding, and also the use of the resources of the Geography Department. Most importantly I must thank my parents, for without their constant love, compassion, tolerance and interest, this study could not have been completed, nor the author always remained sane. My brother also provided much assistance, more than he knows, both in the field, with the statistics, and just generally being interested. To my Supervisor A. Professor R.W. Young and also Dr A.R.M Young is also owed an eternal debt of gratitude, not only for investing over three years of interest in this project, for help in the field, but also being in the unlucky position of having to read many of the earlier drafts of this thesis. Other people have also been dragged around in the field during this research. Some have enjoyed the time (and why not, this is the best part of the World), but others haven't (sorry about surveying in the sun for 8 hours on a 40+° C day Brendan). Jason and Brett Moule both provided much assistance in the field, as did Brendan Brooke, Alice Turkington, and Judy Carrick. Lynne McCarthy, Karen Wilkinson and Filiz Bensan all provided a memorable days assistance. Now you won't have to run and hide if I ask if you want to go on a bushwalk. The Staff of the Geography Department at the University of Wollongong have all also had an impact on the genesis of this thesis. Many have shown interest and engaged in interesting discussion on this topic over the last few years. Some warrant special mention; Jacqueline Shaw, for just being herself, always seeming calm in a crisis, and continually helpful and understanding. John Marthick for helping with new spells and general Black Magic when the computer misbehaved. Richard Miller for advice and assistance in cartography. Dr Bryan Chenhall with XRD, Dr Aivars Depers with optical microscopy, Mrs Penny Williamson for photographic assistance and Mr David Carrie for thin sections, all in Geology also provided much appreciated assistance, as did Mr Nick Mackie for SEM help in Materials Engineering. Associate Professor Ken White must also be thanked for stimulating discussion and critical comments. Likewise, the assistance of Dr Julia James for water chemistry analyses is also much appreciated. My fellow Postgrads (Brendan Brooke, Steven Tooth, Rainer Wende, H.Q Huang, Lynne McCarthy, Ali Rassuli, Richard Walsh, David Kennedy, and Alice Turkington) were all very helpful and understanding. Thanks for the help. V TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract iii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents v List of Figures ix List of Tables xi List of Plates xiii Chapter 1. The Problem of Sandstone Solutional Landforms 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Research Strategy 4 1.3. Aims of this Study 6 1.4. Structure of this Study 7 Chapter 2. Solutional Weathering of Siliceous Sandstones - A Review 2.1. The Genetic System of Karren Forms 9 2.2. Tower Karst 13 2.3. Solutional Caves 18 2.4. Dolines and Shafts 29 2.5. Grikes 33 2.6. Drainage Runnels 34 2.6.1. Rillenkarren 35 2.6.2. Rinnenkarren, Rundkarren, and Decantation Rills 35 2.7. Solution Basins 37 2.8. Solution Notches 40 2.9. Silica Speleothems 41 2.9.1. Silica Speleothems from Non-Sandstone Caves 41 2.9.2. Sandstone and Quartzite Speleothems 42 2.10. General Conclusions 46 Chapter 3. The Sydney Basin 3.1. Introduction 48 3.2. General Geology of The Southern Sydney Basin 49 3.2.1. Geographic and Structural Boundaries of the Sydney Basin 49 3.2.2. Intra-Basin Structure 51 3.2.3. Evolutionary Sequence of the Southern Sydney Basin 52 3.3. General Characteristics of Sandstones Studied 53 3.3.1. Southern Region Shoalhaven Group 53 3.3.1.1. Snapper Point Formation 56 3.3.1.2. Nowra Sandstone 57 3.3.2. Blue Mountains Plateau Grose Sub-Group 57 3.3.2.1. Burra-Moko Head Sandstone 58 3.3.2.2. Banks Wall Sandstone 59 3.3.3. Central Region-Hawkesbury Sandstone 60 3.4. General Geomorphology 62 vi 3.5. Rates of Landform Change 67 3.6. Climatic and Vegetational History 71 Chapter 4. Quartz Sandstone Solution Basins 4.1. Introduction 76 4.2. Basin Distribution 77 4.3. Data Collection 77 4.3.1. Limitations with Data 78 4.4. Sampling Sites 79 4.5. Morphometric Analysis 82 4.5.1. Basin Size 85 4.5.2. Basin Shape 91 4.5.3. Basin Walls 95 4.5.4. Basin Floors 98 4.6. Relationships Between Morphometric Parameters 101 4.7. Morphometric Relationships Between Sample Sites 108 4.7.1. Differences Between Sites 109 4.7.2. Reasons for Differences Between Sites 114 4.8. Sandstone Hardness and Basin Preservation 116 4.9. Basin Age 118 4.10. General Conclusions 120 Chapter 5. Towers and Grikes 5.1. Introduction 123 5.2. Sandstone Towers 123 5.2.1. Tower Morphology 125 5.3. Structural and Lithological Constraints on Tower Formation 141 5.3.1. Central and Southern Study Area 141 5.3.2. Newnes Plateau Pagodas 148 5.4. Grikes 154 5.5. Conclusions 164 Chapter 6. Sandstone Runnels 6.1. Introduction 166 6.2. Types of Runnels 166 6.3. Runnel Morphology 171 6.4. Distribution of Runnels 176 6.5. Sandstone Hardness and Runnel Development 187 6.6. Conclusions 188 Chapter 7. Sydney Basin Sandstone Caves 7.1. Introduction 191 7.2. Subterranean Conduits 191 7.3. Sandstone Caves 206 7.4. Features Adjacent to the Study Area 211 7.5. Conclusions 212 vii Chapter 8. Speleothems of the Sydney Basin Sandstones 8.1. Introduction 214 8.2. Silica Flowstone 215 8.3. Silica Stalactites 220 8.3.1. Conical or Cylindrical Stalactites 220 8.3.2. Coralline Silica Stalactites 227 8.3.3. Silica'Popcorn' 244 8.4. Silica Stalagmites 245 8.5. Speleothem Carbonate, Organic Matter and Water Content 249 8.6. Formation of Silica Speleothems 252 Chapter 9. The Chemical Weathering of Quartz Sandstone 9.1.
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