WHAT ARE WE MISSING? AN ARCHAEOTHANATOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LATE ANGLO-SAXON BURIALS By: Emma Catherine Green A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Arts & Humanities Department of Archaeology November 2018 Abstract Archaeothanatology, a holistic approach conceived in France, examines detailed observations of the spatial positioning of skeletal elements in a grave, to characterize taphonomy and reveal funerary practices that would otherwise be archaeologically invisible. However, archaeothanatology suffers from a lack of comparative case studies exploring the effects of different burial environments upon the decomposition and disarticulation of a human corpse in the grave. Furthermore, investigations into funerary practices applying a taphonomic approach are seldom contained in published reports for burials in England. This has resulted in potentially valuable evidence for funerary practices being overlooked. This study evaluates the utility of archaeothanatology as a tool for reconstructing original burial form from an archaeological grave context, with specific focus on the identification of wooden containers from the late Anglo-Saxon period (c.A.D.650- 1100). Recent data suggests a variety of different containers for the body were commonly used but identifies so-called ‘plain-earth graves’ as the norm. Many containers will have been constructed entirely from wood, decomposing completely, rendering them archaeologically invisible confounding attempts to explore their prevalence. Presently various inconsistent evidence is used to identify possible wooden containers. A taphonomy-based analysis of skeletons from graves where preserved wood and metalwork provided conclusive evidence for coffins was undertaken. This information, as well as adding to our overall knowledge about decomposition in a wooden container, has been used to develop a tailored method to assist in identifying coffined burials. The method was applied to three cemeteries containing burials without surviving evidence for coffins. The results indicate that the prior default determination of ‘plain-earth’ in a substantial number of burials was flawed. From the sample studied, 41% were identified as decomposing in a void, 28% more than originally identified through evidence from funerary architecture alone. Thus, confirming archaeothanatology can improve burial interpretations and is beneficial to funerary archaeology. (Word count 84, 906) Acknowledgements My heartfelt thanks go firstly to my supervisor Dr Lizzy Craig-Atkins, without whom, I would have packed up and left a long time ago. Her support, guidance, advice, comments, edits and words of wisdom, have been invaluable throughout this whole experience. My thanks also extend to my advisor, Professor Dawn Hadley, who has taken time to read through draft chapters. My research would not have been possible without access to excavation archives. For allowing me admittance, sometimes on numerous occasions, I need to thank (in no particular order) Christopher Guy at Worcester Cathedral, Christine McDonnell at York Archaeological Trust (Swinegate), David Baker (Elstow Abbey), David Rice at Gloucester City Museums (St Oswald’s), Susan Harrison and the team at English Heritage (St Peter’s), Helen Rees at Hampshire Cultural Trust (Staple Garden’s) and John Nolan (Black Gate). Thanks also go to Andy Hall for proof reading the whole thesis. I must also thank the many, many people who put-up with me lamenting my woes over the past three years, including, Diana Swales, Carrie Sawtell and Brant Walkley, who had to listen to me in his capacity as my thesis mentor. I cannot express how grateful I am to my family. My brother Rupert, who has been my sounding board, my proof reader and my moral support (I am sure the tables will turn in the next few years!). My daughter, whose belief in me has been unshakable, and my husband, Stephen, who has had to bear the brunt of the “PhD process”, financially, grammatically, and emotionally. Thank you! Finally, I am not sure I could have made it through intact without my faith, which has supported me throughout. Contents List of figures i List of tables vii List of Abbreviations xi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Research Aims, Approach and Objectives 4 1.2 Now You See Me, Now You Don’t – The Nature of the 6 Archaeological Burial Record 1.3 Funerary Archaeology 13 1.4 The Case Study – Late Anglo-Saxon Funerary Practices 20 1.5 Thesis Structure 22 Chapter 2 The Body in Archaeology 24 2.1 Historical Perspective 25 2.2 Origins and Development of Archaeothanatology 30 2.3 Corpse Taphonomy – Archaeothanatology in Practice 37 2.3.1 Decomposition 38 2.3.2 Disarticulation 41 2.3.3 Displacement 44 2.3.3.1 Original voids 44 2.3.3.2 Secondary voids 45 2.3.3.3 Speed of sediment in-filling 46 2.3.3.4 Decomposition in an empty space 48 2.3.3.3 Decomposition in a filled space 52 2.3.4 Support 54 2.3.5 Skeletal Analysis and Interpretations 57 2.4 Summary 58 Chapter 3 Late Anglo-Saxon Funerary Variation 60 3.1 Funerary Practices 450-850 A.D. and the Impact of Their 61 Study on Late Anglo-Saxon Funerary Archaeology 3.2 Variation in the Late Anglo-Saxon Funerary Record (950- 64 1100A.D.) 3.2.1 Location 65 3.2.2 Grave Types 67 3.2.3 Grave Elaborations and Preparation of the Corpse 80 3.3 Researching Late Anglo-Saxon Funerary Variation 84 3.4 Without a Trace – Identification of Late Anglo-Saxon Wooden Coffins 88 3.5 Summary 102 Chapter 4 Confirmed Wooden Coffins 103 4.1 The Importance of Analysing Confirmed Coffined Burials 103 4.2 What Constitutes Evidence of a Confirmed Wooden Coffin 108 4.3 Site Selection 112 4.4 Site Introductions 117 4.4.1 St Oswald’s Gloucester 119 4.4.2 St Peter’s Barton-upon Humber 124 4.4.3 Staple Gardens Winchester 131 4.4.4 Swinegate York 134 4.4.5 Worcester Cathedral 140 4.5 Summary 145 Chapter 5 Skeletal Positioning Analysis of Confirmed Coffin Burials 146 5.1 Approach to the Skeletal Analysis of Confirmed Coffined 147 Burials 5.2 Skeletal Observations 149 5.2.1 The Original Arrangement of the Corpse 150 5.2.2 External Skeletal Displacement 157 5.2.3 Displacement into Secondary Voids 174 5.2.4 Internal Displacement 176 5.2.5 Skeletal Elements Supported in Potentially Unstable Positions 183 5.3 Interpretation of the Impact of a Wooden Coffin on Decomposition and Disarticulation of a Corpse 194 5.3.1 Original voids 195 5.3.2 External secondary voids 201 5.3.3 Internal secondary voids 202 5.3.4 Skeletal Elements Supported in Potentially Unstable Positions 204 5.3.5 The Original Arrangement of the Corpse 206 5.4 The Archaeothanatological Method 209 5.5 Independent verification of skeletal observations 217 5.6 Site Selection 225 5.6 Summary 227 Chapter 6 Analysis of Worcester Cathedral Burials 228 6.1 Results 228 6.1.1 Burials in a Void – Rigid Container 229 6.1.2 Burials in a Void 247 6.1.3 Indeterminate Burials 249 6.1.4 Uncoffined Burials 256 6.2 Discussion 259 Chapter 7 Analysis of the Burials from Black Gate Cemetery, 261 Newcastle 7.1 Introduction to the Cemetery at Black Gate 261 7.2 Results 267 7.2.1 Burials in a Void – Rigid Container 268 7.2.2 Burials in a Void 280 7.2.3 Indeterminate Burials 289 7.2.4 Uncoffined Burials 297 7.3 Discussion 311 Chapter 8 Analysis of the Late Anglo-Saxon Burials from Elstow Abbey 316 8.1 Introduction to the Cemetery at Elstow Abbey 316 8.2 Results 321 8.2.1 Burials in a Void – Rigid Container 322 8.2.2 Burials in a Void 324 8.2.3 Indeterminate Burials 339 8.2.4 Uncoffined Burials 347 8.3 Discussion 352 Chapter 9 Discussion and Conclusions 356 9.1 Combined Results from the Analysis of the Three Late Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries 357 9.2 A Critical Evaluation of the Archaeothanatology-Based Method 362 9.3 The Implications for Funerary Archaeology of the Late Anglo-Saxon Period 372 9.4 Potential for Future Work 383 References 387 Appendix A Glossary of Terms CD – File Appendix A.docx Appendix B Burial Data for Chapter 4 CD – File Appendix B.xlsx Appendix C Data Tables for Chapter 5 CD – File Appendix C.xlsx Appendix D Data Tables for Chapter 6 CD – File Appendix D.xlsx Appendix E Data Tables for Chapter 7 CD – File Appendix E.xlsx Appendix F Data Tables for Chapter 8 CD – File Appendix F.xlsx List of Figures Chapter 2 2.1 Illustration of the direction of possible movements for skeletal elements in an original empty space 49 2.2 An example of decomposition in an original external void – empty space 50 2.3 An example of decomposition in a filled space 53 2.4 Support of appendicular skeletal elements by the sides of a coffin 55 2.5 The effects on skeletal positioning of a tight shroud 57 Chapter 3 3.1 Two examples of variation in the construction of stone cists at Black Gate cemetery, Newcastle (TW). 70 3.2 Exceptional organic preservation of a wooden coffin from Swinegate, York (NY) 75 3.3 Examples of stones arranged around the head of the corpse 82 3.4 Comparison between a rectangular coffin and one with a slightly tapered shape from St Peter’s Barton-upon-Humber 89 3.5 SO175 illustrating approximately in-situ iron nails providing the outline of a wooden coffin 94 Chapter 4 4.1 Burial from Worcester Cathedral showing fragments of preserved wood and wood stains on the base of the grave at a distance from the grave cut 110 4.2 Diagram illustrating a void formed by decomposed coffin wood identified by excavators at Worcester Cathedral 110 4.3 Plan of Burial 512 showing the position of the metal coffin brackets 112 4.4 Map showing the locations of the five case-study