DOCUMENT RESUME RE 003 891 ED 056 834 for TITLE The Newspaper in theClassroom: Teaching Aids Secondary Schools/ SocialScience. Diego, Calif. Dept. of INSTITUTION Copley Newspapers, San Education. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 126p. AVAILABLE FROMCopley Newspapers, Departmentof Education, School Programs Division, 940Third Avenue, SanDiego, Cal. 92112 ($3.00) MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58 EDRS PRICE *Instructional DESCRIPTORS Current Events;*Instructional Aids..; Materials; Maps; News Media;*Newspapers; Reading Materials; *SecondaryTrrades; *Social Studies;Social Studies Units; TeachingGuides; World Affairs
ABSTRACT This teaching kit includestwo booklets, "Your World at Your Fingertips"and "Teaching Aids Newspaper: An Exciting Copley films and for the social Sciences."Several maps, a list of filmstrips and order blanks,and a selection of current newsservice reports which are updatedperiodically. These materials areall designed to encourage the useof newspapers in thesecondary social how newspapers can be studies classroom.Suggestions are made as to resource materials forsocial studies teachersand students. The importance of newspapers inreporting historical,political, and economic events isdiscussed. Approaches andactivities utilizing newspapers aresuggested, and listingsfor sources of materials related to newspapers areincluded. (AI) F
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7. E. .,L) OROANIZA F NS ORLF UNUEF ,OREEMENTS WITTHE US Oh A:L OE EDUCATION FURTHER REPRODUCI ION OUTSJDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER FSSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER
Dear Soc:al Sciences Teacher: prN. Here is the 1971-72 Copley Departmentof Education CO Newspaper in the Classroom kit developedespecially for the social Ur% sciences teacher. Key to the program is theup-to-the-minute background package for Lai "Copley News Service Reports, " the exciting social sciences. The pamphlets, which covereach hot spot in the world, were rewritten to be as current Sept. 1 as yourdaily newspaper. Updaiss are published through the year tokeep "Copley News Service Reports" current. The Copley Department of Education is most eagerto help you in any way in the use of the ne ispaperin your classroom. You will find the program especially va,ble in special education classes. Upon request you can obta5,ample daily newspapers without cost for two weeks, one newspaper for everytwo students in clas s. In this kit, developed especially for aesocial sciences teacher, you will find: 1. "Copley News Service Reports". 2."Teaching Aids for the Social Sciences,"which gives th teacher practical suggestions on using the newspaperto give relevance and to create interest inthe various dis- ciplines concerned. ...% 3.A blank "World of News" map which originally wasde- in the news. 600 i' signed for bulletin board use in locating areas -J IL CC z cc (0) LL This old standby has proved one of the most popularitems < CC 2 C 0 (0) 0 in the secondary kit.Many teachers are using this as a seat map. They feel that students in manyclasses profit 0 WzUJ-,..
5. A map of San DiegoCounty which was especiallydrawn for school use.It is designed to incrasethe otudents' understanding of the area's richhistorial heritage, its scier;:ific importance, itsgeographical features, andits natural resources. Onefor each student may beobtained. 6. A map of Imperial Countywhich boasts the same features of the San Diego County map.It is available in classsets to teachers inboth counties. 7.A list describing CopleyProductions films and filmstrips vailable without chargethrough the Copley Department of Education. Films maybe requested by mail ortelephone. 8. Order blank. 9. Addressed envelope.
Department of Education Copley Newspapers 940 Third Avenue San Diego, California92112
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- Indeed, there may be no cii.-;,riding line at all. Perhaps each partner per- forins the same tasks in slightlydif- ferent ways. In any event, both are a partof a fulledUcation.
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in\4, vp6 vi NDALE "s1PitE NEWS-POST N;FEDRO;.NEWS-Pl aTtEEZ, TORRAN In. Illinois... AURORA BEACON-NEWS . ELOIN .DAILY COURIER-NEWS .ILLIOORISTATE JOURNAL; PPRIP4GFIELD STAPE RE .GISTER, SpRII4GFIEL15, THE, STATE,JOURNAL-REGISTER, SPRIt4GFIELD JULIET HERALD-NEWS. What it is 2 Your Newspaper: What's in it 4 How it serves you 6 How to read it 8 How it helps you in school ... Social Studies 11 Science 12 Mathematics 14 English 16 Homemaking 19 Music 19 Athletics 20 Art 20 Other ways it helps you 21
REPRODUCE THIS COPY- -PERMISSION TO HAS BEEN GRANTED RIGHTED MATERIAL BY \s: jNi
TO ERIC ANDORGANIZATIONS OPERATING Edilt.;1114)Y1 WITH THE U.S. OFFICE tpl.TIL;ht, New:11,11W1';- Dvp1111111 UNDER AGREEMENTS FURTHER REPRODUCTION OF EDUCATION. OUTSIDE THE ERICSYSTEM REQUIRES PER- MISSION OF THECOPYRIGHT OWNER.- k'AI:t'" :44 In a free country, a newspaperis a teller of truth. It tellsmillions of per- sons what ha3happened or what might happen. In this way, these millionslearn what they need to do tokeep their country strong and free. In our country, the job ofthe news- paper is soimportant that the men who founded our nationsaid in the Constitution: Newspapers are tobe freefree to tell the truth about any- body or anything. Ithad to be this way so that you,too, might always be, free. Because one of its jobs isto help you stayfree, your newspaper is in- terested in you. You may be too young to vote orto get married, but you arenot too young to be a partof your newspaper or for it tobe a part of you. It may have printedsomething about you when you wereborn. It is always eager to know whathappens to you and what youthink. You can write to itseditor, telling what you believe about anysub- ject of general interest.(Examples: Should schools be kept open11 months a year? Should your cityhave more recreation areasfor young per- sons?) If it's a good letter, your newspaper will print it so that allthe readers can knowwhat you think. 1
The newspaper is a great many halls and theaters, and onradio and words-- more than you'll findin television. many books.It also prints photo- Advertising, which tells you and graphs and drawings and maps. your parents what.things are for sale. Why are these words andpictures in fact, your newspapertells you in the newspaper? at least a little aboutalmost every- Many are there because they are thing. part of the story vvii'eh the newspa- Some of the things it publisly-2s are per tries eachday to relate: the story not pleasant. There are,for example, of' everything important orinterest- reports of' crimes anddisasters. Often ing that. has happened in yourworld persons do notenjoy reading about, in the past 24 hours. them. If a house burns a block awayfrom Sometimes the newspaper isasked, your home,the fire will be part of "Why Co you print stories aboutthse that story. If a head of government things?" half a world away is killed, youwill The answer: The newspaperhas know about it when you read your the duty of printingeverything that newspaper. happens because the leadif:rhas a And if somebody hits Mars with a right to know about thesethings. missile, you will see the storyand In fact, the reader oftenhas a need its headline in large type onPage to know. One of your iiewspaper. Thelarge If something is suspected of caus- type will be theeditor's way of show- ing cancer, this must bereported. ing you how importanthe thinks the If burglars have beenbusy near story is. your house. the newsshould reach Your newspaper tries to ti,inkof' you so you canbe on guard. all the things you'd like tokl-low and If the crimes happen toooften, it to include thosethings: will be your right and duty as aciti- -The st:->ry tH IbiA1-111 g;iine zen to urge your to do some- ywn- uhool H night. thing about i t. You could not do I his had brought t foivc;Jst. unless your newspaper krim,v \-1-1(>,-) iltritf_.in ale you the facts. ntA.q1 to t.,,,ku 'Fie newspaper tells youtile th ings Ht". you must know t.ohe helthy. to he ii , i)e a g-0(,(1 citizen. ;.inlott.-:.(0,2r- HI)HrL
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4 HOW IT SERVES YOU
you've julst i vv ila a. e IA/ spa pt._ i fOurris yo _ itaforrtairig-i oiraly orie c)t-- tIic fcLir things 3rour raewspaper does you_ Let's look_ ata_11 fatir: Inform_ 2_3. Help._Acil_Nrise_ 4 t _ 1NTotice 17'oliat Clraei /afar . rrla S crIhit3,r IA rie-wspa-per is dci rig (T-a Plage C:Prie aria o ri marl y other- pa It is tellirag you what happeriedarid what the people who were part ofthe it_ If the story- is abo-Lit a c-itia_vrel political debate, a strike or a irgJLJrTiEriti Gori.ress cir t i ty Gouracil -newspaper willprint the retaaarlcs of the pensoris oraboth that riews article, yoi_a_ shouldia't be able to tell wlic}ide, if a.ray, the riewspaper itself favors.111 yot_i'11 a_ble to tell is what happened. Good riewspapers don'tforce their beliefs ara yoli-t by-pLittirag- them stox-ies. F'uorra this fiAll Luria fair report you_ may be able to for yow-self 6 which side you favor. clothing, how to prepare yourincome But you may feel you'dlike the tax, how to play bridge orhow to take newspaper's opinion about this ques- care of babies. tion. That brings us toPoint Two Certain writers help readerswho is advise. The newspaper andits editors have special problems. If a person send and reporters havewatched this dis- troubled by something, he can about it to one of these writ- pute more closelythan anyone except a letter the persons actually in it.This close ers. The letterand an answer may knowledge may make your newspa- appear in the newspaper.In the an- will try to help the per's opinion worthhaving. swer, the writer There's a place where you canfind reader solve his problem. the this opinion. That placeis called the Advertising ranks high among editorial page. The index(or table of ways your newspaperhelps you. ccritents) on Page One maytell you Nearly everyone likes toread ad- ad- where to find this. vertising. And your newspaper The page containsarticles called vertises just abouteverything you editorials which tell whatthe edi- might want to buv. tor or his assistantsthink about Readers find advertisinghelps problems affecting the city,the state, them to get the most outof their world in short, budget. the nation, the it, about problems affecting you. When you stop to think about It may include aneditorial car- there are endless ways inwhich your toona drawingwhich gives the newspaper canhelp you. newspaper's view on somequestion. And then Point Four: the newspa- There may also be columnsby widely per entertains.It prints comic strips, known writerscommenting on puzzles, columns telling of amusing things that are happeningin Wash- happenings in your city, storiesabout ington or in themilitary services or odd and interesting factsof the past anywhere in the world. or present,interviews with fascinat- describing The newspaper's thirdjob is to help ing persons and articles you. You maybe surprised at the new books,movies, plays and televi- number of ways in whichit does this. sion programs. It prints articlestelling mothers To sum it all tip, this iswhat a dishes to please newspaper doesfor you: how to cook new in their families. lt tells you what is happening It tells girls how tobe more beauti- the world. It helps you todecide ful. Boys may find anarticle on the which of these things are good and sports pages inwhich a star golfer which are bad. It aids youin solving shows them how tohold a driver. your problemsand in learning how finally, it gives Other articles maytell how to dec- to live better. And, orate a living room,how to make you pleasure. I I
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What are the things you are seek- sure he thini- iC of e majo:- ing when you read a newspaper? pieces of new, dayInce the First, you want to know at least a editor's life wo_ I -1ging=2ws, his little bit about all that has happened hint to you prc ;s a g-)d one. in the world in the past 24hours. Now we con- 2LJ e leaThis is- Second, you want to know quite a the first sentence he 191-- two or lot about some things thatespecially three sentences ft articiJust ag. interest you. the headline L-Lif s who ..tory in Your newspaper can help you todo a nutshell, theI uallv 7._Its it in both. All the information isthere. a slightly large: lead "Yes," you may say, "I knowit's on our auto cra-hLory rm,-say: all there. But this bookletsaid ear- "Four local pc-rsons died last night lier that there are as manywords in in two automobile crashes, one on a newspaper asin a book. Who has the far south side and one at the east- time to read a book everyday?" ern edge of thecity. Five persons Almost no one. were injured in theaccidents." But a newspaper containstwo This is a summary: it tells in gen- kinds of things that will save you eral what happenedand again it time, so that you can learnsomething helps you decide whether you wish to about everything and a lotabout read the entire article. some thingswithout spending too For instance, you may live on the long in reading. far south side or on the eastern edge These two things are: of the city. In that case, you'll want 1. The headline. to read the entire article tolearn 2. The lead (pronouncedleed). whether your friends or neighbors The headline has two jobs: were involved in theaccident. 1. It tells you in just afew words The headlines and the leads will what the article is about.It may say, speed you through a newspaperin "Auto Crashes Kill 4 Here"and you whatever number of minutes you can know at once that thearticle will spend on it. tell you who the four persons were When you've finished, you'll know and where and how theyhappened to something about every article. And have automobile crashes.In other you'll have found the articles that words, the headline tells youwhether you want to read allthe way through. this is an article you wouldbe inter- ested in reading. 2. The headline's secondjn1is to show you how importantth, editOr thinks the article is. If theheadline is unusually large (or if thearticle appears onPage One), you can be
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'Oro "comes from." And it wiL makethose Social Studies strange, faraway cities seemmore History is the story ofWhat has real. happened in the past and alsowhat is happening right now.Students 100 The newspaper is a daily coursein years from now maybe studying social studies. By readingit, you about something you readtoday in learn how your local government op- your newspaper. erates and what they aredoing. You The difference is this: you'reread- may learn,for instance, that your ing about it only minutes orhours city has a mayor and a C.: ityCouncil; aft.-:r it happened. It isstill NEWS. and news articles will tell youwhat And that is why it is soexciting. kinds of tasks they are doingand what changes in the citythey have PROJECT: Make a scrapbook of decided on. the most important newspaper stor- ies for several weeks and try ode- will be PROJECT: Study your newspaper cide whether any of them for several weeks. Clip everystory mentioned in history books 2,000 which is about your CityCouncil. years from now.Give reasons why in selections will be re- Then select somebody to report, you think your his own words, what thecouncil did membered in history. during that period and howthe lives Reading your newspaper islike of those who live in your city maybe seeing what is happeningall over changed by it. the world. In one column you mayread an You can follow the activitiesof any article about an event inLondon. In number of organizations inthis way. the next column, thedateline (the Try it with your schoolboard or your place from which the article came) favorite baseball team. may be HongKong. You may find One of the jobs of newspaperedi- that such places seem lessfar away tors is to decide whatthings they and less strange to youwhen you think are most important.Every day read about somethingwhich oc- they receive many times asmuch curred there only hours ago. material as they can print,and they must choose which to usein their PROJECT: Make your newspaper newspapers. bring the places of the worldcloser They must decide whichof the ar- together for you. Clip headlines on ticles are interesting enough tobe on the day's major news. Then put a Page One. Then they mustdecide im- map of the world onthe wall. Thumb- which article should get the most tack each headline to the mapbeside portant (biggest) headlineand which the city from which that story came. the next most important. Do this every day for a week.It will help you see where your newspaper sP.ROJECT: Study Page One of your
11 newspaper today. Try to decidewhy As you read your newspaper, you the editor rated the storie in the or- find certain pieces of news go on for der in which he did. Then be your dayssometimes years. Articles in own editor. Pick the ten mostinter- the newspaper each day tell one more esting events in your school in the chapter in these continued stories. last week and list them in the order World War Ii was such a situation of the importance you think they it was reported every day in your have. Explain to your classmates newspaper for five years;there were why you've rated them as you have. thousands of articles about it. See whether they agree with you. Some kinds of news start with a bang and a big headline. An earth- We have said the editorial page is quake is like that. the place for opinions of the editors, Other kinds start small and get of the columnists and of the readers bigger. An Atlantic hurricane is one through letters to the editor. The edi- of these. The first news article may torials and the columns and the let- be a short one, saying simply that a ters may praise, condemn, suggest, hurricane has been sighted 500 miles interpret or explain. from land in the Caribbean Sea. As Editorials are usually written to the storm nears shore, the daily arti- contain an introduction, in which an cle gets bigger. And when the wind idea is presented; a middle part, in strikes land, the story may become which the idea is discussed; and a the biggest one on Page One. conclusion, in which an opinion is suraamlissumestmanatzczainsamszonamozarer.a given about the idea. PROJECT: Trace some continuing This opinion frequently tells why, event in your newspaperfor one or according to the editorial writer, more weeks. Clip thearticles about something happened the way it did. it and make a display of them for , your classmates. Showhow the arti- PROJECT: Read about an event cles grew longer or shorter during that period and how they moved onto on the front pageof your newspaper and write an editorial about it. or off Page One asthe event grew Is this a good event or a bad one? more or less important. If it is bad, what harm will it bring to your city or your nation? What do Science you as an editorthink should be done We live in a time of fast scientific to correct the harm or to keep events progress. Thousands of persons are like this from happening again? busy all day everyday simply learn- ing the things that man has never Asking yourself questions like this known before about science and med- about everything that happens will icine and space. not only make you a good editorial Your newspaper prints articles writer, it will make you a good citi- about these scientific changes and zen. discoveries. These things haven't had
IGP 12 time to get into your textbooks yet; they're too new. They'll become a part of tomorrow's textbooks. PROJECT: Watch your newspaper for several weeks. Clip every story almut scientiqic progressdiscover- ies, new kinds of satellites, air speed records and so on. Then make a re- port to Your class on what afew weeks have brought in the way of new scientificthings. Everybody is interested in the weather. Your newspaper printsthe forecast (what the weather isgoing to be like in the lutur.and the rec- ords (what the weather waslike in the past). These records show what the tem- peratures were likeyesterdayhow hot it got; how cold it got.They show whether it rained and howmuch. They show which way the windblew and how fast. PROJECT: Sometimes it's easier to understand a lot of'figures if you make a graph. Make a graph show- ing the highest temperature every day for a month. probably find high temperature fh_;sart,' ;lay inyo;h:
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_ 2N_ .387 1D att irig a_ Nr I' et_ rri ay 'Be mari-v- things, irii-iLiair-kgr,i ticket to rie rn iij or- lea. gi_res for s iii cI-1 i hea y of all, it is a_ decimal fraction13Lit,aria cnie tFiit rric3t in the 1a-v-e no difficulty landersta_nding_ mcpst boys is tFie _500 stand_ ing cjf i -team that I-1 a s wor-i 12 grr1e rid lost 12_ 40- P2, c_Ac. the standings of ti irri Eli ".E1_ 1_1 rris c>/-1. s -pc> i t s f STC ) Li T1 I.e V1/47 S _ i ci 3.7 Ci) 13- itici /CI:) NV ledge decirria.1 Fr; ,ctionsancl for- the sake of 37-c3/- of'C13 IT1each C Li r" 1. team_ CD« S i t,37 (--) if itt, wins its ne,c_t garne arid (1L._) if it loses _ cit--.a_vv- c3f- t a -1--)Lcii rigs c)f-- th_e te yrr s V) a_ s y fi g Li of -these sets wi 11 1Deiri CI V ric e rrpeek" at_ tornor-row_ Advertisements are a kind of news percentage of those who see thead- news aboutwhat's for sale and how vertisement will want what you have much it costs. This news is important to sell and will come tobuy it from because prices change. Sometimes you. your dollarbuys more hamburger, Classified advertisementssome- sometimes less. From the ads you can times called want adsare a fascin- learn how well your family willbe ating kind of advertising. A classified able to feed, clothe and houseitself section probably contains a boxtell- on the amountof money your parents ing how much the ads cost, or you can earn. telephone the newspaper to find out. PROJEcT: Pretend you have$6 PROJECT: As practice for your with whicL to feed a family offour possible future task of selling, pre- for one day. Will it be enough? tend you have five different items for From the food advertisementsin sale. Look up your newspaper's clas- your newspaper,work out a menu sified advertising rate per word ard of food items which you mightbuy. figure how many words you can buy Decide how many pounds ofeach for the money you have to spend. thing you'll need and figure out how Perhaps you can buy, say, 20 words much it will cost. Then addthe fig- every day for a week. ures and seewhether your $6 will buy If so, try to write an inviting ad in enough of these itemsor whether that number of words. Compare your you'll have to switch to other, less ad with those of your classmates and expensive foods. decide who has written the one that In this project, you'll learn some- will sell the most items. thing about the problems of being a -83Z3.5221a:123L.=3=121192::::=383L Your newspaper contains financial mother or father. entire section. nnt.h., WM. wry lo,S, 10,1 ...NA,. news; it may have an Many of you will earn your living This deals with news of businesses by making goods or doing services. and with the stock market. You will have to decide whatprice The stock market is a place where you must charge,and you must find people buy and sell shares of various buyers willing to pay that price. businesses. Your parents may own This must be high enough to cover shares of stock. This means they are your costs.It must also pay a profit part owners of a company or com- money for you and yourarnily to live panies. on and to save.Otherw'..3e, you won't If so, they read the financial page be able to stay in business. for several reasons: One cost will be that offinding a 1. It tells them what's ppening buyer for your goods or services.Ad- to the businesses inwhich they al- vertising is a way of findingsuch a ready own shares. buyer. An advertisementtells what 2. It gives them news about other is for sale and where and,in most businesses in which they might like instances, for what price.A certain do own shares.
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15 The directors of one of those busi- simply and say exactly what you nesses may decide to divide theprof- meanthe better you will be under- its by voting "a dividend," This stood in this world. And you must be means your parents will get some understood to live. money. The financial section may Study several news articles and have news about that. note how clearly and briefly the This section also will tell them how writer has stated his ideas. See if you much some of the shares they own can find unnecessary words in each are worth. The marketvalue of a article. company's shares may change from Note the lead. How many words day to day. If it is a well-run com- does it contain? Twenty? Thirty? pany, the value increases. That Probably no more. means your parents' shares become The reporter has learned to write worth more. simply. He can attend any complex So every day your newspaper event and then write a clear and c,'.1- prints stock market tables. These are cise lead which will tell you aa lists showing the prices of shares of glance exactly what happened or in- stock in many companies. terest you in reading further. la I, Nearly everything after the lead PROJECT: Imagine that you have will be just details expanding on that $1,000 to invest in stocks. With this brief introduction. surr, "buy" shares of your favorite 1.11 ?NW. companies. Then watch the stock ta- PROJECT: Practice writing short bles for a month to see whose shares leads. Have a classmate relate an in- go up or down in price and whose go cident that has happened to him. up or down the most. By multiplying Then see who can write the shortest each day's price per share by the sentence that tells what happened. number of shares you "bought," you The s-sintence mustn't leave out any- can keep track of whether your thing important and it mustn't $1,000 has grown or shrunk. include anything unimportant. Whatever the results, you will sense ;4()Ille of the excitement olown- Although reporters try to write I)art of this fre.,-enterprise simply, newspapers must print ar- Amei"a. ------ticles --,,ho to. complex subjectsabout. science, medicin,the space age. n These articles sometimes use newspaper t ries to be simple. word: which are not a part of every- -.:nts to he understoed day speech. Usually a newspaper
e\ yryozle.soit ; Hds hard words using such a word will try to define it. a,ncl loag sentences. Whether it's delined or not, the , greatest writcr,, -\,:hoever word can :Jerome a part of your tried to do the same thing. The vocabulary. bett,,i. You aro able to do thiswrite From reading the rest (J' the story, 0 16 C)U C arn C_JC k it up inthe dictionary.
_ PRC.:),TF:CYF: Clip severalarticles from -your neN,vspaper.Read them und murk eac.!.hNNT ()I'd tha.t itTIW tC) ()Xi . NTC)t. how often the neN,vspaperstory mukes the meaning of strangewords c le zi-tr u nd th i tr eg. thens you r grIf asp in doubt of the as to iiie.i Lithemeaning of a word, be sure to check thedictionary. rì tell yourclassmates about your new wordsthe ones that reading the neNvspaper gave to you. You noticed earlier thatheadlines cr-rie in certainshapes and sizes. There can be only so manylines of and only SC) many typeletters in a. in headline a. lineyet theheadline must tell the hurryingreader what the story is about orinterest -him in reading further. It always does the job, eventhough thre may be hundredsof words in the story and only four orfive in_ the hea.dline. Writing gcbodheadlines re- quires great slilL 'Fake this he aduirie fore>cample: Zoo Expects One Millionth Visitor Today This 1-leacIline 1-ias tFrreelimes a,Thia no morethan 13 letters and spaces in its lorigest line. in handline17"ItC:),.TC-r: words, Topractice develop writing sKill a headline of-this same shapeand size. Choose some school event andde- scribe it in three linesof not more than 13 letters and spaces aline. r-rhe" 17 Ar1,11.1 IhI Or .J1 1)'I'lri,,f 1\1 If 4111:,:il kii '.1 1 ,11)9.1;111 1 ii I i! Iri PI 11 Hiplikii,Vill 1 ' 1,111,111 I 111(i 11'11111! 11.,i,r;r1, T411/I I '111'1i'i !hill'il itill?l 1111, I I 11 r 111:! 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ProLL )111; 1#14M.,i(4.14 jfrr 44ii , iy iy .01 t I rill ,h 1(,;0P4.1!, 4.k1 l';4,141,r01,f,j,,rit.,.4'41 14;1'6' ilt:11 ill 11,4 , 1' l'sitd'tni;f yt4,5,!.1..OltkY:"4,1P'll 0 410,0 6 1 0140'60.'v ''. '',1!):1111 t\AT90,16, ' '°Ijtr''1% ''. d l41t11,47, 1 11 9' crAki AVAINA14okr4iiirVr cr 4 'r'1,` r'' ,11' 1. r. 'la ' t;,:41;,,05,i4,$' ' - r: 4: Ac ri..LAL-N7- la CI 5 Ro ; iF it laas less.. tbe I-iid1 ime will 1 c>c:"ski rimy" c> r " la e ec_l s Rrese /a iirxcI it 3-1-1 Ll i I-1 1 1 t 0 I 0 I-1 ci it wwi'tfit. 'I' la e 1-1 cc 1 -11-1 1-1-1 Fl 5 0 f 37 0 ri -I-1 W t eM- I-1 t i 1 c__>F be racis ; .11:11: int e last fe w la c> t. rat_ i ri rick., fOr nsta ; tIic cciuici nt tFiiris t b. a t a. cIcin1cie -Lc) bay)-Rerl 1-1 5 5 wil 1c>psera mc> iic > ; tIh t Fii r ci 1c i 1-1C1 CI t-1-1i T1 g-5 tih.ait iv Iiim g;i 0 1-1Fc> c> me time_ -tri is t hsRc>t.1-1 1-'1_W5 i pmdt0F37-F]Iihi1t ' 5 ID c) -t a pa lar ti _ 'I'e stor y c) -Lx e 4c:>i-igress i c a_ I 1 e cl a T1 rac_-!.e stc>ry _ Anx a_ m ir> le or tFitFiirci icirid c> F r i Ix san s inçrxt te 40ew- year NAT s ata t1irlais jot>.wFic It )miglat tell abc)-Lit iritr- tirig cir firiiriy t I--11-1 tFiit ITIE&V I-1 ID ID cl t or>ITLiTiTI.1==:' e r aps it w va 1 ci la iad Fc>r y +c) -L." -mg teac e c) Fc> r s tii. ci ri t s artic aii3c>1__Tt tbe tealaer called, a R-t_th I isbecl La t e tea x-1-1 as bee rairi ttiirig m a rx fc)r a 1 C) 1-11C0 ri 37 tIiimg 1.i ra-Lista al la as bap- 1->el-esri- t(i) Flirri c>rit1T1c clay- it is prizatecl. y a ficTi ri Eiti mg t t 0 I-37 1_1_ 1 CI r- itte rx_ b C) nit yC)ni a_ na abc--->xxt e 137 I viri g, b?inigj EEnicFi t0 II 5 c:p F tbe rrict a 1 tFii b t a ID e c) Elr1ci t, ' s s (=> ig nrmnni a 1 a_ ID cs -xx t e ElcFi c f La _ 1 8 week; select a single meal.Work out PROJECT: Interview the person a step-by-stepplan for preparing who sits next to you in class. Keep this meal, listing the time atwhich asking questions till you learn you will have to doeach thing in something unusual about this per- order to make it all come out, steam- sonhis hobby, something he has ing hot and ready to serve, at a done, what happened on a trip he certain hour. took. Write a feature story about this unusual thing. See how interesting Music you can make it. Your newbpaper is the mirror of the music life of your city.It tells Now that you realize the job isn't about the concerts, the ballets, the easy, read featurestories in your musical plays that are being pre- newspaper and seewhat the writers sented. It tells you that these events have done to make them hold your are to take place and,after the open- attention. ing night of some of these, its critics tell you what they thought of them. Homemaking In a sense, they "grade" these activ- One of the newspaper's jobs, you ities as a teacher does. will recall, is to help readers live .11.1n 11,Anit better. PROJECT: Clip all articles about If you are a student in homemak- music from your newspaper for two ing, you will find the newspaper or three weeks.Then group these helps homemakers in several ways. articles by subject, take notes on There are articles on home buying, them and prepare a 250-word report interior decoration and gardening. on music activitiesin your city. Do There are stories and patterns to such activities go on regularly?Are help you make your own clothing. they varied? Are the performers out- There are tips on solving everyday standing? Would you say that your household problems. There are in- city ranks high or low as a centerof teresting features on how better to culture? handle the family budget. The food PROJECT: Attend or listen to sev- articles and menus, together with eral concerts. Keep a detailed record the grocery advertisements, suggest of the name of the conductor, the many interesting mealpossibilities. selections played and your reaction to the program. The newspaper car- PROJECT: From the food items ries announcements of forthcoming advertised in your newspaper for a concerts and special programs. week, develop a seven-day menufor PROJECT: Make a music scrap- your family. book. Clip from your newspaper PROJECT: Clip the recipes con-. everything of interest to music lov- tained in your newspaper for oner ers. Include storiesabout music con-
1 9 ductors, news items about music and for a month and clip from it every reviews of concerts and musical article which would interest an ath- plays. Your newspaper will publish lete. Then make a report to your pictures of performers, stories about classmates on the rules of health, their lives and feature articles about diet, training, and game skills which you found. music. All should find their way into - -- y our scrapbook. Art The newspaper will keep you in- Athletics formed of developments in the field Your newspaper hopes you will be of art. Art exhibits are announced, a good studentbecause intelligent, and news concerning other art events educated men and women will be will appear. Watch for stories about needed to keep our nation strong and recent discoveries of primitive art successful in tomorrow's world. (the art of people who lived many But you should have a healthy years ago), the saleof masterpieces, body and the fun of taking part in interviews with famous artists and games, too. information about "modern" art. Your newspaper tries to help you There are many examples of art in have that fun. your newspaper.There are many It prints many columns of sport photographs and drawings. Adver- news. In these columns, you can tisements use lots of drawings. learn much about how games are And of course the comics are a form played. You will feel better equipped of art. Notice especially how good when you try to play these games. these drawings must be in the single In the comment columns, you'll panel cartoons. Everything mustbe read about ethics and sportsman- tola in one picture. ship. The interviews with great ath- Another interesting example of art letes often tell how they learned to is the editorial page cartoon. Some- play so well. times a good editorial cartoon will Your newspaper offers stories of tell you as much as the editorial, interest for you as an athlete in other places beside the sports section. PROJECT: Find a story in your In the medical column, a physician newspaper whichwill be valuable to may tell you how to leadthe healthy your art class.Bring the story to life that will give you an athlete's class for a report. body. PROJECT: Look around your And the food pages contain articles school for something which might on nutrition, the studyof a balanced make a good cartoon. Draw your diet, the kind you need to be healthy idea and let your classmates seeit. and strong. What were their reactions? Did you
- get your idea across? It'sdifficult to PROJECT: Check your newspaper up and draw goodcartoons.
20 In many "cases, a newapar*91,,-.. comes s uuden groups. ftor rs-oeitS E.,1"Au sedd : 4 meml-ers Spe4. clubs
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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY- RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY C /
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER- MISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."
Published by
&Pk NewgpaPolg DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
2 7
1 Qr7n Clnywri prht CONTENTS
Introduction 000 0 0* Acknowledgments......
0 0 1 Social Studies. 00 S 0 0 V
Anthropoloav .
Economics 12
. Geography. , 0 Al 18
History 21
Political Science . 0000 26
Sociology .. . . . 30 :NTRODUCTION
Under _:-.1-___,titution of the United States, the newspaper is as-3 -_red freedom to --iresent the newswhen and as it happens.In. _g the resp.=sf_bi_Lides aniobligations implicit in this freedom, the -_- =wspaper prvid-3E a comprehensiveservice to persons of all ages, .1.-.11 educationalbackgrounds, and all economic levels. The news-Dape--_- is unique in our society.No other medium of information even tries to record as manyof the innumerable events that are of concern to man; the verynature of other mediums limits both their subject n atte:: and audience. No other edium of masscommunication influences or reflects public opinion --nd public concern asmuch as the newspaper. Directly ot indirect_:, most of whatAmericans know about world, national, state, and local affairs comesfrom facts and ideas communi- cated to them by newspapers. Although a newspaper provides aservice, it is also a financial enterprise wh--ch mustmake money to stay in business.It is essential that newspapers remainfinancially independent enterprises, free of all government controls saveonly those which would prevent violations of the rights and privilegesof citizens.It is only through thiS independence that newspapers canfulfill their role as the citizens watchdog in society. In this 20th century, with newsbeing made much faster than textbooks can print it, the roleof the newspaper as a medium of information has assumed g.t.-ct.t.wr t1on than ever before.If the textbook is deficient--if it is not up todate--where else may one go but to the newspaper to bridge thisgap? It is little wonder, then,that educators today have termed the newspaper a "living textbook" andregularly use it as a part of their curriculum. They have found that itis an instructional aid which canbe used to supplement the teaching of anysubject.It has been proved that it serves as an excellent motivatingmedium to learning by pointing out the application of topics that mightotherwise seem trivial.It provides some material whichwill attract most any student,regardless of his intelligence level, prior interest, orpast experience. And, perhaps most important of all, its use encouragescritical and analytical thinking. With the increased emphasisbeing placed on inquiry prob- lems in the social sciences, the newspaperbecomes an even more valuable tool.It is ideal as a source forinformation on a wide range of topics.
-2.01 social sciences arethe study of man and hisinteraction with his and social environmentsand the study of man's inter- Lvidually and in groups.The newspaper is a mirrorwhich dependenc. and thereby is an excellent reflects s actions,and his interactions, tool foi th-E- -jal science teacher. E publicationof the Department ofEducation, Copley the combined findingsconcerning the social sciences Newspape:- University of of recent 1-- 7..aper in theClassroom workshops at the California . Angeles and adds tothem methods alreadysuccessfully used in the -ols in areas in whichCopley newspapers arepublished and in man r schooldistricts in the United Statesand foreign countries. work is intended for usein junior and senior high schools am. _ivided into the followingsubject areas: Social Studies Anthropology Economics Geography History Political Science Sociology The sections have beenprepared in such a manner asto 'make them suitable for useat any grade level injunior and senior high schools.In the United StatesHistory section, for example,the section is suitable for use atwhatever grade level the subjectis taught. I____-)rmation about this bookletand other school services of the Depart:ment ofEducation, Copley Newspapers, maybe obtained from any of the followingdepartment offices: ---jn the San Diego area 940 Third Avenue San Diego, California92112 In the Los Angeles area 220 East Orange Grove Avenue Burbank, California 91503 In Illinois 313 South Sixth Street Springfield; Illinois62701 King Durkee, Director Department of Education Copley Newspapers 30 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Department of Education, Copley Newspapers, acknow- ledges the many valuable ideas and techniques provided by teachers who have attended Newspaper in the Classroom workshops at the University of California, Los Angeles. The teachers and their sponsors are:
Sister Mary Adelman, C. PP. S.,San Luis Rey, California Ivy D. Beaubouef, San Diego, California Beverly R. Fisher, El Centro, California Sister Mary Linus, C. PP. S.,San. Luis Rey, California Eunice Seltenrich, San Diego, California Kenneth R. Earp, El Centro, California Harriette S. Marshall, San Diego, California Dawn S. Shulman, San Diego, California Dudley B. Buck, Imperial Beach, California Marion Chambers Ullrich, San Diego, California The San Diego Union* Evening Tribune* David Elsworth Alford, Palo Alto, California Palo Alto Times Catharine L. Byrne, Los Angeles, California Alhambra Post-Advocate* Helen V. Fowler, Manhattan Beach, California San Pedro News-Pilot* Stanley H. Godecke, Bakersfield, California The Bakersfield Californian James McKee, Portland, Oregon The Portland Oregonian Mary O'Connell, Carson City, Nevada Neal J. Harrigan, Reno, Nevada Reno Newspapers, Inc. J. Mervin Owens, Las Vegas, Nevada The Las Vegas Review-Journal Helen Rainey, Baldwin Park, California Monrovia News-Post* Gladys Burnett, Grand Junction, Colorado Edith L. Stout, Clifton, Colorado Max Donald Stites, Palisades, Colorado The Grand Junction Daily Sentinel Sandra S. Streusand,Houston, Texas The Houston Press Joseph C. Tremblay, Spokane,Washington The Spokane DailyChronicle Florence Betty Trempe,Burbank, California Burbank Daily Review* Jane H. Watson, Phoenix,Arizona The Phoenix Republic andGazette Maxine M. Wyers, Topanga,California Culver City Star-News Robert W. Oquist, Tacoma,Washington Estelle Grant, Tacoma,Washington Charles A. Ptolemy, Tacoma,Washington Tacoma News Tribune Ear Tl V. Prebezac,Edmonds, Washington Seattle Times Carl M. Ferre, Farmington,New Mexico Farmington Daily Times Edward W. Larrigan, Regina,Saskatchewan, Canada The Leader Post Reinette C. Porter, Oroville,California Chico Enterprise-Record Garland Sprick, Corvallis,Oregon The Corvallis Gazette Times Chris Lukens, Kailua, Hawaii Hawaii Newspaper Agency Robert L. Cameron,Kokomo, Indiana Kokomo Tribune Joseph M. Avis, Magna,Utah Salt Lake Tribune Gene N. Bowen, Healdsburg,California Santa Rosa Press Democrat
* A Copley Newspaper 32
-vi- Although there are many techniques in teachingsocial studies, there are only two methods: (I) inquiryand (2) exposition or IIwe tell the kids." Inquiry in the clasR-foom should include abalance between simulated discovery-learning and directedinstruction.It should include a balance among analytic,integrative, and policy modes of studying societal phenomena. The daily new spaper - -and only thedaily newspapersupple- ments itself each day on local,national, and international levels with a constant stream of new informationupdating,correlating, and adding completely new material. Since texts areoutdated before they are issued, the newspaper is a necessityin the use of inquiry. Social studies includes those scienceswhich study human relationships, interaction, and the resultsof those relationships.Often these are abstract sciences -- sociology,history, political science, geography, anthropology, and economics.The teacher must be able to relate the social sciences to the real,everyday world. Each teacher must make his own decision asto how he will use newspapers to supplementand enrich his regular course of study. A wide variety of possibilities exists. Several years ago the junior high schoolin Grand Junction, Colorado, burned and most of the textbooks weredestroyed. All the social studies teachers obtained copiesof the daily newspaper -- and continued teaching social studies. A sociology teacher in San Diego saysthat he has newspapers available on the first day of class, since thatfirst week is chaotic and often it is impossible to begin the lessonplan because of missing texts. He adds that this practice setsthe pace for the semester and students gain a feeling for what is to follow. Some teachers plan a unit within theclass for the study of newspapers. When this ispossible, the class can delve thoroughly into the operation of a newspaper, itsrole in society, and its influence on our country's past, present,and future. When such a unit is not possible, and when the newspaperis used as a supplement to other materials throughout the semester, abrief study of the newspaper itself still can be fitted into other units,such as: I.The financial rosture of a newspaper,its dependence on advertising for revenue,and its political-economic position can be studied when dealingwith economics.
3 Z. The role of the newspaper inthe development of this country can be studied duringUnited States history classes.
3. The influence the newspaperwields as "the fourth estate in government" fitsnaturally into the study of political science orUnited States government. 4. The divisions of the newspaper --sports, women's, advertisement, yout'h -- can be studiedduring a sociology or anthropology class. Whenever the newspaper is used,teachers have found it especially valuable in doingresearch as well as in actual teaching projects.In many instances, such as a coupd'etat in some country, the newspaper is the only sourceof reference until yearslater when the event is duly recordedin a textbook. Many teachers desire to get awayfrom the old idea of "current events." Sociologists areconcerned with understandingwhat will be of value to the studentlong after mere current eventshave been forgotten.In this respect the newspaper canaccomplish certain educa- tional goals. 1. Helping students develop thehabit of reading newspapers. Our form of government isdependent on an informed electorate, making newspapersindispensable.The habit of newspaper reading candevelop citizens who can understand: A.Concepts
B. Principle s C. Forces D. structure s E.Processes 2. Helping students become awareof their own part in the making of history -- thathistory is not something that happened only a long time ago,but is in the process of happening every day.
3. Showing students the differencebetween fact and opinion, and how the good newspapertries to keep the two separate. 4. Giving practice in readingmaterial with which he is directly related. Theteacher should encourage students 34 to read the newspaper: A.Skeptically B.Selectively C.Thoroughly D.Accurately E.Questioningly 5. Develop other skills besides reading, including listening, speaking, and thinking. It would be impossible to list all the possibilities for using the newspaper in the social studies classroom, but the following outline should give some idea of the scope:
1. Newspapers in the social studies classroom can be used as a tool to help students becomebetter readers. A.By introducing them to new terms, names, and concepts in daily news events
73. By fostering in their thinking and understanding of news placement, contrastingopinions, points of view, and relationships between opposites C.By teaching them to read critically and not to accept every printed word without question D.By instilling in them the practice of reading the newspaper habitually 2. Newspapers can be used as supplemental tools in the teaching of social studies. A.The newspa,per cannot answer every question the student asks, but it can illustrate and sgest alter- nates, as w..11 as pose new questions. B.Textbooks are out of date almost as soon as they are printed, therefore use of the newspaper to bring into focus events of an immediate nature can givetexts added depth. An example would be in the study of the Vietnam War. Background material on theFrench occupF.tion of that area may be available, but no text- book is up-to-date enough to deal with events there in the past five years.
35 -3.- 3. Newspapers can be usedin the social studiesclassroom to develop bettercitizens. A.For more -elan halfthe high school studentsthe senior social studiesclass will be the lastacademic preparation he has beforebecoming a voting citizen. Democracy is fed by a constantflow of information and ideas, and the Americancitizen cannot fulfill his obligation without a graspof the use of news- papers to keephimself informed of theactions of his government. B.With the newspaper as anadded textbook, the high school student can seethat the function of the news- paper is as anunofficial ombudsman forthe people. In this sense the pressis a function of the process of government. 4. There are many specificprojects in which the newspaper may be used as atool in the social studiesclass. A.Cli.ppings Scranbooks, bulletinboards, news kiosks, (1)photo montages and headlinecollections can be projects alone or canbc used in conjunction with other projects (such asoral or written reports). B.News items as springboards Model press conferences,city council, senate, (1)congressional, school boardmeetings, etc. , can be suggestedby a news story orseries.
(Z)Game playing, using a newsstory situation, can providestudents with choicesfaced by those in power. For example,students can assume the roles of cityschool administrators and minority citizens demandingconstruction of a new college in aghetto area.In resolving the conflicts, students realizethat simplistic solu- tions never solve complexproblems. Using a news story orfeature, the students can (3)choose a semester project, say onone country or area.Research for the final report,either written or oral, wouldbe taken from both news- paper files andthe public library. 36 -4- (4)A particular issue can be thesubject of a newspaper publishd. by the students themselves. If mechanical reproduction ispossible, such as mimeographing- the paper can be as small as one or two pages, with newsand editorial sections, using the daily news- Aper as a model. (5)Debates and forums, using issues fromthe newspaper, can involvestudents. The teacher's role here, of course, is to becomewell informed prior to the debate to insure abalanced presen- tation. (6)Outside speakers on the pros and consof issues can add dimension toissues reported in the newspaper. They can be: a.Experts on issues from the city orstate government b.Newspaper reporters, editors, orcolumnists C.Special Projects Maintain a file of news items, on one'abject or (1)country, or a comprehensive collecti..of all news for a specific periodof time. Create a history calendar eitherof past event (2 ) or of current events asthey happen.All students can be assigned tobring in one event a day. At the end of the week the seven mostimportant can be chosen by the class.After discussion, they can be pasted,calendar-like, on a bulletin board. (3) A piece of legislation can be followedthrough -the legislature in newspaper stories. Comparison of news coveragebetween newspapers, (4)television, and radio. What are the specialbene- fits of each medium? (5)List newspaper quotes. (6)Discuss editorial cartoons, then let thestudents try creating their own. (7) A list of names and terms can be used on tests.
3 7 -5- (5) A spot news quiz takes on more interestwhen students drop assigned clippings into a news box.Then they draw o...ct another.After a short study period, each gives an oral report on the clipping. Bulletin board maps can be correlated to news clippings or headlines by attaching coloredstring to the map location and theclipping. Assign the news stories after a short lecture on the five Ws and the H(who, what, when, where, why, and how). Practice writing headlines.This gives the teacher the opportunity to explain the inverted triangle style of the news story constructionand how the essential facts should be in thelead paragraph.
:1-2)Study advertisements for content,with emphasis on how the advertiserattracts the reader. De- vices of advertising can be discussed, aswell as the role of advertisingin maintaining a free press. (13) Practice skimming. Students can be shown how to read down the middle of a column toincrease their speed, without losing comprehension.Few people have the time to read all the newspaper, but by learning to skim, the reader can getthe most out of his newspaper reading time.A device to facilitate skimming is to draw two redlines down the column a short distance in fromboth margins, thus marking off the center section. Then have students practice reading justbetween those lines. (14) Select an important news story and havestudents, in group discussion, predict the outcome overthe next few weeks or months. This canbecome a weekly discussion, bringing events up todate and giving students a chance tomodify their ideas as the situation chang e s (15)Discussion drawing parallelsbetween current and past events.After researching, students find that history, while it does not repeatitself, does provideanalogie5% past events. (16)Blackboard qui77es: The teacher ca. put:ori 20 names and terms taken from today's newspaper on the board, then give students,acting in teams, a time limit in finding themin the newspaper. Points can be given and tallied at the end of the week. (17)Relief maps can be created out of newspape.L- mache to illustrate the typography of an area in the news. (18)One assignment can be to write letters to the editor, with an issue in the news as the subject. Students should choose their own points of view, but should substantiate their opinions with fact. They should be encouraged to send their letters to their hometown newspaper. Even if they are not published, students can experiment with making their statements as concise as possible. Often such letters are published, giving the entire class new interest.Often students don't realize that anybody is entitled to write to the editor, and that such letters are oftenpublished,. (19)Crossword puzzles can be worked in groups. Simple crosswordE: can be made up using local places and persons' names in state and local government. No suggestion is made here that such a program maysupplant a normal courseand an assigned text in social studies.But the teacher who will venture out on a worthwhile tangent willinspire his students and enable them to gain added understanding. News doesn't just happen in a prescribed,convenient plan. It happens all the time, and animaginative teach.:r will take the oppor- tunity to add this dimension of newspaperimmediacy in the teaching of social studies. Anthropology -- the study of manby man -- overlaps all other disciplines. The proper study of anthropologyis the entire spectrum of human behavior, and whereelse is such a generalized viewavailable but in the daily newspaper?The science itself, by definitionand practice, is a way of looking atthe variety of ways humanbeings live, and the modern newspaper bringsthis information to the student on adaily basis. Anthropology is involved with atleast three questions: I.What am I ? 2. What are we? 3. How do we interact? A primary assumption ofthe science is that a betterunder- standing of the culture can behad by getting outside it,The task of the secondary school is not tomake little anthropologists out ofstudents but to help them understar,dtheir own society by seeing others.The more a student canrediscover of the precepts ofanthropology on his own, the more complete will behis understanding. Anthropology can be broken downinto two areas of study: anthropology as history (PhysicalAnthropology) and as a behavioral science (Cultural Anthropology).At least five subdivisionsexist: physiological anthropology,archeology, anthropologicallinguistics, ethnology, and social anthropology.All are concerned with eventsand behavior of human beings. Newspapers, too, are concernedwith events and behavior. The newspaper is a microcosmof the culture that producesit.It mirrors the truths, falsehoods,myths, traditions, and fears of andabout the people, things, and eventsthat are imvolved in the news. The newspaper is limited as ananthropological tool only in that it is produced fromwithin one culture, that is, it isethnocentristic. These are SOME of the waysthe newspaper can be used as an aid in teachinganthropology: I.As a daily journal ofbehavior As a textbook of comparativebehavior, both of subcultures 2. (educated/uneducated, affluent/poor, business/labor, black/white) and between ours andother societies 4 0 -8- 3, As an instrument for learning own c.uitural tro-dion includi '-istorical reference, heroes,holidays, etc, As a vehicle for carrying thestudent to experiences he may never have personally,such as going to the moon 5. s a communaldiary of the progress of man in coping with and altering his environment. Ofall forms of animal life, only man modifies hisenvironment with tool-making, invention, and innovation. 6. As a record of archeologicaldiscoveries Anth,.-opology, more than any otherdiscipline, involves on site observation by the student,because field circumstances cannot be duplicated in the classroom. However,it is possible to dissect one's own culture to some extent, aswell as our perceptions of othercultures, through the medium of the daily newspaper.Specific projects can include: 1. News boards and scrapbooks ofclippings can be used covering a single country over a specifiedperiod of time or during the relationship betweentwo countries in time of cultural exchange orstrife (a sister-city program, war, a trade agreement,etc. ). 2.A news photo montage showing humanreactions to changes in environment can become a semesterproject in itself or can be a supplement toclipping projects. 3. News clippings can be springboardsfor further study. For example, a news feature onundersea exploration could spin off into a classroom projectinvolving writing to government agencies, demonstrationsof underwater survival gear, even field trips to sealaboratories. 4, A bulletin board headline collectionattached to a map or globe with colored yarn can be thefocus of a simple project o7' can supplement other projectsusing photographs or clippi,.G. 5, Advertisements are good indices of culturalexpectations and taboos. For instance, cosmeticadvertisements reflect the ideal woman or man. In newspapers,the students can see how certain sections aregeared for certain audiences, such as thewomen's pages, sports pages and business section.Advertisements can be clipped, arranged on a board with newsstories and features where relationships exist.An example might be an ad for skirts along with awor-Len's cage feature on the changing hemlines. 41 _9... 6. A running check on vitalstatistics -- marriages, divorces, births -- can give students insightsinto how the individual is treated bthe legal machinery and tradition of our society. 7. The law and propriety frequentlyrequire the language of news copy to befull of analogy, euphemism andallusion. A one-day project could be toassign three or four students to a page of the newspaper.In a given time period they should mark certain linguistictechniques they find with colored markers. Of particular interest tohigh school students might be a project to compile ashort dictionary of these terms translated intothe current jargon used among young people. 8. Interaction of official groups can bestudied.For example, a presidentialefficiency order can have repercussions for months down through channelsof government agencies.
9. Obituaries can be broken down toshow the whole spectrum of a single individual's life --birth, youth, schooling, profession, marriage, memberships,military service, and accomplishments. 10. Newspaper comics are a rich source ofmythology and hero figures. Who is glorified incomics and who is the villain?Comics can be arranged with relevant newsand feature stories on a board orin a scrapbook. 11. All sections, but particularly newsand women's pages, show how other cultures areimprinted on and modified by our own -- from the use ofthe Greek alphabet in fraternity names to the assigning offoreign names to streets. 12. The newspaper library can providethe student with a better understanding of howhis own culture has evolved. In many cities the newspapers aremicrofilmed as well as clippedaccording to subjects, then crossreferenced. At most newspapers backissues of the newspaper may be examined by the public. 13. Game-and-role playing can give the student afeeling of how the other man's shoes feel onhis Gwn feet.Using newspaper stories asspringboards, the students choose roles, say, in an imminentstrike or a border dispute, then resolve the conflict throughperson-to-person con- frontation. 14. To some extent the newspaper canprovide the experience 42 -10- of "culture shock." ("Hey! In France apremier can be deposed if he fails to win a vote ofconfidence, " or, "Why are they using human labor instead ofmachines to build a dam in India? ") Economic literacy is vital tothe survival of the American society.Yet, economic literacy cannotbe easily achieved today. Since the end of World WarII the economic choicesfacing our nationhave become more and morecomplicated. Four main prob- lems have arisen: 1. An increased emphasis onproduction has increased concern about thedepletion of raw materials andthe distribution of goods produced. 2. There has been a greateremphasis on the desirability of income security. 3. Attitudes have changed towardspending and saving. 4. New theories and proposalshave been advanced -- and some adopted --for the use of the government's mone- tary and fiscal authority toachieve economic stability. A high degree of economicsophistication is required to make decisions in any of these areas.Yet, in the United States where wetake pride in our educational system,only 65 percent of highschool students graduate.Of the graduates, only 58 percent goon to college.Thus, for the majority of students,high school is the last place inwhich they will receive formal instruction ineconomics. Through the daily newspaper thecitizen is informed of economic choices the nation as awhole must make. And it isfrom his newspaper thatthe voter learns of alternativesto and final consequences of these major decisions. The newspaper thus is without peerin bridging the gap between the classroom and the worldoutside.Use of the newspaper in the class- room providesthe teacher with a readilyaccessible supplementary tool in teaching econonlics,and it offers the sty ..ent a sourceof information that can be of great value nowand after he leaves school. Before a student can intelligentlyunderstand the economic information in the newspaperhe first must learn what a newspaperis. He should be informedregarding the following: 1. Types of information A.News stories -- forinformation B.Feature stories -- entertainmentand inforn,atikm 4 4 -12- G. Editorials -- opinion, argument, specialpleading D.Special sections -- women's, financial,sports 2. Role of the newspaper in the community A.Source of information B.Guardian of the community's rights C.Champion of the community's needs D.A marketplace where sellerand buyer meet The teacher can greatly increase thestudent'E economic and general vocabulary by explainingand emphasizing unfamiliar words which appear in the newspaper. Individual students or groups might con,-:entrate onspecific economic problems involvingsuch matters as farm subsidies, ta:riffs, foreign trade, labor, andconservation. Have them save clippingsabout their areas of study over a period oftime and expect them to become well informed on independent researchfor a report to the class onthe problem and on possible solutions. Studies could be made on how the economy ofthe nation is affected by the activities of agenciesof government. These agencies could include: 1. Bureau of Budget
2. Interstate Commerce Commission 3. Securities and Exchange Commission 4.National Labor Relations Board 5. Supreme Court 6. Federal Reserve System Similar studies could be made onsuch nongovernmental organizations as labor unions, the steelindustry, and the farmers cooperatives. In the newspaper the teacherwill find opportunities to relate the function of our capitalistic systemto the news items which illustrate its operation.These news items could include: 1. DivithInd reports of corporations 45 Z. Wage increases and the possibility of an increase in prices 3. How productivity changes affect prices and profits 4. An increase or decrease in business failures as an illustration of the efficiency of the compeL system which weeds out wasteful or inefficient producers
5. The opening of new businesses locally and the formation of new industries on a national scale to fulfill growing needs 6. O-peration of local, state, ard federal governmental controls within the free enterprise system Students should be helped to understand that everything that happens in the country has economic repercussions. They will learn this by reading and studying newspaper articles about such varied things as:
10 Changes in tariffs and the prices of sports cars
Z. Tax increases and the price of gasoline 3. Bad weather and the price of food 4. Population shifts and increases in school taxes 5. Technological inventions and increased unemployment 6. The economic factors underlying social unrest All sections of the newspaper will provide stories that could be utilized in a study of economics.The following list will illustrate the versatility of the newspaper:
1. News Section A.Reports on governmental activities (1)Students on special projects could use the items for class discussion. (2)Discuss with the class the effect the activity might have on the economy.
(3)Study and analyze charts, maps, and graphs.
(4)Clarify new words or phrases. 46 B.Activities of foreign governments and ompanies Study effects on U. S. economy. Have some students specialize in activities of the European Common Market and the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade. (3)Study effects on international tradt: and invest- ment opportunities. C.Cultural and social moven-lents with economic implications (1)Help students analyze economic forces which contributed to these movements. (2)Study interpretive articles and columns about the movements. Could further developments be accelerated by future economic decisions? 2. Editorial Page A.Study facts given by the editor to justify his editorial position on economic problems. B.Compare differing editorials on economic subjects. C.Analyze cartoons related to economics. D.Study Letters to the Editor columns for public reaction. Have students write sample letters. 3. Women's Section A.Study the impact of drastic fashion change on the garment industry as an example of competition in a free market. B.Announcements concerning new household products can be related to the market price or a company's str,ck. C.Teen-age fashions and fads can be related to the influence of specific buying groups on the market. This study might be a revelation to many students who do not realize to what degree they are influenced by advertising. D.Handy hints, recipe columns, grooming features, 4 -15-- entertainment advice canbe reflected in the demand for foods and otherproducts.Stories in this section often are geared toseasonal supplies. 4. Classified Advertising A.A check of help-wantedcolumns can disclose what fields need employees. B.Job-wanted ads can providematerial fol-- a study of unemployment patterns in thecommunity.
5. Display Advertising Advertising creates demandsand provides a market- A.place where the consumer canexercise freedom of choice. B.New products and services areintroduced through newspaperadvertising. C.Display advertising canaffect purchasing habits, such as installment buying,and can affect retailing trends, as demcnstratedby an increase in discount houses and supermarkets. 6. Sports Sectior A.News stories aboutsales and trades ofprofessional players and the salariesthey receive can be usedto illustrate the incentiveand reward system ofcapitalism. B.Stories on new sports arenasand stadiums can illus- trate the importance offinancing and other activities in sports. 7. Financial Section A.Announcements of companyreorganizations, mergers, proxy fights,and stock splits can beused to illustrate the operations ofcorporations. B.Market averages can beexplained and studied for market trends. C.The functions of the stockmarket and the stock and bond re.ports in the newspaper canbe explained. D.Individual students or groups can"buy" stocks, making a daily graph ofprice fluctuations and 48 -16-- volume traded.Students can learn how .-tock yield is figured. E.Announcements of stock sales by investment banking firms can be used in a discussion of how new 1,-,sues are placed on the market. F.Students should learn the difference between stocks and bonds, including why a person or firm might prefer one to the other.They should understand the difference between how bonds are bought and sold and how stocks are traded. G.Labor news and its impact on business can be studied. Questions on government regulation, antv c.poly laws, minimum wage laws, and open sho. . , right- to-work laws can be developed. H.Changes in laws covering proprietorships, partner- ships, corporations, monopolies, profit, taxes, depletion, and depreciation allowances can be rioted. I. New inventions and techniques, awarding of govern- ment contracts, public improvement projects can be studied for their economic impact. J.Announcements from foreign countries can provide a basis for studying foreign trade,investrn.e....nt oppor- tunities, anC expropriation of foreign holdings. Im- plications of rising levels of expectations in under- developed areas of the world can be noted and studied. The special focus ofgeography is on the space that man occupies on the surfaceof the earth and how he usesthat space.Nature divided land into geographicalunits, but man divides land intopolitical units, which can pose moreinsurmountable barriers to hisrelationships with other men than thosecreated by nature. The elements, both physicaland cultural, which are basic to the study of geography, areconstantly changing. Thegeography teacher must keep abreastof these changes even though notextbook, reference book, map, orprofessional journal can present anaccurate and current story of theearth.The geographer can find a wealthof material in the newspapersince it is the only mediumthat tries er every significantevent in the world over a24-hour period.The n paper can be avaluable tool not only becauseit is current, but also because it is readily availableand because it is inexpensive. Where is one Ji the fivefundamental facts in every news story.In telling where an eventis taking place, the newspaperattaches the reader to the storyspacially.Areas about which thestudent-reader has learned become mulch moreinteresting when he reads of themin his newspaper, becausehe finds out that things happeningfar away can affect him and his countrydirectly. The newspaper is its owndaily supplement. Eventsunfold as continuities,and since the newspaper isconcerned with how, who, what, when, why, and whereit Las to give spacial information asquickly and clearly as possible.This involves the use of maps,charts, verbal locations, place names, anddatelines as well as mention ofnatural formations. Other geographical phenomena arementioned in newspapers, either in connection withfast-breaking news or as separatestories featuring this as the main topic.Some of these stories are onweather, agriculture, oceanography,water resources, natural disasters,and natural resources. A news story can bebetter understood withknowledge of the geographic relationships of thecountries, states, or citiesinvolved. The opposite is also true--geographyis enriched when keyed to newsstories. Even in the student's ownoperatiial domain, his community, city, state, and country,there is a gap between whatthe studeiknows and what really exists. Agood news story will pinpointexactly the loca- tion of an event, to such anextent that a reader can find it on a map. Using this information thestudent can find the news locationand better understand what 1.,.as happened. 50 -18- If the event was a traffic accident, the student can see on a map that there is a curve in the road at that point, or abridge, or that the location is an intersection where several strePts converge. Even in such ordinary news events as a parade, a celebrity's travel route or the location of a water line can become more interesting when located in relation to the reader. Some uses of the newspaper in specific geographic projects include:
1. Map exercises using news stories as starting points For example, a story about an American company opening an overseas branch can spur the student to find out about the country, its population, transportation, natural wealth, and labor resources. 2. Game- and role-playing, with news stories as the focus, can add a dimension of involvement in a news eventand the study of geography. For instance, students choose roles as officers of the company locating a new factory. Given specific choices of location, transportation, raw materials, labor costs, markets, power, and personal preference, the students face the conflicts of choice which real industrialists face in such a situation, 3. Clippings %) £ articles, columns and phographs can be arranged on a board or in a scrapbook, both as individual projects and aL committee or classroom projects, 4.A kiosk can be made by stacking cardboard boxes, then covering the sides with clippings and photographs. A globe can be placed on top of the kiosk with colored tape or yarn strung between the globe location of the news event and the clipping telling what happened. Such a kiosk can be the focal point of a geography corner where indivi- dual projects are assembled. 5. On individual projects, students should be encouraged to watch their- home newspapers for mention of their project area or country, then to use these clippings in research and illustration for written and verbal reports,. 6. Datelines from foreign lands, weather tables, and shipping lists can be used with a blank world map developed by the Copley Department of Education to teach place names and relationships. When students report on curreozt ev they should be instructed to pin the clipping along the side of a blank world map on the bulletin board and then connect story and the place on the map with yarn or string.Other members of t lass who might read the article later
-19-- then could follow the yarnto the place mentioned.This has proved very effectivewith slower students. 7. Students can beas-k-e-d to watch the newspaperfor stories that illustrate how thediferent physical featuresof various areas of theearth affect people who livethere. 8. The newspaper can beused to demonstrate that asso- ciations do exist on theearth.Stories can be four d showing that large cities areexperiencing problems 'Tr growth, housingshortages, urban sprawl, anderowdc-, streets while rural areaa areexperiencing problems in the loss of population.Current stories foundin the newspaper then canbe related to similarinformation intextbc'ks. 9. The field is unlimited inthe development ofthe thinking and reasoning processesin geography throughthe help of the newspaper.Stories about hurricanes,poverty, gold prices, scientificdiscoveries can lead,through the use cf inquiry,to further study eitherin greater depth or in greaterbreadth. 10. The newspaper offers anexcellent medium todemonstrate the importance of thesubject matter being taught.Geog- raphy becomes alive inthe daily newspaper bymaking the subject matter morerelative and interesting.Nothing demonstrates better theadvantages of having abroad geographic background. 11. Only through the newspaper canthe latest political boundary changes in theworld learned.The textbook cannet do the job sinceit is at least five year:7-7old. when it arrj.ves at theschool. On the other hand,the newspaper tries to cover everysignificant event everywherein the world over the last 24hours. The newspaper is a living textbook of history. For this reason it fits naturally into thestudy of both American history and world history. Our republic is dependent upon an informed electorate. A free press is essential to the democratic way of life,but a free press of no value unless our citizens read it. The long-range goal of teaching United States history in secondary schools is to help students become well-informed citizens. Hopefully, these citizens will understand questions ofpublic policy and will contribute to their solution through the formulatii f a sound public opinion. The newspaper can contribute to the students sense ofhistory by reminding them of their own E.articipation in the history ofthe future. Because current affairs is only a part of the work of theUnited States history class, the teacher should select or guide the students in the selection of the current topics for class discussion. Topics chosen for-discussion should pass three tests:
1. Availability of information 2. Interests of stuc: ents
3. Significance to the local community, the American public as a whole, and the work]. Suggestions for including a study of current affairs in the United States history class are:
1. Incidental treatment -)f news as events occur 2. Weekly current affai:Ts period Current affairs clubs 4. Extended study of current affai,:s fo:- several days at varic3 intervals
5. Incorporation of current affairs into regular course work The following suggestions for sp?,cial activities and reports might prove helpful, particularly to teachers who have had little experience
-21- in presenting currentaffairs:
1. Hold model meetings, such ascongressional hearings on a bill, withcertain students acting as membersof the committee or as representativesof special interest groups,
2. Conduct an end-of-the-year surc-eyof the nation's affairs, with predictions ofdevelopments on important problems. 3. Conduct class discussions ofsignificant speeches. The study of current affairs inrelation to United States-history may lead to the questionof the proper handling of controversialissues. Here are sugested methods forthe teacher in handling controversial issues:
1. Center attention on facts, makingthe controversy a secondary pal-of the discussion unless the controversy itself is obviously of primeimportance. 2. Present all facts and opinions.
30 Promote discussion rather than argument. 4. The teacher should keep her own expressionof opinion to a minimum.
5. Avoid starting the discussion of acontroversial subject unless it can be completed in thatperiod.It is difficult to hold arguments inabeyance for the next day. Here is a table of correlations to helpthe teacher rela,e historical events to present-day happenings:
1. Immigration to the Displaced persons and new world refugees 2. Colonial antipathy to Attitude toward teacher George III and school authorities 3. Art: :les of Confederation United Nations 4. Northwest Ordinance Colonial policies in. Africa
5. U. S. Constitution Student council charter or club charter
6. Monroe Doctrine Organization of American States
-22- 7. Frontier gold discovery Uranium and oil claims 8. Pure food and drug laws Student diet and health
9. Wagner Labor Act Local union organization These correlations are only indicative of what can be done. Once the idea is grasped, it presents unlimited possibilities for integrating current affairs with United States history content. Other suggested activities include:
1. Make use oi a historical calendar.Students should watch the newspaper each day for news items directly related to United States history.These gems might include the death of a veteran of the Spanish-American War, the launching of a Navy vessel named after a person or incident in the nation's past, articles con- cr,rning events in Un_ed. States history. Such items can be clipped and brought to class.With a minimum of discussion, the most significant story of each day can be selected and posted on the calendar. At the end of each week, the week's most important story, in the sense of history, can be designated on the calendarwith star or other obvious marking. At the end of each month, the month's most important news report can be determined and marked.
Z. News pictures relating to historical events can be placed on the bulletin board. 3. Biographical articles on leaders in United States history and of present day events can be sought, posted and eventually filed for handy reference during review periods. Obituaries will provide valuable background information about important persons in the community and in the nation. 4. Students can be encouraged to watch for artir-les relating to the United States Constitution, such as court decisions, and these can be brought to class.Such articles will (iemo_istrate the Constitution as a living document.
5, During election campaigns, students can bring in clippings of speeches by candidates and articles which outline party platforms and which discuss important :ssues.These w:11 provide opportunities to compare actions by political parties with those oj. e ..rlier days. 6. Once or twice during the semester, a model presidential
-23- pressconference can be held,with one class member acting as Mr.President. A committeeof students finds out all it can onthe problems facingthe President, say, during oneweek.The press conferenceis held before the entireclass, with a writtenassignment on what transpired. fits naturally intothe study of world The newspaper also and that is the con- history.The content ofhistory is man's own story, tent of the newspaper,too. Use of your newspaperin a world history coursecannot be wurld happeni.qgs occurwithout regard to over-emphasized. Because teachers should becareful prescribed courses ofstudy, world history to break away to review cv:.rentevents regularlyand should not hesitate from a lesson planto cover significantevents as they happen. Usually, a parallel canbe drawn between thetopic being studied and the current event. Students should beencouraged to lcarn thebackground of correspondents whose stories appearregularly in columnists or foreign that certain writershave received their newSpaper.If the students know reports awards or otherrecognition, they willfe,.l more confidence in written by thesejournalists. By making liberal useof the daily newspaper,the study of world history can be moreinteresting, and it canbecome living history. These suggestionswill help: experts. l. Select a group ofstudents to become news They can be responsiblefor particular topics,and these can befollowed up and presented onan assigneddate. News areas couldinclude: A. Continents B.Nations in the news C. Tension spots D. World leaders Assign students tocollect biographical 2. Man in the news. This info:7- oketches .nformation on worldfigures. mation e placedin a scrapbook or.filed for later classroom use as referencematerial. Have stud rits prepare anewspaper oftheir own in which they give an account of somemajor event inhistory. 56 -24- For example: A.Prepare a news report on developments in the French Revolution as it might be reported in modern news- papers. B.Write a news story covering Columbus' -,oyage and discovery of America. C.Prepare news stories relating to the impact made by historic world leaders. 4. Assign students to watch for significant statements made by important world leaders which they think might become famous quotations in years to come.
5. Assign students to bring to class newspaper cartoons relating to world history. 6. Organize a current events committee. The committee can meet weekly to study newspaper clippings and discuss news events.By use of interpretive columns written by authorities, the teacher can help students recognize the significance of events that are transpiring and also draw parallels to be found in history.The committee can report to the class on an assigned date. 7. Maintain a bulletin board.Students can clip and bring to class newspaper stories relating to topics being studied. When the material is removed from the bulletin board, it can be filed fcr future reference. Political Science
(Note: Much of the materialin the Economics, History, and Sociology sectionsof this booklet can be usedin the study of political science. ) The primary goal in usingthe newspaper in teaching political science is to build,through habitual newspaperreading, a realistic understanding ofgovernment. The newspaperhelps develop concepts of what governmentis because it is in newspapersthat the endeavors of man and hisgovernment are recorded.The study of political science with newspapers canbroaden a student's understand- ing of public policy andhelp build an informedelectorate. Newspaper reading in politicalscience classes can: I.Initiate a lasting habit asthe student becomes a citizen and voter. -2. Expand textbook material by.showing government in action, not as an isolatedfunction of a small group of leaders, but in relation toall other sectors of life, including business,education, and commerce. 3. Better prepare students to carry onthe ideals on which our form of governmentis founded, and show him that this form of governmentis a living, legal entity, capable of flexibilityin a constantly changing world situation. 4.Create an awareness in studentsof their membership in all levels of the worldcommunitylocal, state, national, international, and now,universal. Three questions will help setthe stage for profitable use of the newspaper in a classin political science: 1. What is happening in thenation and throughout the world today? 2. What is the United Statestoday, in relation to its own past and in the worldcommunity? 3. What is government and howdoes it work? This category includes manymajor news items in any one issue of the newspaper: A. How citizens,through their votes, select their leaders, and how in other countriesdifferent
-26- 52 political solutions operate in selecting leader- ship. B.Government gives pattern to society., C.Institutions help set the tsace for certain actions of government. The political science class is the ideal place toexplain the unnofficial but vital role newspapers play in thegovernmental process. The teacher can help students understandthe role of the newspaper as the communicator, translator (of difficult andinvolved government jargon) and interpreter of what government action means.The follow- ing statement by Thomas Jefferson might beread to good effect: "Were it left to me to decide whether weshould have gov- ernments without newspapers or newspaperswithout government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer thelatter.But I should mean that every man should receive those papers and becapable of reading them." Here are suggestions for continuous use of the newspaper in the political science class: 1. Devote one day each week or one period a day, to current events. A.Keep the newspaper in the classroom B.Make weekly current event sessions varied and interesting by involving students in discussions. 2. Try to save the last 5 or 10 minutes of daily class time to cover pertinent news and to conduct news bulletin board activity.
30 Maintain a bulletin board for current events.Set up committees to handle areas of news,, such as: U.S,, government bodies and agencies, UnitedNations, various security pacts (NATO, SEATO, etc.), other governments' operations and their relationships with our own. 4.Make a class scrapbook of newspaper clippings illus- trating textbook studies. 5. Current events can be included on tests. 6. Follow a United States government-related storyfor t'70 weeks. Then have students prepare a one-page
5 summary orfive-minute talk on theinformation gathered. about 70 Compare articles writtenby several columnists the same news event. Discussions in class mayalso take specialforms, includ- ing these: by two 1. Brief presentationsconcerning an issue made or three students,followed by an open forum.
Z. Conduct model meetingsof such groups as: A.U. S. Senate B.U. N. Assembly C.European EconomicCommunity (European Common Market) Hold a modelpresidential press conference,with 30 several students acting asreporters. Afterwards, a written report on theconference can be assignedto the entire class. 4.Discussions of importantnational and international news stories asthey occur, including: A.Tension spots. B.Elections. C.Death of the ruler of anation. D.Birth ofnew nation. 5. During a particularlyinteresting news period, say a city election, havethe class visit a meetingof the city council. Afterthe visit, students can usethe daily newspaper as amodel for creatingtheir own newspaper onthe issue. Thestudent newspaper could be a simplemimeographed page or two,divided into a news sectionand an editorial section. 6. As an individualassignment, have studentswrite their own editorialsfrom a news story.At the same time show them therelationship between oneday's news and the next day'seditorials as they appearin the newspaper. 60
-28-- The study of current events in a politicalscience class may lead to the questionof handling controversial issues.In deter- mining if the issue will add to the class'comprehension of political science, the teacher should askhimself the following questions: 1. Is the issue suitable for study by a groupwith the maturity level of this class? 2.Is there enough information available sothat students may draw balancedconclusions? (Here, visitors expert in given areas canbe invited to speak on the pros and cons of an issue.) 3.Is the topic one on which the teacheris well informed or can becomesufficiently informed to insure a bal- anced presentation? 4.Is the issue one of continuingsignificance? 5. Does the study of the issue contribute tothe objectives of the course?
61 -29- Sociology
In an age when thescience of earth and spacehas acceler- ated the study of man'srelationship to his environment,it is becoming increasingly importantfor man to study hisrelationship with his fellow man. Sociology approaches thisproblem in two ways: 1. Studying man's individualdevelopment. 2. Studying man's actionsand problems within groups. The newspaper is a naturalmedium through which toteach confines sociology.Sociology is a categoricaldiscipline; that is, it itself to statements aboutwhat is, not what ought tobe.Similarly, the newspaper makesits presentation on a"what is" basis.But it adds an "ought-to-be"section and labels it theeditorial page.There- fore, newspapers willprovide an exciting enrichmentto a sociology class. The immediate goalof-Sociology, as a pure science,is the acquisition of knowledgeabout human society.Sociology is not a practice, but an attempt tounderstand. As a science,sociology is necessarily silent aboutquestions of value; it cannotdecide the direc- tions in which society oughtto go, and it makes norecommendations on matters ofsocial policy.With this in mind, newspapers are valuable tools in keepingthis type of course frombecoming a series of dry presentations oirehashes of textbook materials. The following techniques aregeneral activities whichcould be carried on throughoutthe entire course. Theycould also be used on a smaller scaleof two or three weeksduration. These techniques mightbe used: 1. List ten social problems(such as adult and juvenile crime, narcotics addiction,alcoholism, metal health and institutions, careof the handicapped) and then assign student committeesto keep logs for one month on newspaper featuresand news stories deal- ing w-.1.th these problems.At the end of the month, the various committeesin a panel discussionwould report their findingsand encourage class discussion on the problems. 2.Assign students to clip fromthe newspaper stories on how variousindividuals seek to solve the same particular problem. Discussif and how these 62 individuals could have benefited from the many counseling featu:res found in the newspaper. 3. Bring in newspaper opinion polls.Discuss the sub- ject matter of the polls and the stepstaken to obtain the results. Assign groups to follow the activities of asocial 4,, agencyfederal, state and/or local--and report on these agencies periodically. Because the topics of juvenile crime anddrug addiction are foremost in theminds of the public today, Techthque No. 1 is emphasized in the following paragraphs.Textbook materials on these subjects are obsolescent even as thebooks are written.Properly used, the newspaper can provide thedifference between a course that is living and dynamic or a coursethat is dull and unrneaningful to the students. Use of the newspaper to study narcoticsaddic-Uon and the misuse of dangerous drugs could behandled in this manner: 1. Use a current series on narcotics onthe misuse of dangerous drugs from the newspaper. Have the students circle the vocabulary wordsused that per- tain to drugs and addicts.Then assign a group of students, fou-t. or five, to look up thedefinitions as a lead-in to discussion. 2. Assign another group to research thepsychological reasons why a personbecomes adcicted to drugs. By using the newspaper, the students mayverify their findings thraugh individual cases cited. 3. Have another group research how drugaddicts are treated medically for a cure in their community. Use the-newspaper to find public opinion on cure- clinic s and public attitudes toward thecured and re- formed addict. 4.Another group could prepare a sketch in whichthe various people concerned with drug addictsand their cure are interviewing anaddict.Emphasize questions that are of general interest.Obtain information that would aid the general public, as a newspaperreporter would do. 5.Use the newspaper to cite cases inthe students' own coxmnunity of the use of both narcoticsand dangerous drugs.The reality of the situation becomes more
-31- apparent as they pinpoint atta0_,,epall, 0 where problems occur. 11-1 search brings it "homewhe ore arldttb eliminates. the view that "it will never'qapr,e0 II 6. Assign research for current s liser arrests and pusher arrests. 7. Assign research to find cutt_,tCCIS...tsZ(yr stip') r tin g the narcotics habit, the coat'fo'r CL1-1-1-11a4-tiie addict as well as the cost oflegal 4.esatrd r,er arrest. F- 8. The sociological impactis at. roof of it in the newspaper. Stories call pelrio onal re- action of families andfrientisl': 111 A; ed,tying 9. Summarize with the class th,roble in all the informationuncov.Z.;,3 tIZL sv70usclass groups. Use of the newspaperin the it 71kile crimecan be c ort there handled in a similar manner.BecauseforalAlym tef:0t. appears to be ageneral lack of respect :teept.adesand this study jar interest behavior, the background for miaht1;' e to the sociology teacher. Justice Tom C. Clark,formerksyocitt: J\istice of the U. S. Supreme Court,emphasizes the need tohelp re- kindle a respect for law byremoving theiglI"L'i_aoce'-bki 4.els a major part in the lack offavorable attitudestowal.ti't117e lauw. ducati.on Age, 1967, Justice Clark says,"Our prob4rri ° fk,ittre to teach our people democracy aswritten in ourfunei,xt_t riotrespect ;1'0'r 1.0x"0,)4,1obedience to rights, rather than individua3 to obey the constituted authority. o toWe must teach law but to also understandit. We have too11;057- tu`k.y.-;17110 do neither." A study at a San Diego areaelebtarYq,x,.,01 disclosed that most students not only wereunfamiliaz..rio. i;ors concerning juveniles but also with such statutes asonetriwajciPg 4: k'crirrie to be present where marijuana isbeing used. In teaching respect for thelaw -tkeoesr"r!bi4er is valuable because it is current. In additionto carryil,' iisan in con- flict with law, it also carriesspecialfeatn1;es positive approach to the problem. Theseinclude etor:s ilaw the courts operate and articles onsafety conce1-`13.gra_tc).. vehicles and bicycles. By keeping wellinformed through'ttLeisx''"tsper, the student can follow thedevelopment and change in laA,v, Some suggestions for thestudycviii.srellile irrle
6_12_ 1. For a two-week period, clip stories telling about crimes which have been committed. 2. Assign a group of students to look upsuch definitions as felony and misdemeanor.Classify the crimes accordingly. 3- Ask them to narrow the crimes foundin the news- paper to thoseof juvenile crimes. Review the law that makes a particular act reportedin the newspaper story a crime.If the reason for the law is obscure, encourage discussion onwhy it originated. 4.Discuss how the crime couldhave been avoided. En- courage discussion byexploring details. 5. Keep a running account from tile firstreport of a crime to the final outcomeof one delinquent as stories about his case appear in the newspaper. 6. Assign research on city, state, andnational statistics on this particular crime. 7.If in the discussion students showobjection to a cer- tain law, explain the democratic processavailable to change it. 8. Use examples found in the newspaper onresults of social behavior. Various opinion polls, series on contemporarysocial problems, and news stories relative tosocial problems further the students ability to relate their textbook learning towhat is actually occuring in the world in which they live. The opinion poll (Technique No. 3) is atool of soeological research. Students can, use the newspaperboth as a source of learn- ing what the poll reveals andhow such polls are conducted.Since newspaper polls are current,they have more interest for students than does much material used intextbooks. A section of the bulletin board might be used to post thesepolls.Short essay-type paragraphs about the conclusions reached bythe polls can be used to stimulate discussions on the subject matter. The activities of a social agency (Technique No.4) may include studies of adoptIon agencies, fosterhome plan, rehabilitation centers, geriatric care, psychiatricand psychological counseling, occupational training, aid to families withdependent children, budget counseling, and legal counseling. Byfollowing the stories about a certain agency, they will learn why itis needed, if they feel it should 65 -33- be publicly supported,if its impact on the co=iunity issufficient, if the techthques as appliedby the agency and learned inschool actually are effective.Editorials and letters to theeditor give the class the attitudes of ,%e public towardthe agencies. Armed with such informationfound in the various news- paper studies, thesociology student may see whathis generation must emphasize andwhat research must be done toimprove man's individual development andman's actions within groups.
66 CNS Bureaus and special correspondents: Introduction Boston Hartford It isa difficult even frustrating task trying to New Haven keep up with world events, which change even while New York we are asleep. Philadelphia One medium does this for us, fully reporting every Cape Kennedy, Fla. Miami, Fla. 24 hours what has-happened around the globe. Chicago This medium is the daily newspaper- New Orleans - The, newspaper is adaily chronicle of history, tell- Oklahoma City Austin, Tex. ing:not only-what is happening, but Why. The-stories Amarillo Tex. not only examine news 'events in full detail, but are Phoenix written to be UriderstOod Tucson.- --Eyen so, the- Complexity of these events : both Seattle :Springfield, HI: foreign and: doniestiC.--. requires additional' knowl- St Louis edge on the part:Of the reader for-full understanding. :San Francisco , The More basie information he has on any partienlar Los Angeles- _- from reading articles in Sacramento,. Calif. subject, the More he will gain Fairbanks. Alaska his ,newspaper in that subject. Anchorage, Alaska But how. does -a reader acquire this background Juneau, Alaska knOwledge;'eSpecialfyif he may-spend only a limited Honolulu Hollywood amount or time pUrsiiing : Washington . One way is to have it condenSed and presented by johannesburg,South Africa exPerts on acontinuing, umto-date basis. Copenhagen, Denmark And that is the purpose of thiy,series of COPLEY New Delhi, India NEWS-SERVICE REPORTS:pamphlets. _ Nairobi, Kenya The -article's are pablished .:bY:the Copley News- Ottawa, Canada papers Department ofrEdileation;and wereprePared Va ncouver,'.Ca nada -.Toronto, Canada in cooperation With the WOrldWide --neWs-:gathering Montreal;'Canada- organization, Copley NeWs Service. TheJnformation, Manila, The-Philippines compiled frorn reportS. by CNS bureak:aiiefS-and Madrid,Spain . correspondentS2 on, the sections-, of :the world- they Bonn, West Gdrmany Saigon;South Vietnam cover, are designed to 'provide backgrOund informa- Nicosia,-CYprus don on those areaS: - : . . Geneia,tSwitzerland Additionally, _a section onmaPs his been included Beirut, Lebanon to help in tracing the geographical develoninentiCtit- Haifa;lsradi lined:in the articles. A separate mari Glasgow:Scotland the pamphlet On THE WAR IN VIETNAM, Which Tokyo,janan shOWs keY, areaS, towns, routes; ete.' Which: figure Bangkok, Thailand Seoul,Korea- proininently in 'the news from the ernbattled South- Ka rachi; Pakistan eastAsia area. - . Vienna; Austria As- eVents inparticular parts of the World demand, 'Oolornbo-,:Ce309-9 - Taipei,TaiWan- .riewr -articles and-niaps Will be prepared and Will be: Hong Kong, made available...:]_ - .Salisbury,Rhodesia ;The:a:1'461es are, not 'Meant:to:be and cannot be a Paris;France ...subititute for the'-reinl.*P6TEACe.of reading a news-- Ankara;Xurkey . PaPekiT4eii,;,-51P make newspperreaclingmore mean- Istanbul, Turkey .= . 'Lusaka; Zambia ingfiiL -DardSSalearn; Tanzania= Perfh;"Australie London; England Stockholm; -Sweden.- Singabbre', Romd;;Italy.:;,-; Aucklaiid,-!NeWZOland :Melbourne; .Balgrade. YugoSlaV.ia-' :Athens, Greece;.:.: : Gaberones,.BOts*a Jerusalein; Israel :"LisbOn,-,Porttigal Apia;Westem Bain Algiers;i.A!goia "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY. 1-Itio,ddiarteiro;B"iiiit RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED Bbengs-Akes;',Argentina BY 'MekiCbaty;:10eijco-'..' 'f/.1OnterreyNekico zpueitoyairakkiVekido TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING EnsenadaMexico UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S OFFICE GuatenialaCity::Gliateitia gr."' OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION 1:Sahi-JOie;fc.OstaiticUir"-- OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER SanJuan,RiiertO1,2icO, MISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER :KingstOn;jainaica". f-Nassian;-3heBaha tCaracu.%1Teneiti A3405.ta;-,CO
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_ The Conquestof Space
to be a new warmth inSoviet-U. S. relations, The year was 1961 and the words werePresident Podgornycabled John F. Kennedy's: PresidentNikolai V. "I believe that this nation shouldcommit itself to congratulations ot President Nixon. is out, of So, the names of the first moonexplorers go into achieving the goal, before this decade history with those of Columbus, Magellanand the landing a man on the moon and returninghim achievement for safely to earth." others who opened new paths of Eight years later, on July 20, 1969,Neil Arm- mankind. strong, 38, an American astronaut,climbed down the nine rungs of a Lunar Moduleladder and took a Russian Flight First miles from Earth. The decade that ended with thisAmerican space step on the moon. He was 225,000 Gagarin of the "That's one small step forman," Armstrong triumph began when Maj. Yuri mankind." Soviet Union became the first human in space on said, "one giant leap for April 12, 1961. And so man had done the impossible.He reached It took that challenge, on the heelsof Russia's other worlds, he opened up theuniverse, he turned launching the first man-made satellite,Sputnik I, the page to a new era. in 1957, to get the U. S. program under way.It was Twenty minutes after Armstrong'sfirst step, a in 1961 that the National Aeronauticsand Space second American astronaut,Edwin E. "Buzz" Administration (NASA) was created andthe Aldrin, followed onto the moon'ssurface. The two United States was on the path to the moon. men spent approximatelytwo hours on the lunar The program started slowly. Therehave been surface, collected 48 pounds of stonesand dirt for failures, disappointments and tragedy.But as scientific study, photographed lunarmaterial and American scientific and technologicalknow-how set up scientific equipmentthat remained after gained momentum, so did the program. their departure. Here are the highlights of America'sthree phases of manned space exploration the Mer- Flag and Plaque Left cury, Gemini and Apollo programs. They also left behind a 3-by-5 footnylon flag of MERCURY: May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard Jr. the United States and a plaquewhich read: is the first American into spacewith a 15 minute up- "Here Men From The PlanetEarth and-down suborbital flight. First Set Foot Upon The Moon Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn Jr. is the first July 1969, A. D. American to orbit the Earth. We Came In Peace For All Mankind." GEMINI: March 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom and The plaque bears the namesof Armstrong, John W. Young complete the firstAmerican two- Aldrin, astronaut Michael Collins,who orbited the man space flight. command spacecraft 69 milesabove while his June 3-7, 1965 Edward H. White IIon a flight companions walked on the moon'ssurface, and with James A. McDivitt becomes the first President Richard M. Nixon. American to walk in space. historic, Dec. 4 to 18, 1965 Frank Borman and James A. A telephone call, perhaps man's most Lovell Jr. in Gemini 7 meet with WalterM. Schirra was completed fromPresident Nixon in his White standing on the Jr. and Thomas P. Stafford inGemini 6 for the first House office to the two astronauts successful space rendezvous in man'shistory. moon. and David Meanwhile, earth March 16-17, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong The flight went without a hitch. R. Scott in Gemini 8 connectwith an unmanned was held in a sort of"moon madness." satellite, the first linkup between twospacecraft. An estimated 600 million persons roughly one- APOLLO: Oct. 11-22, 1968 -- Schirra, DonnF. sixth of the world's population watched on live Eisele and Walter Cunningham inApollo 7 com- television as Armstrong and Aldrin tooktheir first plete the first American three-manflight. steps on the moon. Millions more from Com- Dec. 21-27, 1968 Borman, Lovell and William A. munist lands in Eastern Europe tonations.deep in Anders orbit the moon in Apollo 8, thefirst manned Africa listened to radio accounts or saw delayed TV broadcasts of the event. 6 9 Even Russia where all news is subject to .:1) Copia(NewgPaPe4 censorship broke precedent to carry a live DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION telecast of the astronauts' return.In what seemed
9-71 Earth's gravity. In the long days ofuncertainty, nations around spacecraft to fly out beyond the world offered whateverhelp they could. Even March 3-13, 1969 McDivitt, Russell L. Sch- standing by with rescue ships. weickart and Scott, in Apollo9, test the lunar the USSR said it was landing craft in anotherflight beyond Earth's This was the most serious emergencyto occur in American space flights,although it was the 14th gravity. astronauts had to take May 18-26, 1969 Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan time in 24 flights that U. S. and Young complete, inApollo 10, man's first flight corrective action to save amission. close to the moon. Apollo14,America'sthirdmanned lunar July 16-24, 1969 Armstrong and Aldrin ac- mission, in February 1971, wasdeclared an un- complish a safe landing onthe moon and return to conditional success. The threeastronauts, Stuart Earth with Collins in Apollo11. A. Roosa, Edgar A. Mitchelland Shepard, returned Nov. 14-24, 1969 Charles ("Pete") Conrad Jr. safely to earth with avaluable cargo of pictures, and Alan Bean land onthe moon's surface while rocks and soil for furtherscientific study. Richard Gordon Jr. orbitsin the Apollo 12 com- mechanism which mand module However, a faulty docking the lunar surface, refused to lock the commandand lunar modules They left five experiments on together early in the flightthreatened to abort the powered by a million-dollarnuclear generator, the five tries, secured the first atomic powerplant in space.Some of the lunar mission until the crew, after including seismic craft. Officials said thisaction, possible only with tests have amazed scientists, the presence of the astronauts,confirmed the value responses in the moonthat don't follow known unmanned missions. principles and high magneticactivity. of manned space flights over by petty troubles Although Apollo 12 was marred Three Astronauts Killed In Fire from lightning striking itduring liftoff to Bean's head being cut by a falling cameraduring the The biggest tragedy in theAmerican program rough splashdown, theflight was considered an occurred when three U. S. astronautswere training overwhelming success. on a launch pad atCape Kennedy in January, 1967. So successful,in fact,that observers and A fire, feeding on a pure oxygenatmosphere, astronauts began to feelcomplacent and secure flashed through the commandmodule and killed about the safety of American spaceflights. Grissom, White and RogerChaffee. There were complaints thatAmericans saw the It took nearly two years and$800 million after the Apollo 13 moon shot as a"rerun" and that its fire before the U. S. wasready to send up its next television broadcasts wereupstaged by a golf astronauts. tournament, an auto race and abaseball game. Despite their early lead in the space race,Russia The astronauts themselves weretaking the also has suffered tragediesin its program, the flights more and more lightly, andtried to think up latest being the deaths inJune, 1971 of three new "firsts " theApollo 12 crew gave a humorous cosmonauts as they wereabout to land on earth first space press conference, andLovel reported he after a record 24 days aloft.This was the fourth ate the first space hot dogwith catsup in the early death suffered during Soviet spaceflights, and stages of the Apollo 13flight. created uncertainty about thefuture of the Soviet program. Spaceship Imperiled It wasn't an easy, effortlesstriumph for the U. S. to reach the moon beforethe Russians. Then disaster struck. Two daysafter the April 11 NASA drew up an liftoff, when the Apollo 13 craft wasin the grasp of To catch up with Russia, filled with liquid emergency plan on awartime-like scale and the moon's gravity, a fuel cell decided to use Americanindustry, not the govern- oxygen exploded. ment itself. The crippled ship, already 205,000miles from million people, in all Earth, looped around the moon, used aportion of its It required the work of half a Earth-bound course, 50 states, and thecombined resources of 20,000 meager power supply to set an American business firms. Newfactories were built, and headed homeward. test centers constructedand launch facilities While people all over the world heldtheir breath, thousands of scientists astronauts Lovell, Fred W. HaiseJr. and John L. erected using the skills of frail lunar module for and technicians. Swigert Jr. depended on the There was little hesitation inmoving ahead precious supplies of oxygen, waterand power. force was secured. Just before they entered Earth'satmosphere for toward the moon once the labor they dumped Included in that force was Dr. Wernher vonBraun, their successful April 17 splashdown, developer of the early Redstoneand Jupiter the lunar module which had savedtheir lives and who helped the relied on three storage batteries inthe command rockets and one of the key people module for power. U. S. reach space leadership. ripped away a The cost of the Apollo program wasestimated The cause of the explosion, which after the first moon landing at$24 billion an 13-foot high section of the spaceship'sside, was American family. later determined to be poor tankdesign combined average of $472 for every voltage to a pair of But competition from Russia wasintense. with the application of too much In late 1969, the Russianshad three craft with a tiny thermostatic switches inthe tank before orbit 135 miles takeoff. Utal of seven cosmonauts in an The Atlas, sometimesdescribed asthe above the Earth at one time.Presumably this feat, because of its extreme than ever before, was in workhorse of rocketry more men in space at once accuracy, reliabilityand versatility, launchedfour preparation for a mannedEarth-orbiting platform. orbital flights John The Russians also have sent upan impressive of the manned Mercury Wally Schirra in 1962 communication aids Glenn, Scott Carpenter and number of weather satellites, and Gordon Cooper in1963. and planetary probes,including the first to suc- The Titan 2 rocket, amodified Air Force in- cessfully inspect Venus. tercontinental ballistic missile,began its manned They also sent up the firstcosmonette, Valentina Grissom and Young, on a female flights in 1965 when it sent Tereshkova,in1963,and have five three-orbit mission. TheTitan 2 continued to serve cosmonauts out of their fieldof 100. The U. S. has 59 Gemini program. astronauts, all male. to 1966, throughout the first to land on The Saturn I rocket, usedfor the early manned Although the Americans were the Apuilo flights, grew out of theRedstone and Jupiter the moon the resultsof any "race" for space boosters. It had, however, manytimes more thrust supremacy are stilluncertain. The Russians are because its engines areoperated in clusters. The aiming for different andequally spectacular rocket, with a total thrustof 1,590,000 pounds, triumphs in space including space stations and scored 10 successes in as manylaunchings up to settlements on otherplanets. And though the as contrastedwith 1965 when its researchand development program persistence of Soviet secrecy was phased out. the complete TV coverageof the U. S. program Saturn I's first stage,given additional thrust, makes difficult a detailedcomparison of USSR and States, became the first stage of theuprated Saturn space activitieswith those of the United it demonstrated that theclustering of engines was observers feel that mannedinterplanetary flight in the 1970s and 1980s is notbeyond Soviet technical feasible. capabilities. stepped into the Saturn 5 Development Communist China, meanwhile, rocket," was developed space race in April1970, with the launchingof a The Saturn 5, the "moon twice the size of Russia's in late 1967. Its 7,500,000-poundthrust was the one beeping satellite about astronauts to the moon. It is sputnik. Some observersfeel the only reason this that helped blast U. S. underdeveloped nation, with its numerousinternal a three-stagerocket and, when fullyfueled and satellite is for purposes topped with three complexApollo components, difficulties, would send up a as much as of spying or weaponry. weighs more than sixmillion pounds a large destToyer.The Saturn 5 stands 363feet high, taller than the length of afootball field. Its first- Goddard Was Pioneer enough power to orbit all the rockets to achieve flights stage engine produces Man's concept of using previous space craft launchedby the United States. in space began withRobert Goddard, an American When the rocket wasinitially tested at Cape physicist who started thinkingalong those lines of the loudest noises pioneered the use of liquid- Kennedy it produced one during World War I. He developed to a history ever recorded.Scientists said only two propellant rockets which were natural events on record everproduced stronger reasonably high state by theGermans in their airwaves than the Saturn 5 the eruption of the research and developmentleading to the V-2 and Indies in 1883 and the in World War II. These Krakotoa Volcano in the East other rocket weapons used fall of the Great SiberianMeteorite in 1908. rockets were developed furtherby both the United components include the for ballistic missiles and The Saturn 5's Apollo States and Russia mostly Apollo command module,the craft in which the only more recently forspacecraft. and back; a service program involved astronauts rode to the moon Not all of the American space module that contains a21,500-pound thrust engine manned flights. that propelled the astronautsoff the moon's sur- Presently, American unmannedspacecraft have looking lunar module which and sophistication. face; and the peculiar reached a high level of utility the space explorersused to descend to the moon. Nimbus weather satelliteshave given weathermen goal" the landing on being right; Surveyor haslanded So, now that the "great the natural a better chance of closely the moon has been achieved, on the moon,dug into the surface, and question is what benefits,geological and otherwise, photographed the lunarterrain;Orbiter has the mission and willbe Voyager is probing have been achieved by mapped the moon with photos; achieved by furtherexplorations of the moon. the mysteries of Marsand Venus. dust returned to Earth been used from the Samples of lunar soil and Five rocket systems have on Apollo 12differ markedly from thosebrought time Shepard made theinitial Mercury III explorers. The second group suborbital flight in 1961 to thespectacular Arm- back by the first lunar of July, 1969. is of differentcomposition, lighter colored, and strong-Collins-Aldrin moon landing many rocks areglass coated. It was the Redstonerocket, lengthened and Findings have caused manyscientists to alter mated with solid-fuel upperstages which has always been a cold, that in 1958 launched their views that the moon became the Jupiter C dead body. Some scientiststhink that perhaps the Explorer 1, the first U. S.satellite. Modified again, created by lava spewed and in 1961 lifted moon's great deserts were it became the Redstone-Mercury, 7 kom a molten interior and latercovered with rock Shepard and Grissom insuborbital flight paths. dust and glass beads thatprobably fell like rain conventional airstrip should be ready fortesting in drops. the mid 1970s. It is generally believed thatthe moon is about 4.6 Although the next logical target for manned billion years old, the same as theuniverse in flight is Mars and the U. S. plans a Mars landing general. Some scientists believe thatthe moon and before the century is out, attention is beingfocused Earth were bombarded by numerouslarge objects now on unmanned exploratoryvehicles. about 3.5 billion years ago. Mariner space probes have sent remarkable Philosophies about formation of the moon vary. pictures of Mars to Earth, taken withlong and Some feel it was part of theEarth, wrenched from short range television cameras. The probesalso what is now the Pacific Ocean.Others feel it was sent devices to measure the Martianatmosphere formed at the same time as Earth,and others and temperatures. believe it was a wandering body caughtin Earth's The pictures, transmitted to Earthby radio gravity. "dots," were about 500 times better than any But some facts now are known. It possessessome snapped through the best telescopes on Earth.They materials that do not occur naturally onEarth. showed clear details of craters and otherland- There is no definite sign that life has everexisted marks as small as 900 feet across. there and there is no sign of any water onthe moon. Increased knowledge of the Martian environment No chances are taken that our moonexplorers and surface will be gained by evaluationof data might bring back to earth a minute moonorganism from the fall rendezvous of America's Mariner9 that could cause a catastrophicplague. As soon as and Russia's Mars 2 and 3 unmanned missionsto the spacemen splash down to earththey become Mars. subject to elaborate isolation andprecautionary In 1973, plans call for a third pairof unmanned techniques. They are placed in quarantinefor 21 spacecraft to be sent aloft to make gentlelandings days and have comprehensivemedical checks on theplanet,..exaore for signs of life and provide regularly to see that no slow-actingorganisms are measurement of surface conditions. infecting their systems. And this, scientists say,to determine, once and However, pressure is being appliedto stop for all, whether life exists there and,if so, what quarantining the astronauts. Many feel it hasbeen kindis the main reason for landing on Mars. proven there are no infectiousorganisms on the A program to land men on Mars would cost at least $5 billion a year, officials say, andcould moon. become the main target of those who wantto Reach Into Space deemphasize the entire U. S. space effort after the Apollo project ends. The U. S. conquest of the moon is onlythe start of A methodical exploration of the moredistant what will be further far-reaching spacead- planets, scientists predict, will beundertaken with ventures. Only three more lunar missions are scheduledfor unmanned spacecraft. Apollo astronauts with the last sometime in late 'Grand Tours' Planned 1972. Starting with the July Apollo 15flight, all the last flights will carry battery-poweredautomobiles Inaddition, unmanned "grand tours"past to enable the crews to travel on the moon.The Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune andPluto are vehicles have a range of 50 miles and a top speed of planned for the latter part of the decade. The nine miles an hour. planets are only lined up to make that possible once Inaddition, NASA engineersarealready every 179 years, and suchflights can be made working on plans for moon colonies inhabited by as between 1976 and 1980. many as 50 to 100 persons, perhapspossible by the The testing of the first nuclear-propulsion space latter part of the century. vehicle is planned by the U. S. for 1978. Astronauts on future lunar missions willinstall Despite the success of many aspects of the Apollo increasingly complicated devices on the moon, to program, there have been manycritics who have help determine the moon's structure, temperature questioned spending $36.5 billion on America's and environment over a long period of time space program, money whichmight otherwise Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, administratorof the have gone toward thesolutionofdomestic National Aeronautics and Space Administration, problems and NASA's budget has been cut said one of NASA's major priorities will be tofind drastically over the last five years. Next year $2.7 out how effectively man can exist in aweightless, billion less will be available than NASA got in 1966. space-station atmosphere and carry outuseful NASA administrator Paine justifies a vigorous work in orbit over an extended period of time space program this way: "Wesimply can't hold up To that end, the U. S. plans to send up anearth- all progress in art, in literature, in scienceand orbifing space station, Skylab, in 1973. Although the exploration until we solve all the problems of first space station will have a three-man crew, a m ankind. larger station which would support 12 men is "New technology programs likethespace planned for 1975. Fifty-man stations are planned program create new wealth which,in turn, gives us for the 1980s. 016)ability to distribute the wealth more broadly A reuseable space shuttle which wouldtake off viihein our society to help meet some of our welfare from Earth like a rocket and land like a jet at a and poverty problems. The War inVietnam
The worldwide conflict between thefree world set up a separate French-controlled government and communism still focuses in SoutheastAsia for the southern half of the country. after nearly a decade of bloody fighting. Under one French-Viet Minh agreement, French Here, U. S. and South Vietnamese armedforces troops were allowed in parts of North Vietnam. (with some additional help) have beenfighting to However, disputes arose over the degree of self self- government the north would have and over the insure South Vietnam's right of political south. determination. statusof the more closelycontrolled Facing them are the Viet Cong a south Viet- Sporadic military pressure against the French guerrilla army which continued throughout the country, as the opposed namese Communist rebel points of view made compromiseimpossible. controls much of the territory of South Vietnam jungle and regular troops from CommunistNorth Viet- Finally, Ho's Viet Minh forces took to the to begin the bloody eight-year warwhich ended in nam, which directs the aggression. Dien Bien The Communists, with strong supportfrom China 1954 after the defeat of the French at "war of Phu. In a cease-fire arranged at aninternational and the Russian bloc, have proclaimed it a the national liberation,"insisting thattheSouth conference in Geneva, Vietnam was divided at Vietnamese National Liberation Front, the 17th Parallel, with the north going to Hoand south political arm of the Viet Cong, representsthe new to Bao Dai. In 1955, a republic wasproclaimed in order for mankind and should be a patternfor the the south with Ngo Dinh Diem aspresident. underdeveloped countries in the world. Under Ho, North Vietnam became a full-fledged These emerging countries, in turn, are very Communist state, exercising total control overits much aware of the issue and can be expectedto be people and iron rule of all facets of life.Economic strongly influenced by the outcome. growth has been slow and the standardsof living miserably low. Under Diem, a strong nationalist andanti- French Control Communist, South Vietnam startedshowing Roots of the present conflict go back to1859, when economic gains and general progress. spread control However, new insurgency started in thesouth in France seized Saigon and began to 1957, and by 1959 the Viet Cong, aided anddirected over the Indochinesepeninsula. powerful A surge of nationalism, spurredby the new by North Vietnam, had emerged as a after World Communist guerrilla force controlling largeparts doctrine of communism, began shortly of the country outside the cities. War I. Periodic rebellions againstFrench rule Unrest mounted as Diem took increasingly harsh broke out over demands for moreself-government, part in the repressionmeasures.Finally,aftermassive with Communists playing a prominent protests led by Buddhist monks and students,Diem revolutionary activities. killed in a military coup in In 1940, France fell to the Germanonslaught and was overthrown and Japan occupied Indochina,administering it 1963. through the Vichy French regime. In early1945, with the war plainly lost, Japan sponsored anin- U. S. Becomes Major Influence dependent Vietnamese state under Bao Dal,last of There followed a succession of government Vietnam's emperors. coups, with the Viet Congmaking further progress In South China, however, anotherorganization, as South Vietnam'sgenerals occupied themselves the Communist-backed Viet Minh (Leaguefor with political battles rather than militaryaffairs. Vietnamese Independence) was preparing toseize As the situation worsened, the UnitedStates power in Vietnam. became more and more involved militarily. At its head was a 54-year-oldBolshevik, Ho Chi This involvement actually started during World Minh, who was returning to his Vietnamhomeland War II, when Office of StrategicService teams after 33 years of serving the Communistmovement parachuted into occupied Indochina to help against in Paris, London, Moscow andChina. In the fall of 1945, Bao Dai gave way asthe Viet Minh proclaimed a republic and marchedinto Hanoi. France recognized the newregime as in- 72 CoPlat Newgr dependent, but with strong ties to France,and also DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 the Japanese. After the Korean War, America which members, on invitation, move to the aid of a began a massive economic aid program to build up country under attack. the area against the threat of communism. The former French Indochinese countries With the withdrawal of the Frenchafter the Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were forbidden by Geneva Agreements, the United States becamethe the Geneva Agreements of 1954 to join any treaties, dominant foreign power in Vietnam, taking over but their defense is guaranteed under the SEATO the job of providing military assistance andadvice pact. to the new government of SouthVietnam. A joint statement by Thailand and the United This first consisted of a few hundred menwho States in 1962 says that the American obligation were sent at the request ofSouth Vietnam and who does not depend on agreement oiall treaty were authorized to be thereunder the Geneva members. This extension of the U. S. obligation has Agreements' terms. Their job was to reorganize been accepted by a majority of SEATO members. the South Vietnamese army. However, the treaty never has been invoked by However, as the Viet Cong increased military South Vietnam because ofpolicydifferences action, the United States added to itsmilitary among several of the members. assistance group, and from the handful ofadvisers SEATO has no standing military force under who formerly accompanied South Vietnamese unified command and serious internal conflicts on troops to combat and who rarely engagedin the policiesand interestshave hindereditsef- actual fighting, the conflict became afull-scale fectiveness as a unified defense pact. war. In addition to defensive military action, however, A new phase started in August 1964, when two the alliance is pledged to economic and social U. S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin reportedthey progress in Southeast Asia. Headquartersis in had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo Bangkok, Thailand. boats. The United States retaliated bybombing During the peak of the fighting, South Korea shore installations in North Vietnam. provided the largest fighting force about 48,000 men, to help the allies, with smallercommitments from Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines and Viet Cong Aitacks Increase Thailand. Following the U. S. troops withdrawals, Viet Cong however, these nations also reduced their forces in In February 1965, with mounting Vietnam. terrorist attacks against American installations in The war presented unprecedented difficulties for South Vietnam, the United States began air raids the U. S. fighting men. The hot, humid weatheris against military targets in the north, which con- one of these factors. The terrain,with its swamps tinued and were intensified. and jungles, is another. In March 1965, the first U. S. combat troops, 3,500 In addition to the marshy Mekwag Delta and the Marines, arrived in South Vietnam to protect the savannah-type coastal country, South Vietnam also airbase at Da Nang. Since then the scope of the war contains jungle rain forests around Saigon and has broadened dramatically. forested mountains in the interior. The country is Approximately 540,000 U. S. fighting men were in mostly hot and wet, with the humidity and insect Vietnam at peak strength in mid-1969. Thousands life of the subtropics, but with some bitter cold more manned the naval and Air Forceunits based offshore or in other countries in the area. However, nights in the uPlands. by mid-1971 U. S. troop strength was cut to 233,000. Different Type of War The United States, a partner in defense treaties with 43 nations, has received little military helpin And the character of the war itself is unlike the struggle. anything previously experienced. There is no front, Many countries in Latin America, Europe and few military objectives and much of the ground the Middle East feel the war in Asia is too remote fighting is in the form of guerrilla action, with the and does not endanger them. In addition to this lack Communists usually avoiding commitment of large of concern, some U. S. allies have expressed doubt units to full-scale battles. that American policy toward the current situation Instead, booby-traps in the form of explosives, in Southeast Asia is correct and question the U. S. poisoned stakes and similar materials are left in right to be there. the path of advancing allied forces. Years of This contrasts with the Korean War when formal control of most of the countryside enabled the Viet United Nations action made intervention legal and Cong to build vast systems of tunnels and trenches, when some 15 other countries sent more than 40,000 which are used as headquarters and supply storage troops tofight beside Americans and South points and from which ambushes are launched Koreans. against the allies. The main anti-Communist shield in Southeast In addition, it is difficult to distinguish the Asia is the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization enemy. (SEATO). Its members are the United States, There is no racial difference between the Viet- Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, the namese on either side, and the VietCong often Philippines, Pakistan and Thailand. mingle unnoticed with the peasants and villagers. Organized in 1954, the pact is considered the These, in turn, intimidated by years of terrorism by basic collective defense system in Southeast Asia in the Communists, hide the identity and whereabouts 7 (-k Vietnam was of the enemy, who return freely to areasseized and Previously, bombing of North supposedly cleared by friendly troops. halted for 37 days, starting on ChristmasEve, 1965, There have beer. numerous acts ofviolence in while a U. S. peace effort was pushed.That 'and Vietnam apart from armed engagementsbetween other pauses also allowed the Communiststo build Viet Cong and friendly forces' troops. up troops and supplies forrenewed aggression at stronger levels. They have ranged from assassinations tokid- called by President napingsand from harassmenttowholesale Another bombing halt, slaughter in villages. They haveincluded the Johnson as he left office, sharply curtailedallied murder of thousands of village anddistrict of- bombings of North Vietnam until April 1970. Atthat ficials, virtually depopulating many areasof their time in conjunction with an allied drive into natural leaders. Cambodia large bombing raids were conducted Hundreds of villages and hamlets havebeen on missile sites and supplydepots in the north. destroyed, homes, hospitals and schoolsburned, Bombings continued through early 1971 asU. S. communications wrecked, irrigation projects jets attacked northern missile sites in aseries of seized to "protective reactions." dynamited and acres of crops ruined or The total tonnage of bombs dropped inSoutheast feed the guerrilla forces. Asia now equals more than twice thatdropped U. S. forces were accused ofatrocities in late Korean conflict 1969, when a letter by a formerGI was made public during World War II and the combined. which reported a massacre inthe South Viet- reiterated their namese hamlet of MyLai. A historical precedent In March 1971 the Red Chinese States began prosecuting its pledge to support Hanoi should it beconsidered was set as the United necessary, though directintervention is believed own soldiers. More thantwo dozen officers and large enlisted men have been tried. unlikely.North Vietnam hasaccepted cleared of the amounts of Chinese arms andammunition, but also Although the majority have been has received aid from other nationsof the Com- charges, Lt. William L. Caney Jr. wasfound guilty. missiles and jet The trial of his company commander,Capt. Ernest munist bloc, including antiaircraft L. Medina, followed Ca lley'stestimony that he was fighters from Russia. following Medina's orders in the1968 military The nation of 22 million also receivesabout $1 Donaldson became billion a year from its allies to bolster an economy operation. Brig. Gen. John W. devastated by U. S. bombing, and manufacturing the first U. S. general to becharged with a war being crime in 70 years in June 1971,when he too was and storage facilities only recently are Vietnam. rebuilt after being destroyed or moved toplaces of accused of murdering civilians in concealment during earlier raids. Hanoialso has been pressingavast resettlement program, Allies Control Air transferring large segments of the populacefrom The allies have had excellentcommunications, the congested Red River delta tothe heavily complete control of the air andoverwhelming forested highlands, in order to open upthousands superiority in manpower and equipment.The more acres of farmland. widespread use of heliocopters to movecombat But despite these efforts, recentagricultural troops as well as for supply and rescueoperations progress and the rationing of most consumergoods also has given the allies unexcelledmobility. The including rice the nation depends heavily on nature of the fighting has minimizedthese military Red Chinese and Russian foodstuffs. advantages, however. Whereas South Vietnam is expected tobegin Reinforcements from North Vietnam and sup- exporting rice again before the end of1972, the plies from China and Russia move fromHanoi to north is still far from becomingself-sufficient in the Viet Cong by the two Ho Chi MinhTrails. They rice production. run from North Vietnamthrough southeastern Hanoi's determination to reunify Vietnamunder Laos and northeastern Cambodia, enteringSouth northern control, in fact, draws muchstrength Vietnam at several points. from the fact that the north always hasbeen poor Porters or coolies operate on the "zonesystem" and has relied on the southern "ricebowl's" sur- along the Ho Chi Minh Trails, movingsupplies from plus of that staple Asianfood. one end of their zone tothe other, where another team of porters takes over. The trails are interwoven networks whichinclude Delta Good Food Producer well-camouflagedall-weather roads on some stretches. Not only trucks, but half-tracksand even The Mekong Delta country andcoastal areas tanks move along the trails. farther north in South Vietnam are goodfood Even as U. S. planes repeatedly bombthese producers. Tropical fruits and manyvegetables trails, new paths are hacked out ofthe jungle, also are produced. Cash crops includerubber, tea permitting some infiltration of food, men and war and coffee. supplies into South Vietnam. The vast majority of the nearly 800,000families Bombing against three-quarters of the countryof who lived as tenant farmers in thedelta area in 1968 North Vietnam, including the capital ofHanoi, was are now owner-cultivators.In addition, nearly stopped by the United States in 1968,at tinthree-fifths of the cultivated land there is expected beginning of Paris peace talks. to have been redistributed by the endof 1972. Kunming A ' 41-iiii+m4tRAIL LINES U.s. MILITARY INSTALLATION CAPITALROAD AM v44-14 Nanning I NORTH Dien Bien Phu ) \VIETN '*; Lang Son Binh on Gay Muong Sen inh ov loo'N Ir,....1.-rA, MU IA PASSnano Hni one Quang TriCEAS(17th Parallel) E-FIRE LINE 1954 % Da Nang ENTRM:. \ # i, m Ky TE"Ag :-.*RO,UTEli, : 14 IrT3RPS 1 ...... Tuy Van Tuong Peninsula .... ki Ve ley %ierr,46Pleikb KoOtum huong Lai Son BoeMe ThuotCentral Nan, 9Khe',Ai KheII CORPS I Binh uiDinh NhonSOUTH tr...... " ROUTE Dalat 261:;/". : ant Ranh Bay VIETNAM ZONE ii CaPS ..... 0 .. ha Trang Lon s.a '18 5. z4eirrioa TE. 2 an Rang Phuoc g Tau , ROUTE 1 Della SOUTHEAST ASIA PeninsulaCa Mau is far In the mountains dwell severalhundred thousand Nevertheless, the economy of the south Montagnards, who are organized in anumber of from healthy. tribal groupings. They are hardy,independent Aware that the government inSouth Vietnam neighbors, faces major economic problems,American of- people, with little love for their lowland aid would be whether Communist or not. ficials realize that a major cut in U. S. More than a million Chinese alsoinhabit the a disaster the economy having becomealmost engaging in wholly dep9ndent on the Americandollar. country, living mostly in the cities and Although not much can be done aboutsmall-scale business and banking. traditional in district government Further diversity is provided by the religions. corruption ahead with efforts to Taoism is the basic religious philosophy ofthe U. S. officials are pressing country, but about 80 per cent of thepeople confess halt major corruption whichdelivers a large Catholics. amount of U. S. supplies to theViet Cong and in- to be Buddhists and about 10 per cent cludes padded payrolls and kickbacks. Ancestor-worship also is traditionally practiced. well stocked with Discord has been frequent between Buddhism, U. S. post exchanges are with its ancient center at Hue, andCatholicism, groceries, cigarettes, beer and otheritems which The turn up in the Saigon black market. stemming from French-influenced Saigon. Cement, steel, drainage tiles andaluminum Buddhists feel resentment against the Catholic roofing paid for by the United Stateswind up in minority which, because of the footholdgained underFrenchcolonialism,wieldspower Communist fortifications,fieldhospitalsand disproportionate to its size. A large part ofthe camps. Radios that assistRed communications, of the steel pipe converted by terrorists tomortar barrels army's officer corps is Catholic, as are most of bombs and American- nation's journalists and leading merchants.And, or for the outer shells while the Roman Catholics represent about10 per financed medicines and drugs which save thelives cent of the of wounded Viet Cong are stolen fromdocks by Viet cent of the population, nearly 50 per channels senators are Catholic. Cong agents or sold through clearly open However, most of the activity of thereligious to the Viet Cong. sects has been directed againstthe various Huge Black Market governments and intended to establish ormaintain political power. Huge black markets in U. S.currency and The Buddhists,inparticular,havestaged commodities flourish, and it has been estimated frequent demonstrationsagainst themilitary that as much as 20 per cent of the cargopassing governments. However, though theBuddhists through the port of Saigon is stolen. Much ofthis constitute a powerful political movement,they are material later finds its way into the hands of the sharply divided among themselves onhow to Viet Cong. achieve their political goals and strugglefor power Dangerous drugs, includingheroin,are among themselves. becoming an increasing problem. Thelucrative Stronghold of the so-called "militant"Buddhists sale of the narcotics lures corruptVietnamese is Hue, in the northern part ofSouth Vietnam. officials and businessmen, who sell the drugs to Natives of the Mekong Delta claim their ownbrand U. S. servicemen. The underground trade con- of Buddhism and are distrustfulof the activist tinues despite U. S. efforts to eliminate it. monks from the north. Government income from the UnitedStates, averaging more than $300 million a yearin economic aid alone, now far exceeds the totalof Bu ddhis t Appeal other national revenues. This, combinedwith the in South The over-all appeal of the Buddhistsisto large sums American troops are spending nationalism. They want power in order to reassert Vietnam, puts tremendous inflationary pressure on the the economy. their national sovereignty, and they oppose cent military governments as being dictatorialand After averaging an increase of about 30 per repressive to Buddhism. They aim at restoration during the past few years, the rate of inflation was which held to about 20 per cent in 1971, however. by free elections of a civilian government Inflation as well as vast differencesbetween the will set up a stable, prosperous nationguided by standard of living within the domestic economy and Buddhist principles. the pay of the U. S. soldier have causedprices to Aiding this campaign by the Buddhistleadership soar in the metropolitan areas.Most of the is the fact that the people have aningrained residents of Saigon, once referred to as the "Paris distrust of their central government,which long of the Orient," cannot afford luxury items. has been noted for corruption anddespotism. The 22 million population of South Vietnam is In 1966, however, a constituentassembly was like most elected which drew up a constitution forSouth diverse, though generally originating, Vietnam and which was favored by 80 per centof Southeast Asian peoples, in South China about 4,000 largely illiterate years ago. the registered voters despite a The majority, particularly those livingin the electorate and a wave of violence spreadby op- delta country and the coastal strip, arefarmers ponents of the election. The 117-articleconstitutionprovidesfora with an average per capita income oflittle more.' 8 with a than $100. modified presidential system of government strong, bicameral legislature and an independent people really need and help provide it. Some ofthe judiciary. projects are developing crops, building schoolsand Thisgovernmenthasalowerhouseof hospitals and beginning rural electrification representatives elected to four-year terms in direct programs. The teams also are trying toestablish a and secret ballots from constituencies. The upper civil administration and replace officials who are tehouse has a smaller number of senators, chosenby corrupt and uncaring. direct and secret ballot in nationwide,at-large The government's current emphasisison elections for six-year terms. upgradingtheauthorityofthevillage,the The president and vice president, also chosenin traditional unit of local government in Vietnam. nationwide elections, must be natives of Vietnam The Vietnamese village consists of from six to10 military hamlets and the village chief exerts theauthority. and must run on the same ticket. Also, As part of village-upgrading the governmentis men elected to office mustsuspend military af- councils filiations. not only advocating free election of village The election of the constituent assemblywhich but has embarked on a program of putting atthe formed the constitution and led the government disposal of each village the fmancial meansto elections was seen as a victory for democracyand bring about economic development. Unfortunately, political unity in itself, as it was vigorouslyopposed however, because of corrupt leadershipsupplies, by both Viet Cong and the militantBuddhists. including building materials, frequently disappear. In 1968, the election of PresidentNguyen Van One favorable result of the program isthe im- Thieu and Vice President Nguyen Cao Ky,both provement of the police force, both in qualityand military men, was protested by oppositionforces, number. The police force and local militia com- which charged irregularities in the voting.But the bined total over one million people. new government wasformed without incident, Nevertheless, the success of the pacification marking the start of a representativeform of program is still uncertain, asEnglish-speaking government which replaced a successionof dic- U. S. teams, charged with determiningthe internal tatorial and autocratic rulers. security of the villages, are unable todo so ac- The second presidential election sincethe for- curately. mation of the constitution, in the fall of 1971, was But, as South Vietnam struggles to solveits in- regarded as a test of the progress ofdemocracy in ternal problems, the war continues and more South Vietnam. nations increasingly become involved. By requiring that all presidentialcandidates file petitions signed by a large numberof members of Laotian Campaign the Congress, Thieu greatlylimited his number of Following a steady increase of North Vietnamese opponents. Retired Gen. DuongVan Minh, a peace troops in the Laotian panhandle, theSouth Viet- candidate who led the 1963 coup,attracted Buddhist namese army (ARVN) invadedLaos in March, support in the three-way racewith Ky. 1971. U. S. planes stepped up thebombing of Ho Chi The election of a trulyrepresentative govern- Minh trails and other Communistsupply routes ment in South Vietnam remains achallenge. The there and provided air support for theground nation has no tradition of freeelections and the vast troops. Despite heavy losses, officials termedthe majority of the people is rural.Many are illiterate campaign successful, claiming the movehad and do not comprehend therole of a national delayed another Hanoi offensive for at leastsix government which they believedoesn't affect months. them. The United States gives Laos $250million a year It is difficult to determine whatpercentage of the in military aid, and supports5,000 Thai mer- people really live within thegovernment sphere. cenaries there as well. In June 1971 the United Estimations of the extent ofSaigon's authority States reiterated a previous pledge toprotect Laos vary from control over 65 percent of the people to against takeover by the NorthVietnamese. 94 per cent. In June 1971 it wasestimated that the U. S. troops in Thailand, which oncenumbered Viet Cong still had at least 200,000military and non- more than 5,000, are being cutback as some of the military personnel in the south. U. S. air bases there are closeddown. American warplanes continue to fly from Thai fields tobomb Pacification Program Continues the Laos corridor, which housesthe Ho Chi Minh One of Thieu's major efforts was a"pacification Trails, and run rescue operations fordowned U. S. program" designed to unify the countryunder pilots. Saigon control by suppressing the VietCong and American counter-insurgency expertscontinue promoting unity and development in the coun- to advise Thai officials asCommunist activity tryside. Directed by the Civil Operations and Rural within Thai borders increases. Development Support (CORDS), the program Following the March 1970 overthrowof left- includes special teams of South Viehaamese and leaning Prince Norodom Sihanouk inCambodia, U. S. personnel who are sent into areaspreviously U. S. troops were sent in todestroy Communist cleared of Viet Cong. base camps and sanctuaries and todisrupt the First the teams try to provide 2,iefense for the enemy's supply system. hamlets so the peasants no longei . :errorized by The more than 20,000 U. S. troops werejoined by what the7 twice that number of South Vietnamese.Coupled the Viet Cong. Then they try to find out 9 with the Cambodian drive, U. S.planes staged Anti-war sentiment in theUnited States un- retaliation doubtedly has helped speed troopwithdrawals. massive raids against North Vietnam in Anti-war protests, which once werelimited to for antiaircraft attacks on unarmedU. S. recon- taken up by naissance planes. university campuses, now have been When the U. S. troops pulled out by thepromised other groups, including the U. S.Congress. Several July 1 date, more than 11,000 of the enemy were attempts have been made to legislateacts which had been would force President Nixon to set adeadline for dead, and more than 22,000 weapons U. S. troop withdrawal fromVietnam. seized. About 39,000 SouthVietnamese troops raised remained in Cambodia Another controversy over the war was Although many disputed the successof the when a few major U. S. newspapersobtained and pronounced it a printed portions of top secret "PentagonPapers" Cambodian mission, U. S. officials which concern U. S. involvement in the warduring victory. The net effect of the move isconsidered to administrations. The be a buying of time while theCommunists rebuild the Kennedy and Johnson their capabilities, during which thepacification papers revealed secret U.S. operations in North VietnamandLaosasearlyas1961 and program will be pressedand the "Vietnamization" acknowledged U. S. encouragement of the 1963 process can gain speed. coup in South Vietnam. Vietnamization is the process in which the U. S. July 15, 1971, combat role in Vietnam is beingtransferred to the In a major national address on regular armed President Nixon paved the way for speculation on 1.1 million men in South Vietnam's the increasing possibilities of peacein Vietnam by forces. U. S. military advisors aretraining South En-lai in Vietnamese ground forces in logisticsand support announcing he would visit Premier Chou mind of making Peking before mid-1972. activities with the eventual goal in The peace talks between theUnited States and the South Vietnamese militarilyselfsufficient. Paris in 1968, have The training of the South Vietnameseair force is North Vietnam, which began in based on the assumption that the warwill wind been extremely unsuccessful. down. U. S. military advisors, whiletrying to turn The Communists have demandedfrom the outset the air force into one of thelargest in the world, that the United States and itsallies withdraw their also are sharply limiting itstactical and strategic forces from South Vietnamunconditionally, and cap abilities. that the United States disposeof the elected legal Because Vietnamization of thehelicopter corps government in South Vietnamand installa and the air force is running farbehind that of the coalition government in its place. naval and ground forces, allied troopsstill are very A major proposal byPresident Nixonin dependent on U. S. air support.However, the November 1970 which called forthe mutual with- Vietnamese navy is expected to beself-sufficient drawal of all foreign troops was flatlyrejected. In by mid-1972. turn, the United States found someaspects of a July The success of the Vietnamization processhas 1971 proposal by Hanoi "clearlyunacceptable." In yet to be determined. It isgenerally believed that that proposal Hanoi offeredfor the first time to although South Vietnameseground troops release U. S. prisoners-of-warin phases as allied sustained heavy losses during theirrecent drive troops are withdrawn. into Laos, they also demonstrated arelatively high The United States repeatedits unwillingness to ground combat ability. dispose of the legal governmentand replace it with a coalition governmentand refused to completely U. S. Troop Withdrawals withdraw until Saigon has areasonable chance of government As the United States abandons amajor ground defending itself. However, the Saigon combat role, 14,500 troops are beingwithdrawn later offered a plan for acease-fire and elections 184,000 U. S. leading to reunification of the two zones,which monthly from Vietnam. Many of the may provide a basisfor constructive negotiations. troops expected to be left in Vietnamby December United States of the 1971 are airmen. Plans call for onlyresidual U. S. The estimated cost to the combat forces and military advisors toremain in Indochina war in 1971 alone is $15.8billion. About Vietnam by the end of 1972. 54,000 men have died in the warsince 1954.
80 Western Europe
headquarters. They are actively negotiating to America's heritage stems largely from Western of Europe. rejoin the vital telecommunications system culture. NATO. The two areas sharea common Although the United States has borne most of Democratic institutions have developedalong member similar lines. NATO's costs in men and money, other The common threat of communism serves asa nations are complaining about the expense. allies into a Behind such actions is the increasingfeeling of further tie, bringing the free world Europeans that Russia's internaldifficulties and military alliance the North Atlantic Treaty unlikely, and Organization (NATO). the feud with Red China make war in April that decreased military tensions wouldimprove Original members of the treaty, signed trade relations with the East EuropeanRed bloc. 1949, were the United States,Britain, Canada, West France, Belgium,the Netherlands, Denmark, De Gaulle had also stirred up problems in Portugal, Italy, Iceland, Luxemburg andNorway. Europe's trade structure the highly successful became European Economic Community(EEC), or Greece, Turkey and West Germany Common Market. membersPurely later.defensive in nature, NATO was Consisting of France, West Germany, Italy,the Russia which Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg,the established to counter the threat of a Common Market is an economic union inwhich after World War II had seizednearly 400,000 square the miles of territory containing 90million people and tariffs are reduced or eliminated among Europe. This member nations, who establish commontariffs on which seemed bent on taking over outside goods. threat was sharply pointed up byRussia's blockade increased of Berlin in 1948-49, shocking theWestern nations Trade among the member nations has to rebuild their 256 per cent in the past 10 years, amuch faster into the realization that they had growth rate than the 87 per cent expansionin total military forces, largely demobilized afterthe war, world trade in the same period.The Common to counter Soviet strength. Market's industrial production is up 70 percent from 1958, twice the United Kingdom'sgrowth and Provide for Defense only slightly less than the U. S.increase. U. S. obiectives in joining in thealliance were to The present French president,Georges Pom- provide for the collective defenseof the war- pidou, may help ease one issueaffecting the EEC's devastated European nations, whilebuilding up potential Britain's long struggle for entry into their economic and political structures. the bloc, a move consistently blockedby De Gaulle. These objectives were achieved. Politically stable, Western Europe standsfirmly England's Prospects Bright on its own feet. Therehave been no further Com- munist territorial gains in the NATO area,and In June 1971, Britain and the sixCommon Market in effect nations came to terms on Britain's admission tothe pooling of the members' military strength EEC. Although Prime Minister EdwardHeath has moved the U. S. defense frontierto the Iron Cur- experienced some difficulty selling the ideato the tain. The alliance also enabledWest Germany to the expected grow in cooperationwith itsex-enemies and British public and Parliament, became parliamentary approval in October wouldmake provided a shield behind which Europe Britain an official EEC member on Jan. 1, 1973. more prosperous than ever. The EEC-British agreement alsocleared the way In 1966, national differencesdrastically for negotiations with Norway, Denmarkand threatened NATO's continued existence as anef- Ireland, contingent upon Britain's finaldecesion. fective military and political forcewhen former The remaining major issues in Britain's10-year French President Charles deGaulle pulled France bid for membership were resolved whenthe out of NATO and decided tobuild an independent included nuclear striking force. negotiators put together a package that Lines of communication andsupply were revised and NATO headquarters wasmoved from France to Belgium. In February 1971,three months after !Vamp/2m the death of De Gaulle, theFrench were back on 8 1 ") speaking terms with NATO,including its military DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 consumer credit,raised sales and income taxes concessions to Britain's tradewith New Zealand, and instituted slashes ingovernment spending. the amount of Britain'sfirst codtributions to the After six years of politicaland economic dif- joint Common Market budgetand help for British ficulty, the Labor governmentof Harold Wilson coastal fishermen and hillfarmers. was voted out in upsetJune 1970 elections. Heath, No one would doubtthat Eurom art's Common the new Conservative primeminister, is taking a Agriculture Policy (CAP) isin disarray. It is the different tack in solving Britishproblems. most divisive issue amongthe six nations and the He inherited an unstable economy,in which most complicated onein regard to admitting inflation was dammed up ratherthan corrected. Britain. Foreign debt, which theWilson administration The agriculture problemcenters on the fact that boasted it had cut, apparently wasjust delayed. the market sets prices atartificially high levels and and Heath is ex- surpluses of key com- Strikes plague the economy, , guarantees to buy up farm pected to enact anti-strikelegislation. In favor of modities. But, meanwhile, someof the food is the free enterprise, Heath is alsoexpected to cut taxes highest priced in the worldand it is food which is by incentives and reduce supply. to produce managerial no means in short each Eurom art country is government intervention inindustry. To support the prices, Heath also will allow Britishtroops to stay in the forced to pay a share of the CAPand it is the paying setting of price levels that Persian Gulf and Malaysiaif the governments of these prices and the the member there request it and willretain forces east of Suez, results in constant squabbles among both of which are changesfrom the Wilson policy. 'iations. Arms sales to South Africa areexpected to be Pompidou has stipulated thathe wants subsidies resumed and sanctions againstminority white-run to French farmers to becontinued, a major source Rhodesia, which declared itsindependence in 1969, of concern to membership foesin Britain, Europe's biggest food importer. will slowly lessen. So, British entry brings upboth problems and Racial, Religious Problems opportunities but the problems aresolvable and the opportunity to use British entryto sort out and Racial troubles also haveincreased. Non-whites eliminate defects in theCommon Market are numbered in the hundreds 15 yearsago, but now overwhelmingly in the interest ofEurope. number 2 per cent of theUnited Kingdom's 56 million population. Another internal problem isfighting between the Other European Trade Group Protestants and Catholics inNorthern Ireland, Despite past EEC rebuffs,Britain is lined in a and in which people vital trade group to some ofits neighbors on the which occurs sporadically continent by the European FreeTrade Association have been killed. counties which chose to (EFTA), formed in 1959 byBritain, Denmark, The issue is six Irish Austria and Por- remain under British controlafter World War I. Of Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the 1% million population,two-thirds are Protes- tugal. Finland became anassociate member in tant. The Irish Catholics wantcivil rights and wish 1961.Essentially, the EFTA was set up as acoun- to join the Irish republic tothe south. of, the Common In France, De Gaulle hadled his nation into a terweight to, and possible partner number of diplomatic and economicbyways in his Market. France with a major The technical difference betweenthe two is that insistence on an independent members have the same role in world affairs. the EEC requires that all De Gaulle resigned in 1969when his popularity tariffs against the goods of non-members,while the began falling after the countryfaced a series of EFTA allows members to fixtheir own tariffs uprisings. However, his against non-members. Also,the EFTA involves work strikes and student France the avoidingmany arrogant, autocratic leadership gave onlyindustrialgoods,thus stability and political influenceit had not known for problems the CommonMarket had over years. He increasedpolitical ties with Russia and agricultural policies. Eastern Europe, recognizedRed China and, by Commerce among the 100 millionpeople of its smoothed over the bitter, members has more thandoubled since the in- means of economic aid, totally tariff-free stormy relations with formercolony Algeria. ception of EFTA, and it became Now, under Pompidou, foreignpolicy has been Jan. 1, 1967, some 18 monthsahead of the program downgraded in Frenchpriorities.Pursuitof of the EEC. place to pressing However, the EFTA's largestnation, Britain, "greatness abroad" takes second organization, and social and economic problemsat home. gets the least benefit from the One dramatic shift wasPompidou's decision to still looks to EEC membership asit flounders in the devalue the franc 12.5 per cent.The devaluation, grip of economic woes. consistently opposed by DeGaulle, was followed by The basic problem is thatexports long have check the outflow of lagged behind imports, creatinghuge deficits in other actions in an effort to This, in turn, cut French gold and currency reservesand to curb Britain's balance of payments. inflation. deeply into reserves of goldand currency. A strict austerity program wasadopted, in- To combat this, thegovernment devalued the freeze on prices, promise ofsharp pound in 1967, and ordered awage-price freeze, cut 82cluding a private economic cuts,restrictionsoncreditfor social welfare while encouraging government subsidies to growth. Government costs(and taxes)have businessmen and consumers, cutting of of tax continued to mount, though, andSocialist govern- nationalized industries and establishment ments have experiencedseveral setbacks. incentives to encourage privateworked industry. well with Sweden, with one of the highestliving standards The economic measures in the world outside NorthAmerica, is a full- economic and political confidencein the Pompidou complete system of government restored. fledged welfare state, with a French-U. S. relations social security which providesfor material welfare In international affairs, the Pompidou from cradle to grave. have generally improved under Yet the country currentlyhas problems stem- regime. France clings to DeGaulle's Mideast from its prosperity, strategy, maintaining anembargo on jets ordered ming from this system and and taxes and paid for by Israel. including a labor shortage, high wages Berlin Mayor Willy and soaring inflation. In West Germany, former A new leader was named inSweden in October Brandt was chosen chancellorsucceeding Kurt took over as Social Georg Kiesinger. The electionof Brandt, a Social 1969, when Olof Palme, 42, by the Christian Democrat Party head and premierto succeed Tage Democrat, ended 20 years of rule 68,whoretired.Palme, formerly Democratic Union and was achievedby a coalition Erlander, intelligent, forceful with the small Free DemocraticParty headed by education minister, is highly foreign minister. and articulate and is immenselypopular with his Walter Scheel, who was named countrymen. He also is one ofSweden's severest On the domestic front, the newregime revalued of the U. S. policy in the mark, increasing its valuefrom 25 U. S. cents to and most outspoken critics a little more than 27, araise of about 9 per cent. In Vietnam. from its official rate In Norway, the coalition governmentcollapsed in May 1971, the mark was freed March 1971 when confidentialinformation con- of 3.66 to find its own parityagainst the dollar. the European Though the German economy stillis booming, the cerning the country's bid to enter will cost more to Common Market was disclosed. Anensuing dispute action means that German goods forced Prime Minister Per Borten'sresignation foreign buyers and may have theeffect of slowing and the formation of a newcabinet by Trygve the economy somewhat. Bratteli, head of the Labor Party. Norway's economy has boomedsince the in- Unification Troubles ception of the EFTA, but also is in aslight inflation The most haunting problem in WestGermany is pinch. Social welfare costs arehigh and the reunification with its Eastern Zone,which is under government has initiated atax-supported social tight Russian control and containsthe vital city of security pension program. Unemploymentis low Berlin. The Berlin Wall, erectedby the Com- and the economy is healthy. munists between the Soviet andWestern sectors, is Denmark, with its tradifionaldependence on kept under heavy guard. agricultural and livestock industries,is more at- Brandt is extremely interested inunification and tracted to the rest of Europethan are the other has made overtures to theEast Europe Com- Scandinavian nations and wouldgain the most munists. The USSR is also wooingWest Germany, from membership in the CommonMarket, with its which has passed all competitors tobecome the high farm supports and crop exportsubsidies. The leading trading partner of the SovietUnion in the country is prosperous, however,though inflation is West. a problem. His friendship with East Europeapparently is not favored by his countrymen,because his party Finland Linked to Reds got little support in electionsin three German Soviet bloc, which states in June 1970. Finland is closely linked to the now accounts for 25 per cent of its trade. Under Brandt, the West Germans are In March 1971, there was acabinet crisis due to a dominating the Common Market. Theeffect of the policies with the French and German power changes seemsto be dispute over wage and price is charting the powerful Communist People'sDemocratic Union that now the German chancellor which demanded a price freeze.Later, the Com- course for Europe's future. broadly based Though firmly aligned with theWest, the munist Party withdrew from the of par- Scandinavian countries are notinterestedin coalition government after five years nor even in Nordic ticipation. European political unity The government has beenhinting at general integration. Instead, they guardtheir national political base and to sovereignties jealously from each other, aswell as elections to provide a new the south. bring the Communist partyback into Finnish from the non-Nordic nations to politics. Scandinavia also bears a reputation as ahighly Politically, the country must walk athin line Socialist area, with social welfare programswhich between the Western bloc andRussia, which cushion citizens'basicdifficulties like unem- directly influences its government. , ployment, disability, medical costs andpoverty in The Netherlands, with a thriving economyand old age. rising living standards, also isplagued by the In recent years, however, thegovernments have Europe. For been content just to maintain the basicstructure of .8 groblems common to so much of West one, the rapidly expandingpopulation faces an hasbeendominatedforthreedecades by acute housing shortage. Also, the economyhas Generalissimo Francisco Franco. shown an increasingly inflationary trend, andthe A sweeping reshuffle of cabinet andsubcabinet government instituted a planned incomepolicy, posts in late 1969 resulted in a reform government imposing controls on wages and prices,restraining dominated by youth, mostly moderate and leaning toward the West. bank credits and rising interest rates. Many of the replacements are members or Little Belgium, long the stronghold ofEuropean sympathizers of Opus Dei, an international lay unity programs, is having national unityproblems Roman Catholic group which had bickered for as friction between Flemishand Walloon (French- years with the fascist-styleFalange group. speaking)Belgians hasprovokedanactive In addition, Franco has officially named Prince secession campaign. Juan Carlos, the grandson of Spain's last king and Economically, the seizure of Belgian-controlled prince of Spain, his legal successor and heir to the mining property in the Congo dealt aheavy blow to vacant throne of Spain, though not the actualchief steel and mining interests, though somecompanies of state. have formed agreements with Congointerests. Neighboring Portugal, already closely linked to Failure to modernize traditional industries also has the West by NATO and EFTA,shows some hurt the economy, although the most urgentneed is economic gains and industrial progress, but lags to reform the public-finance system,where free behind many of the other European nations. spending has created a growing deficit. However, inflation is no problem, and thelow Even in stable Switzerland, inflation iscausing prices have brought a surge in tourism. worry, and bankers have cut back on easycredit. Despite political upheavals, Greece, the only non- A nation where women still are denied the vote on Communist nation in Eastern Europe is another national matters, Switzerland has aconstitutional staunch NATO ally. provision for neutrality, though it is anactive It currently is controlled by the military,which supporter of Western democratic ideals. Com- In the little Alpine republic of Austria, businessis arrested large numbers of Communists, booming. Though the country wants to switch from munist sympathizers and political leaders and the EFTA to the EEC, the economy has had a imposed sharp restrictions on the people. steady yearly growth rate and there isnearly full Meanwhile, the military-backed government has employment. Public investments in power, road reached the threshold of respectability, with an for the economic revival, increased American investment, and school projects are an urgent need and a growing tourist trade. nation of over seven million. One long-standing problem the dispute with Neutrality was imposed on Austria by the peace Turkey over Cyprus remains a thorn in the side treaty under which Russia withdrew its occupation of Greece. forces after World War II, but the country has Fighting broke out between the Greek and remained largely Western in outlook. Turkish communities on the independently Italy is a NATO ally, but probably has been least governed Mediterranean island in 1964. affected by its difficulties, having always looked The minority Turkish Cypriots claimed that upon the pact as sort of anItalian-American rights guaranteed them under a binational con- arrangement, with the chief protection coming stitution were being eroded. The GreekCypriots, from the NATO naval force in the Mediterranean. led by the island's president, ArchbishopMakarios, With the largest Communist Party in Western charged that the Turks used their constitutional Europe (1.6 million), the Italian political situation safeguards to block needed legislation. is in constant turmoil, under the guidance of a left- With the issue threatening to expand into a war center coalition. between key NATO members Greece and Turkey, a In its most recent crises, Premier Mariano United Nations peace force was establishedand Rumor resigned temporarily in February 1970, so has maintained an uneasy truce. he could form a new coalition government from the four divergent leading parties. This coalition fell Turkey Is Vital NATO Link apart in July. A month later, former Treasury Minister Emilio Although situated in the Middle East, Turkey's Colombo was sworn in as premier. The only readily geographic position makes it a vital link inthe apparent change in the 32nd post-Fascist govern- NATO defense line. ment is a new premier. The pro-West government of PremierSuleyman In addition, elections were held in which Com- Demirel resigned in March 1971 under pressure munists won control of three of the country's 15 from the military. The new premier,Nihat Erim, regional governments. The country is plagued with has been given 12 months to forge aworkable an inflated economy, frequent strikes andlow coalition from often feuding political factionswhile morale. satisfying demands by the generals for prompt Ostracized by most of the Western world since action in a program of social, economicand the bloody civil war of 1936-39 and the subsequent political reforms. regime's links to the Axis nations of World War II, The new government plans to continue Turkey's Spain is making increasing efforts to return to the close friendship with the United States aswell as free world community of nations. The government 8ig.proving its relationship with the Soviet Union. Eastern Europe
Behind the Iron Curtain which separates them weakness. Also, the new feelings of political and from the rest of the continent, 104 million people economic independencecreatean increasing live as virtual prisoners in the Russian Communist resentment of Soviet military dominance. satellites of Eastern Europe. The basic function of the organization originally Similar conditions prevail in Albania, whose Red was to regularize military relations amongthe regime has rejected Soviet leadership in favor of satellites, create an overseeing military authority the revolutionary Communist doctrine of the Red which would be unaffected by the national borders Chinese. and gain financial support for the expense of East Europe's other Communist-runnation, maintaining Soviet forces in Eastern Europe. Yugoslavia, follows an independent path, one Today the satellites are very different as they which is much more liberal and more closelylinked pursue more nationalistic coursesof action, and Russia's hold on them is weakening. to the Western world. Increasingly they are demanding more control In the Soviet block, persons trying to escapeto over their national affairs. Despiterestrictions, the West risk death or reprisals againsttheir contacts with the West are increasing. Trade families. People's revolts in Poland, East Ger- relations have been established with the West, and many,Hungary, and, more recently, even Western music, art andfashion once Czechoslovakia have been suppressed by brute frowned on as too frivolous for the Communist Russian force. states are gaining popularity. Threat of this force is evidenced by the presence in the East European satellites of about 30Russian Economic Revolutior a divisions under conditions of the Warsaw Pact One of the keys to the upsurge of nationalismis warning that Soviet control can be invokedif the the economic revolution which is takingplace bloc nations become too restive. throughout the Communist bloc, including Russia. This military affiance was triggeredby West Centralized planning and management are min- Germany's entry into the North AtlanticTreaty imized, and decisions are being made more Organization in 1955, and was intended as the frequently at the local level. Communist nations' counterpart to NATO.Original The element of competition is coming intoplay, members were Russia, Albania,Bulgaria, and the law of supply and demand,with an em- Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary,Poland phasis on profits rather thanproduction,is and Romania. Albania, however, wasexcluded in becoming more accepted. Wages are rising, and 1961 after its split with Russia in theSino-Soviet new emphasis on the cost-price ratiocould mean a dispute. break for consumers. At the heart of the Communist bloceconomic sys- tem is the Council for Mutual EconomicAssistance Satellites' Reliance Questionable (Comecon). The Reds' counterpart to the European Unlike NATO, which isjointly directed by Common Market, Comecon was designed toin- member nations, the Warsaw Pact isunder ab- tegrate the Eastern European economy under solute Soviet military control, with Russianofficers Russian control, but it never has achieved its in key positions in all the top echelons_ purpose. In terms of manpower, the WarsawPact over- Members of Comecon include the Soviet Union, shadows NATO, with the 30 Russian and approxi- Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rom ania, Bulgaria, E ast mately 70 satellite divisions in EasternEurope. Germany, Hungary and Mongolia. Albania, though Total armed forces of the six satellitenations are a member, does not participatein council ac- estimated at more than a million, mostlyground tivities, and Yugoslavia has observer status, but troops. Weapons are standardizedto conform to takes an active part in the organization. Soviet models, but Russia keepscontrol of all nuclear warheads for rockets. Despite unquestioned general fear of a strong West Germany, Russia cannot put fullreliance in the satellites' cooperation. Politicaldisunity 8 5 SD CON kigidgr among the various national armiesis a major DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 Never veryeffective,mounting complaints Moscow when he rejected then-Soviet Premier against Russian control and exploitation and in- Joseph Stalin's brand of communism in 1948. creasing rel-lization of the inadequacy of the old In return, Yugoslavia lost Soviet aid and had to Marxist economictheories now havepulled look to the West for financial support. This Western Comecon apart. Instead of supranational planning, influence hastened the development of economic Moscow has had to institute a series of bilateral liberalism, with decentralization of state control agreements with the satellite nations, as economic and encouragement of private enterprise. reforms have made these countries even more An international investment company which will conscious of their national identities. make loans to Yugoslav enterprises for the purpose Two of the big issues creating the dissension in of developing export-oriented manufacturing Comecon have been over the division of labor facilities has been set up. Members represent among countries and the struggle andconfusion American, West European, Japanese and Yugoslav over prices at which goods and services are ex- banks. changed. This marks the first institutionalized joint ven- The division of labor meant that member ture between capitalist and Socialist financial countries would specializeinthe goods and enterprises, and as such is considered a major step materials they were best fitted to produce. Under forward in East-West business cooperation. this plan, Czechoslovakia, East Germany and Yugoslavia also signed a three-year trade agree- Poland were to keep their economies geared ment with the European Common Market thus primarily to industrial production, while Hungary, opening their domestic market to foreign competi- Bulgaria and Romania were to continue primarily tion. as agricultural nations. Price controls are being progressively removed, However, this worked to the benefit of neither and a new network of "business banks" has been group. set up to augment the government banks, finance The agricultural countries felt they were being new enterprises and make a profit. denied the opportunity to achieve industrial self- sufficiency and were being forced to take inferior Private Industries and Farming (and often more costly) machinery from their Private industries can be set up, and farming is industrial partners than they could have obtained almost entirely in private hands. Farmers buy from the West if they had been permitted to Western machinery, and the standard of living is produce goods to offer in return. rising. Travel within and outside the country is per- Industrial Nations Also Dissatisfied mitted, and 10 per cent of Yugoslav workers have The industrial nations felt their products were jobs in Western Europe, sending and bringing back being greatly undervalued, and also looked for hardcurrencyintothecountry'seconomy. Western trade outlets. However, Belgrade, the capital city, has become Romania cut loose first, in 1963, when it rejected "closed" to workers with littleeducation,to the idea of being a breadbasket for the satellite bloc prevent disastrous overcrowding and unem- and decided to develop its economy along more in- ployment trends. dustrial lines, stepping up its business with the Tourists get a warm greeting no visa is West. Other bloc nations have followed, seeking to required for Westerners and every luxury hotel expand their capital resources where they think has a gambling casino to bring hard foreign they can be of most benefit. currency into the country. On the issue of prices, set in Moscow, the Soviet Remaining a dedicated Communist and dictator, Union has plundered the satellites, charging them Tito has improved relations with the Soviet bloc well over world price for raw materials and paying while putting an end to a 12-year quarrel with less for finished products than could be obtained on Communist China. Yugoslavia has sent an am- the free market. bassador there and made trading agreements with Also, differing factors in fixing prices in each the Red giant. country caused wide discrepancies under an ar- Tito still follows his own brand of communism, bitrary price-fixing system. The setup also failed to charting a path With the neutralist bloc of nations in reflect exchange rates between individual which he has become a leader and setting an currencies, and a country could find itself buying example which may prove to be the wave of the the same product from one member at one price future in Communist-dominated East Europe if and from another member at another. not Russia itself. So the Soviet Union has had to allow the local He set up a 15-man "executive bureau" to serve Comm unistregimesc on side r a blelatitudein as a collective leadership for Yugoslavia.Tito charting their own economic courses, in the hope of expects this bureau to succeed him when he yields preventing a wholesale breakaway. Subsequent power, and has made it clear that he expects each economic practices, which emphasize individual of the 15 to defend the ruggedly individualistic role(Th initiative and require some public support, are that he has created for Yugoslavia, even if it means stirring ideas of political reform. continuing friction with the USSR. Leading the way is Yugoslavia, whose President Little Albania, Communist China's lone Euro- Tito was the first Communist bloc leader to defyg6pean ally, is breaking out of its self-imposed isola- tion, and for the first time in years, is seeking Czechoslovakia to a joint foreign policy with the improved relations with its Balkan neighbors and Kremlin, and which promises military aid if the with Western countries. Soviet Union is attacked on any front. Having just established a diplomatic relations The Russians claim the1968takeover was at the with Belgium, Albania is expected to do the same request of "party and government leaders" to save tshortly with The Netherlands. Earlier, diplomatic communism in Czechoslovakia and preserve their ties were set up with Denmark and Switzerland. Easternblocdefense systemagainst"coun- Diplomatic feelers also have been aimed at other terrevolutionaries." Western countries. The invasion was condemned by Western The mountainous country of two million people is nations, by nonaligned nations, by Yugoslavia and the last outpost of pure Salinism on the European Romania and by powerful Communist parties in continent, and is the only European Communist France and Italy. The dispute was taken to the country to back Red China in its ideological battle United Nations. with Russia. Czechoslovaks continue to fight for their reform The nation is currently Europe's most backward movement, and antagonism toward the Russian economically, with a diminishing standard of liv- troops still occupying their country is high. ing, hunger and disease fueling a growing resent- ment against the harshness and poverty oflife. Hungary Shows Liberal Influences Tourists are seldom permitted in the country, In Hungary, where four divisions of Soviet troops and the border is tightly guarded to prevent the still remain as a result of the1956revolt, there are flight of refugees. The Soviet satellites, meanwhile, signs of growing liberal influences. remain a cluster of discordant nations. Widespread economic reform has been instituted Significant of the growing rebellion against the to head off internal trouble and to develop more old-line Communist rule was a shift of power in foreign trade. Wages have increased 20 per cent in Czechoslovakia in January,1968. three years. Antonin Novotny, a Moscow-picked Czech, was The basic aim is to get the economy moving ousted by liberal Communist leaders and replaced forward by persuading factories to produce what is with Alexander Dubcek, a Slovak Communist, as needed and what they can sell rather than have the first party secretary. The country is65per cent state decide such questions arbitrarily. Czech and 30 per cent Slovak, with Slovakia an Hungary grants many firms the right to engage autonomous region. directly in import and export trade. The regime Although Dubcek tried to hold the line for com- wants to allow the greatest possible freedom to munism and not anger the Russians, the new import badly needed machinery and manufac- regime relaxed press and radio censorship. A wave turing equipment. With a strong interest in foreign ofnationalismflourished,and Czechoslovaks trade, Hungary is trying to adjust domestic price began to talk of holding free elections. relations to those prevailing in the world markets, as Yugoslavia has done. Russian Forces Take Over Hungary has also introduced a graduated profit- The liberalizing trend incurred Russian anger sharing system, considered one of the most until,in August 1968, Soviettroops invaded significant of the Communist country's incentive Czechoslovakia and tookDubcek andother measures.Undertheprogram,profitsare reformist leaders in custody. distributedaccordingtocategories:top In massive government and party purges, vir- management, middle management and high-level tually every Dubcek-style liberal has now been professional and technical personnel and all other replaced. Many have defected and lost their workers and employes. Czechoslovak citizenship. Dubcek himself was first Previously the profits were distributed on a per excluded from the party's ruling committee, then capita basis with little or no difference between from the federal assembly, then, with other top individual shares. leaders, ousted from the Communist Party. Russian-groomed Gustav Husak took over and Rebellion Ending now clamps down on any measure suspectedof being reform politics, under the so-called Brezhnev Some freedom of speech and the press exists, and Doctrine by which the Russians reaffirmed their tourism is permitted to some extent because of the control over the satellite nations. advantages of Western currency. Visitors, The borders were closed to travel and numerous however, are carefully screened before being Czechoslovaks defected to the West. Censorship of allowed entry. Clothing is as plentiful as in the West the press was restored. Czechoslovak workers, and entertainment flourishes. asking "Why work for the Russians?", instituted a However, Cezchoslovak and Romanian behavior massive work slowdown. The economy is dragging. have caused the USSR to clamp down tightly on Many liberal market-oriented economic reforms, Hungarian foreign affairs. as well as trade with the West, havebeen stifled. After eight years, Romania's dramatic drive for Propaganda programs against the United States independence from Russian control is coming to an and other Western nations have been instituted, end. Reasons for Romania's rapprochement with and a treaty wassigned whichbinds871ussia are not certain. But many analysts say they include the failure of an attempt to build a Western- importation of badly needed machinery, mostly style economy, a realization that Romania needs oriented toward agriculture, for the realizationof Moscow and growing unrest at home. Bulgaria's industralization plans. Pricing still is Early in 1970, the Romanian economy was under central control, but price reforms arebeing groaning. President of Romania and Communist introduced. Party Leader Nicolae Ceausescu had accepted The trend toward liberalism actually startedin loans from the West in the belief that Westernaid Poland in 1956 with an uprising aimed at obtaining would modernize his economy quickly enough to economic changes. Russia, in the wake of its bloody enable him to produce world-class goods and pay suppression of the Hungarian revolt, permitted the off the loans. Poles to institute a more national role in their af- When the loans started to come due, Romanian fairs, including plans which tended toward local industry still lagged far behind the West and there autonomy and a market-based economy. However, was too little money to pay thebills. the economy is still bogged down with centralized Also, 1970 began with a major economic disaster planning and not enough local authority. when heavy floods damaged 2.1 million acres of Agricultural collectivism was abandoned, and farmland, leaving more than 250,000 persons about 85 per cent of the farms are privately run. homeless. It was the worst flood in the nation's Small workshops and retail shops are permitted. history. China sent $20 million in aid and America Closer cultural contacts are maintained with the sent $10 million. This helped, but the flood cost West. Romania more than $1 billion. There was only one country likely to send that amount and that country Party Conflict Slows Progress Russia only chipped in a token $100,000. The wave of criticism of Poland's creaking At the height of the flood, the Soviet Union at- bureaucracy and discredited economic system tempted to use the economic distress of its strongly continues to grow. This is the continuing aftermath independent-minded neighbor to force the leaders of the violence and strikes that forced a change in in Bucharest to retreat from their insistence on full the Communist leadership of the nation and a sovereignty and full independence. reversal of government food price increases early But at that point, the Romanians stoodfirm, this year. refusing even to join the new Investment Bank The 1970 strikes are over, but workers' meetings formed by Moscow anditsEast European in the factories throughout the country continue to satellites. echo complaints about pay, working conditions and Romania's slow slide back toward Communist living standards. cooperation is visible on nearly every front of life Apart from costly emergency measures, there. The nation has even begun cooperation again however, the new leadership of Communist party with the Warsaw Pact and has signed long-delayed Chief Edward Gierek is still searching for long- "friendship treaties" with other Communist range answers to the nation's dilemma: How to nations. reorganizethe management of thefaltering DuringRomania'sbidforeconomicin- economy without giving up the principle of cen- dependence, Russia had applied a mild economic tralized control. squeeze, but basically bided its time,believing Under the old regime of Communist Party boss events would bring the Romanians around. Wladyslaw Gomulka, about 30,000 Jews were Bulgaria also has had clashes between Com- forced to leave Poland, either through loss of job or munist conservatives (or hard-liners) and liberals, party position. However, the new regime is quietly and many Stalinists have been removed from passing the word in Jewish exile circles that Poland power. However, the party leaders still rulewith an would welcome the return of any of those who wish iron hand, and the country is the most closely in- to come back. tegrated of all the bloc nations with Russia, In East Germany, reforms leading toward more depending to a great extent on Russian trade and of a supply-and-demand economy with less control credit. from Communist Party officials have created a However, the need for change has been obvious to near-boom situation. The East German standard of most Bulgarians, and economic reform em- living is the highest of any Soviet satellite, and the phasizing individual initiative and profit-making country generally is considered to be ahead of the have been started. Soviet Union in industrial technology. Spectacular Results However, ever-present Soviet troops keep a close Results of this reform have been spectacular. watch on the country, and the economy is geared Once considered the most backward of the East almost completely to the Russian bloc although Europe Soviet bloc, Bulgaria has become the the retreat from old-style Communist economics pacesetter in the rapidly rising trade between the largely is cited as the reason for the advanced West Europe Common Market and the Red group. industrial development. This reflects the boom in Bulgarian exports of The long-time leadership of Communist Party meats, fruits, vegetables and other food products boss Walter Ulbricht ended in May 1971 when Erich expressed to principal West European markets in a Honecker took over as First Secretary. Another steady stream of heavy refrigerated trucks. Hard Stalinist-type ruler, he keeps East Germany under currency earnings have, in turn, been used for the Alice-state rule. USSR
Stretching across two continents from the North Religious practice is discouraged by the Com- Pacific to the Baltic Sea, the Union of Soviet munist Party, although religion, as well as the Socialist Republics (USSR) is the largest country spread of anti-religious propaganda, is permitted in the world in area, occupying one-sixth of the by the Soviet constitution. earth's surface. Free speech, once not tolerated, is making gains. Comprised of more than 8.5 million square miles Censorshipofincomingnews fromforeign of territory in the northern part of Asia and the publications and broadcasts has been relaxed eastern half of Europe, the USSR is almost 21/2 considerably. And except for the Communist times the size of the United States. Party, some public criticism of Soviet institutions Nearly 242 million people live in this vast land, and policies is permitted. making it the third most populous nation in the At the head of the monolithic political structure world, after Communist China and India. And more are Leonid I. Brezhnev, first secretaryof the than 170 separate ethnic groups are represented in Communist Party,and AlexeiKosygin,the premier. this populace. They took over after the surprise ouster in Oc- Federation of Republics tober 1964 of Nikita S. Khrushchev, who formerly The USSR is a federation made up of 15 union held both jobs and had been in power for more than republics, all governed from the Kremlin, ancient 10 years. citadel of the czars in the Russian capital of Often at odds with his colleagues, Khrushchev Moscow. was blamed for Soviet agriculturalfailures and From this traditional seat of authority, the accused of "hairbrained scheming" in his central leaders of the Communist Party exercise authority planning. over all facets of Soviet life. But many believe his public dispute with Red Through a huge bureaucracy they run the China contributed most to his downfall. What was government, control the Red Army, direct the an "ideologicalsplit" under the Khrushchev police,supervise education,industryand regime, however, has become full-fledged bitter agriculture and plan the production and regulate hostility and constitutes the Soviet government's the consumption of the nation. biggest worry. Originallyasmall,conspiratorial partyof workers and peasants, the Soviet Union's Com- Skirmishes Along Border munist Party membership has become a broad- Center of the dispute is Russia's more cautious based organization which includes all segments of approach of limited dealings with the West, while the population. China calls for militant world revolution. The In actual figures, the party's approximately 13.5 Chinese attacks have grown in tone and intensity to million members represent less than 6 per cent of the point where Russia now is regarded as an the population. However, membership in the Young enemy, a defector from the Communist cause Communist League numbers an additional 23 whose policies aid what the Chinese term the million. "imperialist" aims of the West. The party operates through a government setup The ancient rivalry over lands among the 4,500- similarintheorytothatoftheWestern mile Soviet-Chinese border, scene of many battles democracies, but with no checks and balances and in the past, has stirred new armed skirmishes, and with no independent authority. Party membership both nations now maintain constant military is the main avenue to positions of real authority in vigilance in the area. China's development of the Soviet system, and party members are ex- atomic weapons also has increased Russia's pected to carry out faithfully the policies set by the between the leaders. concern, not only of full-scale conflict Through this all-pervasive organization, strict two countries but that China might be tempted into control of the populace is maintained by a rigid set of laws. Political opposition is not permitted, and there are sharp restrictions on travel abroad. Pressand radio are state-controlled, and even entertainment k.t CON kleog9ai2m is under state supervision. 8 9 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 military action elsewhere which would bring on a Although nearly half the population works on global atomic war. farms, Russia cannot feed herself. Agricultural Russian policy toward other countries it borders methods are primitive, machinery inadequate, and is not as aggressive as its stand against the the centralized planning system cannot match Chinese. needs with capabilities. Big grain deals with the Six Iron Curtain countries operate under the United States, Canada, and other Western coun- Soviet thumb, and are kept aligned with Com- tries have had to augment meager crops. munist views. Efforts by these governments to Russia also faces other social ills, such as an liberalize themselves and loosen their economic increased crime rate, a soaring divorce rate and military ties to the Soviet Union are quashed by (partially due to more liberal laws), drunkeness the Russians; the takeover of Czechoslovakia in and alcoholism. An estimated one-sixth of all retail 1968 served as an example to other Iron Curtain spending goes for drink, and the government has countries and also allowed the Russians to fortify taken a strong stand against it. their westward-facing lines. Success in Education But while the Russians try to keep their restive One area in which the Soviet Union hasachieved satellites under control, they still are plagued by preeminent success is in education. internal problems, chief of which are those in- Universal compulsory education was introduced volving the economy. in 1930, and it is provided free, a system which has Consumer-oriented industry and agricultural reduced illiteracy from 75 per cent when the development have been sacrificed for emphasis on Bolsheviks took over in 1917 to about 1 per cent science,spacetechnologyandthemilitary today. The system itself, also, has shown great establishment. gains, particularly in science and engineering. Although itis the second largest industrial Although their curriculums mostly are mapped producer, with an annual output roughly equal to out for them, students recently have been given half that of the United States, the Soviet Union more freedom of choice in selection of their sub- ranks 25th in per capita gross national product. jects. And while many workers have enough money to However, Russia's continuing internal troubles buy consumer goods, such as automobiles and force it to modify its role in world affairs refrigerators, these goods are in short supply, The Soviet Union generally has maintained an costly and of poor quality. The workers save their anti-West "hard line" foreign policy. This includes money, with an estimated one-fifthof total ear- continued support of North Vietnam and of the nings sitting idle in savings accounts. NationalLiberationFront(VietCong),en- Black market items, sometimes many times the couragement of "national liberation movements" retail costs, sell readily because of their immediate and a rather narrow interpretation of peaceful availability. coexistence. Housing Is A Problem However, deep involvement is being cautiously Housing is in short supply, though the govern- avoided, though great quantities of supplies are ment has launched a massive building program. being supplied to Hanoi. Also, construction often is poor and buildings The investment in Cuba is being continued, but deterioraterapidly. Rent ischeap,but the there is mounting evidence that the Soviet leaders desperate shortage of living space makes for consider it an unprofitable endeavor, and ventures unhealthily crowded conditions for most city into Africa have accomplished little in relation to dwellers. their cost. Now, however, the people are becoming more In the Middle East, Russia has moved strongly restless and more aware of the outside world and into the picture, however, sending vast quantities the freedom it offers. They want more of the good of arms to some Arab leaders, along with sizable things of life more goods and better housing. numbers of military advisers. Great projects, like To meet these demands, the Soviet planners have the Aswan Dam in Egypt, also have been un- had to adopt a more consumer-oriented outlook. dertaken in an attempt to spread Soviet influence And here detailed central planning has proved to be over the strategic area. a dismal failure. The Soviet Mediterranean fleet grew to more The realization of the advantages of the forces of than 60 ships in 1969, and non-Communist countries supply and demand has been accompanied by an are keeping a wary eye on the possiblereopening of incentive system of bonuses and profit-sharing for the Suez Canal, with its tremendous military and managers and workers. Inaddition,detailed economic advantages for the Russians. centralcontrolsoverproductionhave been In spite of generally anti-West foreign policy and relaxed, with local plant managers assuming more competition in the space race, however, some responsibility. USSR relationships with the West have softened. Although these reforms have met stiff resistance Russia is opening its borders more and more to from many top officials, many observers feel they tourists, and Russian jetliners now carry visitors are the first steps toward a reversalof the detailed within its borders. centralized planning which marked the first 50 Cultural exchange programs and telegraph years of Russian Communism andthe beginning of ...communications also have been implemented with the country's development of a market economy.BUeountries outside the Communist bloc. Middle East
Ever since its biblical identification as thebirth- ment in 1917 promised the Jews ahomeland in place of man, the Middle East has played a vital Palestine, without disturbing the rights ofthe if often confusing role in world affairs. Arabs in the area. It is the bridge between the modern cultureof The Arabs, however, swore to protect the land. Europe (and the Western world) and the ancient No further official action was takenuntil 1947, traditions of the Far East. when the United Nations voted to partition theHoly Yet the Middle East, the cradle of Christianity, Land into an Arab and a Jewish state, making has developed a religion of its ownthe Moslem Jerusalem an international city. In 1948,the (Mohammedan) faith. Of all the world'sreligions, Republic of Israel officially came into being,with only Christianity has more adherents. the new state taking control of theNew City in And Israel, the national state of the Jewishreli- Jerusalem and Jordan holding the OldCity. biblical This sparked immediate military action bythe gion, is located in this area. The Hebrews of Arabs, who were decisively defeated by Israel. fame once dominated the entire Mideast. However, the Arabs instituted a policy ofboycott and blockade against Israel, closed theSuez Canal Much of World's Oil to its ships and engaged in intermittentborder Much of the land is desert. But beneath the sands raids,terrorismandsabotage.Egyptalso lies much of the world's supply of oil, all-important blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, cutting off accessto to the modern technology. Israel's key southern port at Elath. The area isstrategically vital to the West because a foothold there would give the Com- Arabs Routed Again munists command over the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, the Suez Canal and much of the Mediterranean In 1956, Israel again routed the Arabs,backed Sea. It also would imperil oil supplies to the West. thistime by Britain and Francefollowing Two main forces are at work in this ever-shifting nationalization of the Suez Canal by United Arab and turbulent area. Republic President Gamal Abdel Nasser. AU.N. Foremost is the clash between the Arabs and the peace-keeping force ww- then set up alongthe Jewish state of Israel. The other is the conflict be- Israel-Egypt border. tween modern Arab socialism and the feudal Conflict erupted again in 1967 after mounting war traditions of the ancient kingdoms. preparations, a demand by Nasser for withdrawal But the 25 Arab countries not only have a wide of U.N. forces and his resumption of theblockade spectrum of governments. The 115 million people of the Gulf of Aqaba, cutting off 90 percent of speak five different dialects of Arabic and observe Israel's oil supplies and other vital shipping. half a dozen religions, although most are Moslem. Fighting broke out June 5, when Israellaunched They are united in one common feeling hatred full-scale air and ground attacks againstEgypt, for the Jews. Syria and Jordan, where forces fromIraq also The Arabs deny the legal existence of Israel, were involved. In six days,the Arabs had been saying it is their territory, and have sworn to drive routed, their air forces destroyed on theground, the Jews out. their tanks destroyed or captured, andtheir armies And three times in 25 years massive warfare has ripped to shreds. The Jews had taken controlof broken out over the issue. Egypt's Sinai Desert and seized theEgyptian-run Gaza Strip. Jerusalem and Bethlehem were in Israeli hands, Rise of Zionism along with the rest of Jordan's territory west ofthe Hostilities in the Mideast are as old as the history Jordan River, and Syria had lost a strategicstrip of of mankind. But the modern phase dates from the territory adjoining the northern end ofIsrael and rise of the Zionist movement for a Jewish homeland running between the Lebanon and Jordanborders. in Palestine. The movement's historical base was The United States formulated a peace plan which ancient Jewish occupation for centuries of the area, including the former capital, Jerusalem,with its holy places sacred to Christian, Jew and Moslem. Started at the end of the 19th Century, theZionist drive brought waves of Jewishimmigrants. The 91 .kt CoPlaf klewgPatmg Balfour Declaration adopted by the British govern- DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 accept Israel's The new nation would have acombined area of would require Egypt and Jordan to about two million square miles, giving theSoviet sovereignty and Israel to withdraw fromterritories expanded it has occupied since the 1967 war. Union, already entrenched in Egypt, an An agreement among Israel, Jordanand Egypt, sphere of influence in the Mideast thatwould in- buildups, clude a source (Libya) of oil essential to muchof calling for an end to fighting and military European countries. began Aug. 7, 1970, while negotiatorsfrom the three the industry in key Western discuss last- On the one side of the dispute whichhas blocked countries met at the United Nations to Arab unityistheSocialist-inclinedbloc ing peace. This and subsequentefforts for real led by peace have failed,however, although the cease-fire primarily Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Algeria along the Suez Canal has continued. Sadat. reopening the Suez Canal, the Opposing these "revolutionary" movements are On one issue the traditional Arab regimes, mostlymonarchies, Egyptians insist on the right to put a militaryforce Jordan, z cross the canal; theIsraelis say absolutely not. chiefly represented by Saudi Arabia, Also, Israel won't agree to hand backall of the Morocco, Libya and Kuwait, andspearheaded by Sinai Desert and most of the otherconquered Arab Saudi Arabia's King Faisal. settle- A flashpoint in the strugglebetween the Arab lands; the Arabs won't agree to a general antagonists has been the southernfringe of the ment without those conditions. Arabian Peninsula, where the formerBritish pro- tectorateof Aden won its independenceand Refugee Problem Worsens became the People's Republic of SouthernYemen Israeli retention of the conquered areas(with in November 1967. their Arab populations), meanwhile, merelymakes Before departing, the British turned overcontrol more virulent the long-festeringissue of the Arab to the leftist Arab NationalistMovement, winner refugees (estimated at more than amillion) who over Arab rivals in fightingbefore independence. left Palestine before or after theJewish state was The new nation is friendly to Egypt andthe Soviet declared and whose militant leadership wasin- Union, which has supplied jets and pilots aswell as strumental in stirring up the conflict. helping develop Southern Yemen. TheBrilish fear The Palestinian refugees haveorganized several they will lose all use of theirformer military base groups of commandos who engagein guerrilla in Aden, the capital city. raids on Israel. Yemen and Southern Yemen both havecontinual The Lebanese government,to preserveits disputes with neighboring Saudi Arabia, andhave neutral stance, has taken militaryaction against indicated their governments will mergein the some of these guerrillas,despite i3itter objections future. by many Lebanese citizens who see theJewish na- Russia continues to supply arms to the Socialist- tion as a dangerous threat. leaning bloc, especially Egypt, and hasvirtually Syria, Iraq, Algeria, Libya, and Jordanalso ex- rebuilt the military strength lost in the 1967 war. pressed strong disapproval of theLebanese action Other contributions of food and industrialcredit and offered military aid to theguerrillas. are being made by theUSSR. In Jordan, King Hussein also has hadto contend Moscow is building the nearly completedAswan with irate Palestinian refugees inJordan who con- High Dam, designed to harness the NileRiver and stitute a virtual state within a state.His authority increase Egypt's productivity. The Sovietsalso also was challenged by hismilitant neighbors, have arranged a $150 million loan toSyria for Syria and Iraq, and in September, 1970,civil war construction of an irrigation and power dam onthe broke out in the country, taking 20,000lives. The Euphrates River. nine-day conflict failed to resolve anybasic prob- lems, however. Military Bases Sought In Egypt, meanwhile, the Arabworld was dealt a staggering blow by the death of PresidentGamal Russia's interest in the Middle East's greatoil- Sept. 28, producing areas has been obvious for years.For Abdel Nasser, who died of a heart attack example, Russia's Mediterranean fleethas more 1970. The Egyptian leader and elderstatesman of naval the Arab world had defied Arabextremists by than 60 vessels and is trying to establish a stating his willingness to end theArab-Israeli con- foothold in the Persian Gulf. Arab The Russians also want to establishair, naval flict. At the same time, he had tried to prevent and ordnance bases in key Arabcountries. from fighting Arab by attempting to mediate sev- be not eral disputes between rival rulers. Moscow's interests in the area seem to Anwar Sadat, vice president underNasser, merely political and strategic but alsoeconomic. pledged to continue Nasser's policies and was over- Russian control of Mideast oil-producing areas and vital communications, such asthe Suez Canal, whelmingly confirmed as president in ageneral Persian Gulf, for election. Bab el Mandeb Straits and the Following in Nasser's footsteps toward theuni- example, would help Russia's foreseenpetroleum fication of the Arab world, Sadat also announced shortage and halt Western Europe's supply. plans for a political merger of Egypt, Libyaand And from a geographical point ofview, the - Sudan. The heads of the three countries,which Persian Gulf is much closer to existingSoviet nations are refineries in the Caspian and Black Sea areas than later were joined by Syria, said their are Russia's Arctic-Siberianoil fields.If the "equipped to be the nucleus for the unity ofArab Gulf hope, action and future." 9 2Russians could gain a foothold in the Persian pipeline Tourism revenues also have been lost, ashave region, transportation costs by ship or been imported. would be much lower, and only minoradjustments the Sinai oil fields. Wheat long has facilities would be totheirexisting refining Country Deeply in Debt required. Israel, with a population of about threemillion, is Military expenditures,the emphasis onin- surrounded by Arab nations. And with nearlyhalf a dustrialization, and socialization of thefactories, million non-Jews within its borders, whose rateof banks, transport and trade already had putthe reproduction is much higher than that of theJews, country deeply in debt, while loandefaults had the country faces serious internaldifficulties. ruined Egypt's international credit.Meanwhile, The outside threat also is great; if Israelshould agriculture has been neglected, andlittle of the lose a subsequent war, the nation wouldnot survive small farm yield even finds it way intothe market. to fight another one. Nasser's dictatorial rule had recorded some With a military force only aboutone-fifth the size gains in education, public healthand home- of its neighbors, the Israelis still wereable to defeat building, but most of these advances havebenefited their foes because of a greatsuperiority in only the urban dwellers, and few peasantslive or equipment, organization and generalfighting work much differently than they didformerly. ability, with great stress onmobility. Also, the Jordan also lost its only significant sourceof in- nation stays on a constant alert,with a well- come in the Israeli conflict the money spent by trained, well-armed reserve in which young men tourists in the Holy Land. and women serve for two years with anadditional With no oil, few resources and a populatioi . one month of militarytraining yearly. swollen with Palestine refugees,Jordan's chief The 1967 war barely broke the economy'sstride, financial backing had been a small Britishsubsidy but the economy of Israel was not withouttroubles and U.S. military and economic aid. Thenation had before the fight. been considered firmly in the Western campand Immigration had slowed to a trickle, unem- allied with the traditional Arab regimesin the ployment was high, construction was at astandstill Mideast's factional dispute. and foreign trade and budgetdeficits were Although now also tied to the Egyptian-Soviet mounting. camp, both Jordan andLebanon have a more With the war, huge private loanspoured in from moderate view toward Israel. abroad and immense stores of warbooty (including half of Egypt's oil fields) were seized. Syria Not as Hard Hit and eco- Renewed immigration, full employment and nomic growth also have resulted fromthe war, but Syria took less of a beating than Egypt the country's hopes still have notbeen fulfilled. Jordan and managed to salvage muchof its Efforts are being made by the governmentof military material. But its Socialist economy was Premier Go lda Mier to curb the 12.5 percent feeble before the war, with 66 per cent of its budget growth rate to 7 to 8 per cent, to reduceinflation going te the Russian-equipped militaryforces, and and create a more stable economy. a continuing powerstruggle effectively snags most prospects for development. France, long a prime target of Arab nationalists, Syria sought to regain lost influence in theArab world by Run by the military after a series of coups, tightening an existing embargo on arms toIsrap' is the stronghold of the Baath(Renaissance) Party, warplanes to which advocates militant socialism, butwith home and agreeing to sell more than 100 theregimeforbids Libya. rule.Stronglyleft-wing, However, Israel remains confident ofcontinuing political opposition and holds the stateabove the U.S. logistical support despite a current gapin individual. Despite its close ties with Russia,Syria arms shipments. The lastF-4 Phantom fighter- directsitsattention entirely toward Mideast bomber of a 50-plane sale was deliveredby the U. S. problems. in June 1971, but an Israeli requestfor more Neighboring Iraq is also beset by coups and Phantoms and a $200,000 grant is stillunanswered. political turmoil, having had 14 governments since of discordant 1959. The Arab Mideast remains a welter The leftist Baathist party, in power since1968, is nations, a turbulent and contradictory area. closely aligned with the Soviet Union. In itsbrief Rule is mostly despotic, ranging from theold- Israeli style absolute monarchs to thelatter-day Socialist reign, scores of people accused of U.S. and leaders. Gleaming new buildingsrisebeside espionage have been executed. oil Another internal problem of the economically un- traditional mud hut homes of the peasants, as derdeveloped nation was a nine-year war with the revenues have put immensewealth into the hands with of some of the rulers, whose subjectslive mostly in Kurdish tribesmen, about 1.5 million people been their lot through their own language and culture. However, Iraqhas the abject poverty which has agreed to give the Kurds self-rule, and this move the centuries. duty Egypt, Jordan and Syria emergedfrom the 1967 could free 20,000 Iraqi troops for combat against Israel. war with their economiesin shambles. Lebanon, the financial and resort hub of the Egypt, already dependent onoutside aid to feed the the nation, closed theSuez Canal, their biggest Middle East, felt the postwar pinch severely as hurt Eg tourists stayed away and economic woesdisrupted revenue-producer, in a move which has democracy and Russia most. the financial centers. The country is a influence has relationships with Britain, which includedmilitary and has been pro-Western, but U.S. protection and conduct of foreign affairs. dwindled considerably as the Lebanesebuild up attempts Soviet ties along with other Arabnations. The shiekdoms are faced with possible war's outcome was by Saudi Arabia, Iran and Arab nationalists to step Less directly affected by the into the vacuum. Egypt's main Arab rival, SaudiArabia, which is south- just beginning to feel the winds ofchange and still Muscat and Oman, a larger state on the customs and west corner of the Arabian Peninsula,is another adheres mostly to its centuries-old country whose hope is in oil. Ruled by an autocratic traditions. Despite immense revenues as theworld's fifth sultan who has fought change, the country began largest oil producer, the largestpeninsula state is exporting oil recently. economically backward and progressesslowly. Muscat and Oman received British military aid Illiterate Bedouin herdsmen make upabout a third and may become a new target ofanti-Western of the population, and many otherSaudis live in action, compounding its problems of poverty, growingdates,grainand threats from Southern Yemen and a dispute with mud-brickhuts, Saudi Arabia. vegetables in the manner of theirforefathers. Two other large Mideast nations, Iran and Turkey, have been strong Western allies, but Oil Money Helping P eople recently have shown considerable interest inbetter However, Faisal increasingly isputting his oil relations with their giant Communist neighbor, money to use for the people.Hospitals, schools, Russia. Though Moslem, they are non-Arabnations housing projects and factories arebeginning to and stay generally removed from thepolitical make their appearance. turmoil in the area. With little of the police-state atmospherefound in Iran, once called Persia, is a kingdomof 28 some Arab countries, thereis not much unrest and million which exports oil and otherminerals. It Faisal governs benevolentlyasanabsolute looks south at the turbulent Arab world with ap- monarch. prehension, worried that some militantArabs may An $800 million integrated radarand air defense fill the vacuum created by Britishwithdrawal from has been installed by Britain to helpprotect Saudi the Persian Gulf and upset itsoil production Arabia. The system now includes 90planes in- programs. cluding 40 combat aircraft. Iran has taken advantage of theSuez Canal Perhaps the most fabulous country in theworld is closing by installing an automated oil storageand tiny Kuwait, nestled in a remote cornerof the transport system, making the use ofhuge super- Arabian Peninsula bordering on thePersian Gulf. tankers which travel around Africa morepractical Twenty years ago the little sheikdom was amud- than using the canal. walled village of some 100,000 impoverishedArabs. The Soviets have invested heavily in Iran,includ- Now, a modern metropolis risesabove the sands, ing expansion of the Russian-builtsteel mill at with tall office buildings, glittering neonsigns and Isfahan, the addition of a $160 million leadand zinc six-lane highways crisscrossing the city. plant, development of oil reservesand expansion of This is the result of the discovery of oil,of which a rail network. Kuwait is the world's seventh largestproducer. In 1967, Russia and Iran made a$100 billion mili- With a population of under onemillion, Kuwait's tary agreement, and Russia has played anincreas- per capita income of $3,490 isthe second largest in ingly large part in the developmentof Iranian the world. industry. Iran also has signed an agreementwith four ma- Free Medical Care jor international firms covering thefirst stage of Medical care and education are free, andboth one of the boldest nationalself-development pro- are lavishly provided.Telephone service also is grams undertaken by a countryits size. free, and water and electricity are sold atbargain The 30,000-square-mile development areabor- rates. No one pays taxes, and theparliamentary dering the Persian Gulf, the Strait ofHormuz and government either subsidizes or employsmost of the Gulf of Oman, will include electric powerin- Kuwait's citizens. stallations, a shipyard, heavy industry, waterde- Abu Dhabi, one of seven smallindependent salinization, agriculture, food processingplants, sheikdoms called the Trucial States, also facesthe tourism and the creation of entirely new cities. Persian Gulf and enjoys an oil boom whichgives it The African Arab countries Algeria, Tunisia, the highest per capita income in the world(the U.S. Libya and Morocco also have not been an in- ranks third). tegral part of the Mideast scene, though theIsraeli The Trucial States and two other PersianGulf war served to tighten the bondswith their Mideast kingdoms,BahrainandQatar,havebeen brothers. Though they share in many other Mideast negotiating unsuccessfully over the formationof a plans and ambitions, the African Arabs, withcloser federation to take over when Britainwithdraws ties to Europe and the West, tend toconcentrate from the area at the end of 1971. That isthe year more on their own nationalpolicies and on relations those states are scheduled to lose theirtreaty within their own bloc. 9 4 Africa
About 350 million people inhabit that vast jigsaw the countries, but developed mining extensively. As puzzle of countries which make up theAfrican a result, many of the newAfrican nations are poor continent. in the means to develop their rich supply of raw Some 42 national flags fly there and morethan m aterials. 700 languages are spoken. Under oneflag, 100 The vast natural wealth on the "Dark Continent" different tongues may be heard, as amultitude of has attracted some financial support from North widely varying tribal groups mingle inunrelated America and Europe, but the uneven distribution of areas unaware of nation or border. these resources, with some African nationsalmost From the towering Watusi to the squat pygmy, entirely lacking in them, has further hindered the Africa is a hodgepodge of tribes and races, all with over-all industrial development of Africa. their own traditions, customs, beliefs andtaboos. African agriculture supplies three-fourths of the Skin shades range from white throughyellow and world's palm oil and peanuts, two-thirds of the world's supply of sisal and more than three-fifths of brown to deep black. the world's cocoa. Other important agricultural Bantus Adapt to City Life exports include bananas, cotton, coffee,dates, olives, rubber, tea and tobacco. One of the largest groups is the Bantu,traditional farmers bound together by a common language, New Farming Techniques but little else. Unlike most African Negroes, some Bantus have adapted well to life in the modern Although many farmers use theprimitive cities. methods of their ancestors to work the land, some The Nilotes, a tall, slender people living near the are beginning to utilizemodern techniques of head of the White Nile River, include theWatusi, agriculture, including mechanization, land con- many of whom stand well over sevenfeet and servation and scientific land use. whose size makes them excellent runners and However, most of the continent is arid or semi- jumpers. arid and suffers from a continual water shortage. Shy and seldom even seen by white men, the Much of the remaining area is extremely wet and over-watered. pygmies are nomadic hunters living in the tropical with most rainforestsoftheCongo.Theyarewell- The continent also is disease-ridden, proportioned people, but seldom taller than 41/2 tribal Africans lacking a balanced diet,being feet. unaware of the elementaryprinciples of hygiene Several groups of Caucasians,relativesof and sanitation and out of reach of hospitals,doctors travelers who settled on the continent atdifferent and modern drugs. times, call Africa home and themselvesAfricans. Compounding the situation is the high illiteracy Both Arabs and Berbers range from peoplewith rate about 80 per centwhich makes it difficult light skin and fair hair to those with dark brown for government agencies to communicatewith the skin and black, curly hair. Descendants ofinvaders people in matters of health, safety andeducation. from the Middle East, the Arabs haveestablished DespiteAfrica'srecentandcontinuing the Islamic religion and Arabic language over emergence from colonial to national status,most of large portions of Africa chiefly the northern the states are not nations but a collectionof tribes, section. The Berbers have lived in the regionof the and tribal loyalties take precedence overnational Atlas Mountains since history has been recorded. allegiance. Nomadic tribes of Bedouins and Tuaregs live in Of the Africans working in the modern cities, the Sahara Desert area and are knownfor their some cut themselves offcompletely from their fleet horses and flowing robes. tribes, but most return regularly to participate in In some areas of eastern andsoutheastern the tribal practices and customs. Africa, Asians, whose ancestors generally came It is this tribalism, as well as the black man's from India and Southeast Asia in the1800s, form an struggle for freedom from white rule, which keeps important part of the society. the continent in constant turmoil. With one-fifth of the world's land area,Africa is Both Russia and Communist China are at- rich in natural resources. tempting to influence African countries, although Nearly all the world's diamonds comefrom African mines, and gold,cobalt,chromium, uranium, copper and phosphate arefound in large 1 Mallgriffig supply. 9 5 Colonial rulers in Africa did little toindustrialize DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 the Chinese are more overt in demonstratingtheir tinuationof the present racialsituation will admitted "master plan" for the resource-laden produce a "holocaust." Dark Continent. In lessening its dependence on the white-African In addition to aiding north African Arabic nations economies, Zambia has stepped up trade with the and 48 per cent of all Russian aid since 1954 has U. S., Britain, Japan, Germany and East Africa. gone to Arab countries the USSR isalso aiding 15 However, it is also exchanging copper mining of the 18 nations in sub-Sahara Africa. methods with Russia. Zambia is the third largest Russia is supplying arms to the Sudan and producer of copper in the world, and this metal Somalia, and in Zambia is involved in building provides 60 per cent of the country's income. thermal power stations, roads, and providing drugs The copper industry was nationalized in 1969 to and medical personnel. Russia is also matching preserve the country's political structure,which is Red China in arms payments to Tanzania. torn by tribal disputes. The USSR has even set up diplomatic relations The industry also is the beneficiary of a $300 with Botswana, a blzren country with a strategic million railroad being built by the Red Chinese location near Africa's southern tip. from that nation to Tanzania on the Indian Ocean, a Chinese influence in Africa centers around distance of 1,000 miles. Tanzania and Zambia, where itis firmly en- Black guerrilla action against white rulers also is trenched. The Chinese also supply aid to Burundi, presentinAngolaandZambianneighbor Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), Mali and Mozambique. Guinea. In addition to aid, they supply arms toblack Mozambique Linked to Rhodesia freedom fighters who are seeking to overthrow Mozambique, in the grip of a lengthy guerrilla white regimes in Mozambique, Angola, South battle against Portuguese rule, sees its economic Africa and Rhodesia. and political future linked closely to thatof This black-white conflict, with its potential for Rhodesia. savage race warfare, is ever-presentin Southern Poverty and disease are inheritant, with forced Africa. labor widespread and political rights limited. Angola, another Portuguese-run nation and rich Rhodesia Declares Independence in natural resources, is maintaining itspolitical In Rhodesia, a crisis was provoked in 1965 when structure despite the guerrilla pressure. Ian Smith, the prime minister, declared the Portuguese Guinea, the third Portuguese African colony's independence from Britain. The 250,000 country, is also threatened by guerrillas but the whites are outnumbered 20 to 1 by the nearly five government is not faring well. Reports indicate million blacks they rule. that two-thirds of the country is underguerrilla After the declaration, Britain and other nations control. imposed economic restrictions. Some African Rebels have not been successful in the white-run nations demanded British military intervention, Union of South Africa, where the government and threatenad force thomselves. The United maintains a strict racial separation (apartheid) Nations imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia policy. This policy also has been extended tothe in 1968. territory of South-West Africa, where South Africa But inspiteoftheboycotts,thecountry controls the government despite a United Nations flourished declaring itself a republic in March resolution declaring the territory to be a U. N. 1970, with the new government dominated by the responsibility. whites. In June 1971, the International Courtof Justice The gross national product increased 10 per cent ruled that South Africa should immediately endits in 1969. Industry and building are expanding, and illegal occupation of the mineral-rich territory, but immigration is increasing. Jobs are plentiful. the ruling was rejected by South Africa. Only the tobacco industry, a major crop before South Africa also dominates the new black-run the boycotts cut exports,isfloundering. But nationsof Botswana and Lesotho(formerly agricultureisbecoming diversified,and the Bechuanaland and Basutoland), which are tobacco industry is kept alive by fmed-quota economically dependent on their giant neighbor. government buying. Botswana is a poorly endowed and landlocked It is clear that the country, which had 300,000 country, basing its economy on a small exportof tourists last year, is relatively self-sufficient and cattle. It needs South Africa's friendship to survive will continue to survive. as an independent state, but in contrastto its neigh- The black population, however, is growing much bor has a completely multiracial society. more rapidly than the white, and manywonder how Lesotho,almosttotallylackinginnatural much longer the whites can retain power. resources, relies heavily on outside revenuefor Although economically tied to Rhodesia, neigh- survival, and much of the economy of this tiny boring Zambia has tried to comply with the U. N. African nation in the heart of South Africa is boycott. dependent on money sent home by native workers Zambia is black-run and doesn't want to bind who labor in South African gold mines. itself too closely to the white-run southe-n states. . Another tiny South African neighbor, Swaziland, President Kenneth Katmda has warned that con-9 eceived itsindependence from Britain in 1968. Malawi, a nation of nearly 4.5 million that One major difficultyisthe120,000 Kenya became independent from Britain in 1964, wasthe residents descended from an Indian laborforce first black African country to establishdiplomatic brought to Africa while Kenya was a British colony. relations with South Africa, and also maintains Kenya has started a policy of "Africanization" of cordial relations and commerce with Rhodesiaand jobs, which dictates that citizens get jobs before Portugal. non-citizens. Since many of these Asians hold Sharing borders with Rhodesia and Mozambique, British citizenship, the effect is an economic Malawi is the target of Red subversionattempts squeeze where their jobs arebeing taken by from another neighbor, Tanzania. Malawi,almost Africans. entirely dependent on British economic aidfor The problems of this unwanted group are com- survival, takes an independent col:-.1 warstand, pounded by England's refusal to admit more than a though its premier has been pro-Western. small percentage of them inside its borders each This controversial leader, Dr. HastingsKamuzu year, because of immigration quotas, and manyof Banda, consistently has supported policies hefeels theformerlyaffluentgrouparebecoming benefit Malawi rather than those based on pan- destitute. African or non-African ideology. Somalia is under a military regime following a Burundi expelled its large Red Chinesemission 1969 coup, the first such action in the nation'snine- for political meddling, but tribalfeuding there and year history as a free country. The move came a in nearby Rwanda has taken thousandsof lives. week after President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke The two countries, smallest in Africa,also have was assassinated, and promised to renewthe had border disputes. nationalist cry to a greater Somalia, which could revive border fighting with neighboring Ethiopia Economic Cooperation and Kenya over land claimed by Somalia. Sher- Three of the east African nations joinedtogether marke had followed a more moderate course, in December 1967 for economic cooperation.The aimed at cooperation among the three countries. new East Africa Community'sfounding members The strategically-located country is the recipient were Tanzania, Kenya andUganda. of more foreign aid than any other African country. In eastern Africa, Tanzania bases itsforeign Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and western European policy on the concept of nonalignmentwith any countries aid Somalia as well as Russia, China and major power bloc. The country includes atiny the U. S. The country remains poor, however. island, Zanzibar, located 20 miles off-coastin the The U. S. provides considerable aid to Ethiopia, Indian Ocean. the oldest independent state in Africa. And U. S. aid Under the leadership of President JuliusK. (Kin- Nyerere, Tanzania seeks a great expansionof to the Democratic Republic of the Congo agricultural production and income whichall shasa) totaled $375 million by the end of 1968. workers will share equally. Nyerere welcomes all aid from countrieswhich U. S. Aid Provides Big Boost he regards as being interested in helpingthe far- U. S. aid to the Congo augmented already ex- mer and worker, including theSoviet Union and cellent foreign relations, and helped set that Communist China Considerable assistance also country's economy back in order. has been given by Western countries,particularly The Congo's economy was highly developedprior Britain and the United States. to its gaining independence from Belgiumin 1960. In January 1971, while President Milton Obote Seven years of turmoil followed, however, and the was awayataCommonwealth conference, African nation is just recovering from the strain. leadership of Uganda was taken over in a military The government, under Gen. Joseph Mobutu, is coup under the leadershipof Gen. Idi Amin. stable, travel is safe and conditions are improving The ousted leader had forged a dictatorial throughout the country. Socialist regime from a country which was a patch- The Congo entered into an economiccooperation work of feudal kingdoms when it becamein- agreement with Chad and the Central African dependent of Britain in 1963. Republic in 1968. The agreement has not sub- Following the adoption in late 1969 of the Com- stantially helped Chad, however, which is the site mon Man's Charter, Obote announcedthat the state of a Vietnamese-type war being wagedagainst would take over nearly all industry and commerce. rebels by the French. Chad is one of the poorest He banned all opposition partiesand declared African nations. strikes illegal. In western Africa, Nigeria, the continent's most Neighboring Kenya suffers from tribal clashes populous nation (62 million) and the most advanced touched off in 1969 when Tom Mboya, theeconomic in black Africa, faces the problems of rebuilding a minister and a member of the Luo tribe, was counfry torn by 31 months of civil war. assassinated by a member of the Kikuyutribe. Nigeria's bitter fight to retain secessionist Biafra President Jomo Kenyatta, a Kikuyu, hasbanned ended in January 1970 when Biafra signed a the Luo-dominated opposition partyand jailed its surrender statement. leaders. Estimates placed the death toll as high as two However, the economy of the country,bolstered illion in the tribal conflict, a large number of by tourism, remains fairly stable. hom were children who died of malnutrition. The war stemmed fromthe massacreof regime of Maj. Gen. Gafaar al-Nirneiry, head of thousands of Ibo tribesmen by a rival tribe in 1966, the revolutionary council that seized power. following an unsuccessful Ibo coup a few months In an early move, al-Nimeiry granted autonomy before. to three rebellious southern Sudanese provinces The Ibos, an educated resourceful group scat- where the black African population has been trying tered throughout the country in Mgh-paying jobs, to free itself from the predominantly Arab north. fled to the eastern region of Nigeria, which they The military regime has promised a solution to proclaimed the secessionary state of Biafra. War the decade-long rebellion by the African tribes in broke out in June 1967. Now Nigeria must rebuild. the southern Sudan, and pledged to be even more It has solid resources and a diversified economy, pan-Arab and anti-Israeli than Sudanese govern- however, and in its population are more trained ments in the past. and educated professionals than even the Congo Although a poverty-stricken nation, the Sudan had in its early days of independence. has a bountiful supply of fertile land. The govern- Oilisthe primary naturalresource,with ment has made overtures to Russia, which has production of two million barrels a day akticipated offered arms and military training. soon, which would put it in the league of theMiddle The leftist mood and anti-Israeli stance of the East oil producers. new government insures little chance for any resumption of diplomatic relations with the United Elections in Ghana States. The Sudan broke relations after the Arab- Israeli war in 1967. In Ghana, the military leaders who threw out Africa's all-Arab nations occupy the northern leftist dictator Kwame Nkrumah in 1966, drew up a part of the continent, sharing great chunks of the constitution, held free electionsand restored Sahara Desert. They generally regard black Africa democracy. Voting was calm and orderly and with haughty disdain, feeling closer in spirit to resulted in a resounding victory of Dr. Kofi Busia, their Moslem brothers in the Middle East. who is noted for his honesty and modesty. A bloodless coup by a group of young military His greatest problem is Ghana's external debt of officers in 1969 deposed King Idris I of Libya and $800 million, bequeathed by the Nkrumah regime. added other difficulties to U. S. foreign policy. The When Nkrumah took over in 1957 he had $560 new regime, emphasizing Arab nationalism and million surplus. Arab solidarity, evicted U. S. personnel from Guinea is under the Communist-style rule of America's last major military foothold in Africa, President Sekou Toure, and receives considerable Wheelus Air Force base in June 1970. amounts of aid from the USSR and Red China, as Western oilmen also are apprehensive about a well as the U. S. Although a very poor nation, it has takeover of the oil industry, which has brought strong economic potential because of its mineral prosperity to the formerly impoverished nation. wealth. Toure welcomed the deposed Nkrumah, con- The new leaders also take a much harder line tinuing to recognize him as Ghana's president and toward Israel than previously had been in effect. naming him co-president of Guinea after the 1966 Three-Nation Alliance coup in Ghana. This caused considerable concern in the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta, whose Libya, the Sudan and Egypt entered into the territories lie between Guinea and Ghana. "Tripartite Alliance" in 1969, which conspicuously The Ivory Coast isprosperous, stable and omitted Algeria. Western-oriented. Upper Volta, which exists under Algeria, which was receiving massive Russian a military regime, is experiencing slow economic aid and military equipment, seems to be cooling improvement, although it is considerably poorer toward those Arab states and the Russians in favor than its southern neighbor. of Western attention and help in developing its Dahomey is under a three-man army directorate, resources. following a coup in late 1969. The military junta French aid now is far greater than Russian, and first announced elections, but later suspended them the Algerian attitude toward the United States, to avoid civil war in the strife-ridden country. with whom it broke relations in 1967, seems to be In May 1968, filly Sierra Leone became the first warming. modern black African country ruled by a military Algeria and Morocco ended years of border junta to revert to civilian government. Less than 10 disputes by signing a friendship treaty. Morocco, days after assuming power in the third military as well as Tunisia, is a conservative,Western- coup in 13 months, Sierra Leone's National Interim oriented country. Council permitted Siaka Probyn Stevens to be Morocco lies only eight miles across the Strait of sworn in as prime minister. Elections were held in Gibralter, Africa's closest approach to Europe. 1969 and a cabinet was appointed. Formerly a constitutional monarchy, rioting and The Congo Republic (Brazzaville) sides strongly a crumbling economy caused King Hassan to with the Communists. Mali, under military rule, is suspend the constitution and take over absolute I friendly with the Communists but maintains rule. The state of emergency was ended in 1970 with relations with the United States. the adoption in a national referendum of a new The Sudan, the continent's largest nation, was constitution providing for a modified form of taken over in a 1969 bloodless coup by the leftist griamentary government. Far East
The once-remote Far East has beentightly linked people live in rural areas wheremuch emphasis elimination was placed on increasingagricultural production. to the rest of the world with the modern The "people's commune" systemof farming was of time and distance barriers. altered to increase individualincentive, and The heart of Asia is CommunistChina, formally More proclaimed the People's Republic ofChina in 1949. harvests reached an all-time high in 1970. It was then acountryeconomicallyand recently vast water control and irrigationprojects politically disrupted by a generation ofconflict and have been completed. war. The weary populace wasready for a change. The Communists promised torestore order and bring freedom and prosperity to thecountry. People Well Fed, Housed About 20 million Communist Partymembers set Althoughthecountryisstilltermed un- up rigid controls forabout 780 million other Chinese derdeveloped and the annual per capita income is behind the Bamboo Curtain,nearly one-fourth of less than $150, the people are increasinglywell fed, the Earthrs population. housed and clothed and are providedwith almost They centralized all authority andimposed a free medical care. totalitarian administration whichdemanded A new era of "Ping Pong diplomacy"began early complete devotion to and compliancewith the in 1971 as Premier Chou En-laiwelcomed the first revolutionary doctrine of CommunistParty American delegation to Red Chinasince 1949: a Chairman Mao Tse-tung. U. S. table tennis team accompaniedby newsmen. Early in 1966 a long, widespread purgeof so- Almost simultaneously U. S. tradeembargoes on called "anti-party" persons brought on theouster some products werelifted. or downgrading ofleadingintellectualsand A few months later, PresidentNixon announced cultural leaders who had been accusedof ex- he would visit Peking. pressing doubts or criticism about thedirection the Also, many nations, including Canada,Italy and country was going. Chile, had recognized Peking as the true govern- ment of mainland China in anticipationof China's Red Guards Spread Terror admission to the United Nations. The question of Communist China'sadmission to Later that year the "culturalrevolution" took a gaining increasing new turn as thousands ofPeking teen-agers calling the United Nations, though the city, acceptance, has always run into the sameproblem themselves the Red Guards took over the fact that neither Taiwan (aSecurity Council launching a terrorist-type drivethroughout the would agree to country intended to destroy all "foreign"concepts member) nor the mainland regime culture, customs, habits and the presence of the other in the worldbody. as well as China's old The United States has consistentlysupported the ideas, and to replace them with thosewhich follow government of GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek, exactly the Mao doctrine. ruler of Taiwan since his government wasdriven The cultural revolution took on a moremenacing Massive U. S. aid aspect in 1967 as China provedits increasing tech- from the mainland in 1950. nuclear bomb. totaling more than $4 billionhelped the country nical maturity by exploding a gain a firm economic foothold andstrengthened As the cultural revolutiondrew to a close at the Chiang's military until 1965. In that yearTaiwan end of the decade, violencesubsided and political aid, Inanattempttoavoid voluntarily gave up official U. S. economic stabilityreturned. bureaucracy of the accepted only rednced military aid,and now ex- duplicating the top-heavy tends aid to other nations. Soviet Union, the government wasdecentralized Despite the fact that Taiwan has thesecond and some decision-making power wasgranted to first time even factory greatest population density in theworld, industrial local officials. For the growthhasbeenrapid,outstrippingeven workers were given a voicein plant procedures. income With a surplus of workers and adeficiency of agriculture as a money-earner. Per capita natural resources, men areemployed to carry out tasks which machineswould do in a more in- dustrialized society. As a result,industrial output rose 15 per cent in1970. 99 copiegNewspatmg Nevertheless, about 80 per centof the nation's DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 is $250 and nearly 85 per cent of thepeople are Lon Nol, premier and chief of the 35,000-man army, literate. and Prince Sirik Matak, first deputy premier and a A U. S. pledge to defend the islandremains a relative of Sihanouk. Both men are considered to be deterrent to the Communist Chinese,who have much more "rightest" and favorable to the West threatened to "liberate"the island. The than the left-leaning Sihanouk, who now resides in Nationalists also have pledged to return to the China. mainland, but the idea of the use of force has nearly Although a naturally rich country, Cambodia relies heavily on agriculture and can ill-afford the subsided. losses of a prolonged war. About 88 per cent of the Laos Wracked By Conflict country's7.1million people are involvedin agriculture, which provides only 40 per cent of the The strategic little kingdom of Laos,which gross national product. Rice and rubber arethe borders on every nationofthe Indochinese main exports. peninsula, is in the center of an extensive com- Thailand, only nation in the area which never munist-versus-democracy conflict. was under colonial rule, has a real senseand Though officially a democracy with aking as background of nationhood. Its king is a unifying head of state, the government of Laos ismade up of force, though the country long has been ruled by a a coalition of neutralists,Communist Pathet Lao and royalists, and presided over byneutralist military dictatorship. Premier Prince Souvanna Phouma. However, the nation is wracked by conflict among thethree Sturdy Middle Class factions, and the Pathet Lao, backed by more than Thailand has a sturdy middle class and an ef- 67,000 regular North Vietnamese troops, controls ficient career civil service. Suppression of op- more than half the country. position political groups, including Communists, It is generally acknowledged that the poorly helps the nation of more than 36 million stay firmly trained, poorly equipped 50,000-man regular in the Western camp. Laotian army, even aided by Thai forces and U. S. However, the country is a target of aggression by bombing raids, would be no match for the North the Chinese Communists, and Red infiltration into Vietnamese forces if the Communists should decide the northeast and southern parts of Thailand is on a military takeover. increasing in a pattern of terrorist activities, Long the scene of strife, Laos was threatened propaganda and subversion similar to that used by with full-scale Communist invasion in 1961. The the Reds early in the campaigns against South United States began advising and equipping the Vietnam and Laos. Historically neglected by the Laotian army, and Russia started airlifting sup- government, the poorer northeast rural areas have plies to the Communist side. been the chief Red targets. A 1962 conference in Geneva then attempted to Backed by U. S. funds, Thailand is also giving end the crisis by making Laos "neutral," with military aid to fight communism in Vietnam, Laos power divided among the three blocs, andordering and Cambodia. the withdrawal of all foreign troops. Thailandhaslittleheavyindustry,and agriculture occupies about 80 per cent of the Peace Efforts Collapse population. As one of the world's leading rice The action did shift the main struggle in In- producers, it is very sensitive to any decline in dochina from Laos to Vietnam, but the attempt to trade markets and is attempting to diversify its maintain peace through the negotiated settlement agriculture. quickly collapsed. North Vietnam has increased its Meanwhile heavy expenditures for defense have regular army forces many times, making the slowed down other development programs as the country in effect a partitioned nation. About 85 per country faces a serious economic slowdown. cent of Laos' three million people are under Burma, largest of the nations in the area, won government control, however, as refugees continue independence from Britain in 1948, choosing also to to flee the areas of Red rule. leave the British Commonwealth. Outbreak by Thecountry'seconomyisdominatedby some of the wide variety ofracial groups early agriculture, principally rice production, and barter plagued the government, and in 1962 armed forces is the principal method of exchange in this least chief Gen. Ne Win took control of the country. developed country of Southeast Asia. Gold and Since then it has been run on an extreme opium smuggling are important activities outside Socialist-stylebasis, with most civilliberties the official economy. The country's main prop is suppressed and all industry, trade and banking in foreign aid, mostly from the United States. the hands of the governmentpolicies which have To the south, Cambodia became a trouble spot made a shambles of the formerly prosperous when pro-Red Prince Norodom Sihanouk was country's economy. ousted by the Cambodian Parliament March 18, However, the Ne Win government has expanded 1970, following an internal dispute over North primary education and basic health services, and Vietnamese and Viet Cong military forces who the disparity between rich and poor has been were using Cambodian border provinces as sanc- narrowed somewhat. tuaries. Ne Win's regime is strongly anti-Communist and Leadership of the country was taken over by Gen. aggressively combats Red guerrillas, though the sixth largest nation Burmese strongman recently renewedrelations million people, Indonesia is the political isolation in the world, and itshalf-million-man army makes with Peking. A policy of extreme it the greatest potential powerin Asia after and neutrality has been putin effect, and tourist Communist China. It also is oneof the richest trade has been cut off. countries in the world in termsof natural resour- Is The area, however, threatensto be another hotspot in the Communist drive, asRed China has ces. rule, his so- increased the assistance it isgiving the rural However, the late Sukarno's one-man country actually is called "guided democracy,"brought economic guerrillas. Less than half the chaos to the country.Nationalization of foreign controlled from the capital ofRangoon, and the the West, com- possibility of "another Vietnam"is very real. industry and antagonism toward sponsorship in bined with increasingly closerelations with Red Malaysia, formed under British China, created a growinghostility with the free 1963 from the British coloniesof Singapore, Sabah, world. Sukarno also cuthis country off from Sarawak and the independentFederationof the United Nations. Malaya, has been a trouble spot eversince. Western economic aid and quit shield, it first Communists failed in anattempt to seize the Intended as an anti-Communist government in October of 196.5,and a military- came under attack fromIndonesian guerrillas until stripping Sukarno of his Indonesia. backed regime took over, the shift of power in powers.Intheaccompanyingviolence,an estimated 400,000 CommunistParty members, Parliamentary Government Restored including most of its top officials, werekilled. Parliamentary government wasrestored only Strongly anti-Communist, the newregime under recently after 21 months of emergencyrule, which President Suharto has repairedrelations with was declared duringracial violence in 1969. The many Western nationsand has resumed mem- confrontation between the Malaysand the coun- bership in the United Nations. try's Chinese (who make up 40 percent of The new government keeps atight check on Malaysia's 11 million population)resultedin anything threatening security,and high level of- hundreds of deaths, homes andshops in ruins ficials are often arrested. and a widening gap of hafted. Private enterprise has replacedstate socialism, The Malays were fightingfor more economic and tourists are welcome. Theraging inflation has control of Malaysia, whoseurban centers boast the been halted, but the average percapita income highest level of living inSoutheast Asia. The remains under $100. Birthcontrol programs are problem of equitable distribution ofwealth now now underway in anattempt to reduce the coun- rests on the shoulders ofAbdul Razak, who was try's whopping populationgrowth rate of 2.8 per appointed to succeed the formerprime minister of cent ayear, which continuesto undermine 13 years, Abdul Rahman. government plans for raisingthe standard of living The federation suffered a severeblow when of Indonesia's people, amongthe poorest in Asia. Singapore, with its overwhelmingChinese majority Averaging $600 million inforeign aid a year, and where the British havemaintained a great Indonesia also has accumulatedmassive foreign naval base, seceded six years ago.This deprived debts. the new nation of its key port(fourth largest in the Parliamentary elections held in summerof 1971 world), business and financial baseand, with one- the first in 16 yearsindicated mass support for quarter of Malaysia's people,its population center. Suharto's government. Chargesof unfair election Singapore is very prosperous,with a per capita procedures tarnished the victorysomewhat, income nearly twice Malaysia's. however. Relations between Malaysia andthe Philippines In Central Asia, theCommunist Chinese, who have been troubled periodicallysince the Philip- ostensibly have ruled Tibet for 21 years, areen- pines claimed Sabah (NorthBorneo) in 1962. countering increasing resistancefrom Tibetan The Philippines is one of the fewAsian nations guerrillas. Sporadic fightingalso breaks out bet- which electsits governments. It became in- ween India andPakistan in Kashmir, where an dependent of the U. S. in 1946, but has notlived up uneasy truce line dividesthe fertile northern valley to its high potential. larger portion. politics and the in two, with India ruling the The privileged elite dominate Wedged between Pakistanand the Soviet Union economy: 90 per centof the wealth is reported to be which tries to stay out of in the hands of 10 per centof the people. is landlocked Afghanistan, population the East-West struggle.Underdeveloped,this Corruption, unemployment,a agricultural nation 99 per cent Moslem uses growing faster than the growth rateand dissent both Soviet and U. S. aid, aswell as help from Red from student, lalx:r and farm groupsare some of China, to build up its primitive economy. the problems facingPresident Ferdinand Marcos, term. Pakistan, divided politically,racially and now in his second geographically by 1000 miles of hostile HinduIndia, Indonesian Crisis Cools Off is united only by a common religionIslam. Another former hotspot which hascooled con- Recent civil strife which killed thousands of East siderably is Indonesia, whereCommunist-leaning Pakistanis pointed up further thedifferences previous president Sukarno hadled his nation down between the two portions of the country.President an erratic pathin world affairs. With more than 120inrohammed Yahya Khan ordered the national `-' . . With large amounts of foreign aid,India has been army of mostly WestPakistanis into the East to development projects and crush a Bengali separatistmovement there in able to undertake large have traditionally has constructed new factoriesand automobile March, 1971. The Bengalis assembly plants in recent years. India'sindustry in claimedthatsmall,densely populated East 1970, however. Pakistan has held up its end of thefinancial burden, 1971 was down 3.5 per cent over of neither national Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi's"progressive but receives its fair share socialism" received a vote ofconfidence in March, revenue nor politicalcontrol. than The rebellion, led by SheikMujibur Rahman, 1971, when her New Congress Party got more head of the nationalistic,pro-American Awami two-thirds of the seats in Parliament. League, was harshlyrepressed as crops and sweeping martial laws villages were burned and Japanese Economy Booming were instigated.Daily skirmishes continue. As a result of theinsurgency, Yahya Khan As the world's third largesteconomic unit, Japan disqualified many members of theAwami League, now is not only stableeconomically and socially, who recently had won morethan half the seats in but politically as well. Within afew years, Japan the National Assemblyduring the first direct has become the fastest growingindustrial power in general elections since the country'sfoundation in the world, trailing only theUnited States and the 1947. He also appointed acommittee to draft a new Soviet Union in terms of industrialproduction. constitution. With a constitution which bans war(a condition imposed by the United States afterWorld-War II), War Follows Natural Disaster Japan has left defense andpolitical problems concentrating in- The war followed on the heelsof one of the worst largely up to the United States, a cyclone with huge stead on its economic buildup. natural disasters in history Prime Minister Eisaku Sato andPresident Nixon tidal waves which struck latein 1970, washing away calling for the nearly hz.lf a million peoplefrom the heavily signed an over all agreement effectiveness of the reversion of Okinawa to Japan by1972 in June, populated Ganges delta. The 1971. The reversion had become apolitical issue massive international aid whichpoured into the popular support area to helprefugees suffering from hunger, which earlier had provided much reduced by in- for Sato. But many Japanesewho fear the danger cholera and typhoid was greatly and expense of a militarybuildup later voiced ternal political squabbles,thereby compounding to one oftheconditionsofthe the disaster. opposition respon- The fact that it took Pakistanonly 35 days to agreement: that Japan agree to assume statistically replace the livesthat were lost sibility for the immediate defenseof Okinawa. Asian problem: The war between CommunistNorth Korea and dramatizes another characteristic Red China against the UnitedStates and other a high populationgrowth rate. by an uneasy truce In the meantime, the economyis in a shambles; U. N. allies left Korea divided literate; and more line running along the 38thParalk:l. To maintain only 20 per cent of the people are the truce, combined U. S.and Korean troops in than six million people mainly Irmdus have border against fled toIndia, whichofficiallysupportsthe South Korea still protect the Pakistan will frequentinfiltrationattempts fromRussian- secessionists. Yahya Khan has stated controlled North Korea. A totalof 20,000 U. S. not hesitate to go to war withIndia if the refugees withdrawn, however. are not permitted to returnfreely. troops recently was than 550 Following intermittent politicalunrest, South Already over-populated with more Korea has established ademocratic government million people, India could not dealadequately with governed and is carrying the refugees. Lack of foodand housing and ruling by consent of the sanitation facilities, combined with theoutbreak of out social reforms. West BengaL Massive U. S. aid has helpedput the nation on a cholera brought death to many in thriving economic footing, withtrade agreements India itself suffers from highilliteracy, unem- throughout the world and anexpected annual ployment, underemployment andtroublesome during the next few religious and language differences.The population growth of more than 8 per cent increases by about 14 millionannually, while the years. the two countries in per capita incomeremains at about $80. North Korea, the richer of have helped India take industry and natural resourceswhen it was sealed But technical advances off in 1954, also has maderemarkaNe economic great strides in agriculture.Its "green revo- development. About 70 per cent of its grossnational lution," using new technologyand the profit in- helped doub!e food product comes from industryand its rich mineral centive for farmers, has resources. It is havingagricultural success as well, production over the last 10 years.Even so, the food and the standard of supply continues to grow at about2 per cent an- but consumer goods are scarce increases by 2.5 per still provides only the basicnecessities for nually, while the population country's 14 million people. cent. 1 Australia and NewZealand
Australia and New Zealand are a paradox in Australia (and to a large extent New Zealand) history. consistently has stood by the Western democracies Situated under the vast Asian continent, they are in times of crisis, providing forces in World Wars I and II, the Berlin airlift and the KoreanWar. Both geographically in the Far East, yet wholly Western in the intheirChristiancultureanddemocratic nations also helped Britain for many years traditions. defense of Malaysia, seeing active service against A sturdy, carefree people descended from tough Chinese Red and Indonesian guerrillas. European stock, mainly British, they are not And both now have contributed forces to the usually given to worry. Their people 12.5 million Vietnam conflict. in Australia and 2.9 million in New Zealand bask In Australia, a party dispute over the coantry's in a sunny climate and enjoy a high standard of Vietnam policies caused a change in leadership. living. Prime Minister John G. Gorton was ousted in a vote In both countries, the outlook is bright, with little of no confidence by the Liberal Party. He was politicalunrest, no racial violence and few replaced by the former foreign minister, William demonstrations. Social distinctions are scorned, McMahon. and the people work together in a sort of pioneer The new leadership will make no difference in the spirit. conservative, pro-American policy maintained But with the advance of communism in Southeast since the present coalition came to power in 1949. Asia, both countries feel the shadow of Red China McMahon stated, however, that about 1,000 of the lengthening in their direction, acutely aware that 7,000 Australian troops will be withdrawn from they stand in the direct path of Communist ex- Vietnam in late 1971. pansion and that their underpopulated lands make New Zealand also sent a token force of 500 men to a compelling target for Communistleaders of Vietnam despite the fact that its greater depen- about two billion poverty-stricken Asians. dence on Britain gave precedence to its military Australia was the last continent to be discovered, commitment in Malaysia. Here, too, the action met the Dutch making the first reported landing, in with some public opposition, and the government 1606. Following the explorations of Australia and hopes to withdraw all troops in 1971. New Zealand by Capt. James Cook about 1770, Britain formally claimed both territories. Larger Defense Share The Australian government, in particular, has First Settlement a Penal Colony made clear that it intends to assume a larger share Australia's first settlement was founded in 1788 of the security burden in the Far East asBritain as a penal colony for criminals fromBritain. This withdraws its forces, and Australian defense practice was suspended in 1839, and Australia spending has been rising faster than the gross gained increasing self-government until 1901, when national product. it became a commonwealth within the larger Additionally, the countries mare and more are British Commonwealth of Nations. realizing that the United States is their best New Zealand, formally annexed by Britain in protection against Red aggression in the area. Both 1840, achieved dominion status within theBritish buy U. S. military equipment, with the U. S. sup- Commonwealth in 1907. plying more than 50 per cent of Australia's military So, tied by their common roots to the West but equipment for the next five years, and Australia geographically part of the East, they must look provides a number of bases for U. S. space and both ways. military projects. The United States is committed to the defense of Australia's military defense was a major issue in these two South Pacific nations through the elections held in late 1969, in which the Liberal- Australia-New Zealand-United States (ANZUS) Country Parties coalition was returned to power by pact. It also is joined with them, Britain, France, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Relationsbetween theUnitedStatesand Australiaalso stressbilateral cooperation ini 0 3 CONNem'grimlig various atomic energy fields. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 a narrow margin. Thecoalition held a record environment for overseas visitors. majority prior to the election. In addition, Australia, cut off for millionsof Despite their ties to Western foreign policy and years from the world'sother land areas isa their status as British Commonwealthmembers, zoological showcase and attracts many tourists an increasing amount ofthe two nations' trade is interested in its unusual flora and fauna. with other countries in the Far East. Not only has its island isolation permittedthe This is partly due to Britain's financialplight and independent development of many animals not to its effort to get into the EuropeanCommon found elsewhere, but the absence of mostnatural Market, which would cost Australia and New predators like the great carnivorous cat anddog Zealand their favored trade relationshipwith species has allowed these strange animals to maintaintheirexistenceandthrivesince England, and partly that they are growing more Australia's earliest days as a continent. aware that they have to accept agreater leadership unusual role in Asia. Perhaps the best known of Australia's Australia, for example, sells much of its wheat to wildlife, the bounding kangaroo and the gentle Communist China, although no items consideredof koala like about half of the country's animals "strategic importance" go to the Communist are marsupials, or mammalswhich carry their country, and Japan has replaced Britain as young in pouches. Australia's biggest trading partner. One of the world's largest growers of wheat and Large Immigration Problems oats, Australia is a nation of large farms and cattle With vast areas of wild and partly unexplored and sheep ranches (called stations). land,both countries have large immigration But while agriculture continues to providethe programs. Until recently, they both acceptedonly largest share of Australia's export income, the whites as settlers, fearing a population inundation economic emphasis since World War II has been on if Asians were permitted unrestricted access. industrial expansion, and far more people now However, Australia lately has moderated this work in factories and offices than on the land. And policy as European prosperity and labor shortages despite their pioneer image, more than half the cut sharply into the normal immigration quota, and people live in the six capital cities. Australia has a some Asians, Eurasians, skilled workersand steady growth rate, and is now one of the most stateless persons have been allowed to apply for politically stable and industrially advanced nations migrant permits. in Southeast Asia. Transportationissubsidizedforacceptable immigrants, and this. with the high level of op- Rich Mineral Deposits portunity, has provided incentive to attract more Enough high-grade iron ore and bauxite deposits than 180,000 to Australia each year. have been located to supply the counfry'strading New Zealand still bars all but a few non-whites partners for centuries, and Australia is one of the from permanent settlement, though many there major prodticers of uranium. Most of the new believe some Asians should be admitted in 7.riew of money for this development is comingfrom U. S. the labor shortage. industries, which have poured in several billion Both countries admit large numbers of students, who are not permitted citizenship. dollars. Education for residents is free and compulsory, Unlike its neighbor, with its vast desert areas, with several universities in each country. New Zealand is primarily a grazing country, Australia also has a number of social welfare heavily forested and mountainous. Numerous programs. rushing streams give the country potential for a Pension acts, for example, provide for Payments great volume of hydro-electric power. of war, old age and invalid pensions, and also cover It also has recorded a large trade gain in recent the blind, the unemployed, victims of tuberculosis years, based on ita livestock ratherthan on in- and, in come cases, dependents of former soldiers. dustrialization. The country has a balance of A maternity allowance is paid for every child payments problem, however. born in Australia, and Social Security for children Meat, wool and dairy products account for more includes child endowment payments for children than 90 per cent of the export trade, and since more under 16. than half of this is to Britain there hasbeen an The two nations also have native populations of increasing drive to develop more foreign markets. their own. F4hery products are prime export possibilities. Australia's approximately 50,000 aborigines are Tourismalsohassignificanteconomic considered the most primitive people on earth. possibilities. New Zealand isa striking land, Some have been able to adapt to modern society, boasting sunny beaches, glaciers, lush farms, however, and have become civilized and educated. tropical forests and imposing mountain ranges. New Zealand's more than 200,000 Maoris are The hunting and ashing are superb. lighter skinned and much more advanced. They /Th. Tourism also is a rapidly growing industry in belong to the Polynesian race and have similarities .._) Australia, whcre thefriendlypeople,sunny in history, language, music and legends with the weather and fine beaches provide a relaxed holidayi 041:lawaiians. South America
South America, twice the size of theUnited States form a pervasive currentof unrest. Acts of is struggling to terrorism are frequent in somecities. The kid- and with vast potential riches, governmentofficialsandforeign catch up with the rest of the Westernworld. napingof political ends, in- It is ã11 area of p-treme contrasts. diplomats in order to achieve Ultramodern office buildings are risingin the cluding the release of politicalprisoners, has lactories, well-stocked become common practice for some groups. busy, modern cities. New Revolutionary activities throughoutthe continent stores and well-paved highwaystestify to economic Castro's Cuba gave progress. have increased since Fidel enough to eat. socialism a stepping stone tothe mainland. The Yet most of the people never have universities are focal points ofrevolutionary ac- Per capita income is little morethan $400 a year, leader and folk-hero compared with $3,980 in the UnitedStates. tivity even though guerrilla independent for Ernesto Che Guevara failed in abid te bring a Most of the countries have been Castro-style revolution to Boliviain 1967. He was well over a century. Yet governmentsstill are often the changed by coup rather than byelection_ There is subsequentlycaptured and executed by intensenationalismandprideamongthe Bolivian army. inhabitants. But there is little realconfidence in It became evident that urgentaction was needed individuals. to combat the poverty, diseaseand illiteracy of the countries or mutual trust between great mass of people. Socialreforms have been All these qualities show up inthe instability of the stability have economies and governments, in ,education and initiated and attempts at political been increased. politics. Under various programs, includingthe Alliance for Progress in which theUnited States pledges Rich in Natural Resources funds, mostly loans, to nationsseeking to facilitate The continent is rich innatural resources, social, economic and politicaldevelopment, however. schools and roads have been builtand new in- There is abundant oil and someof the world's dustries established. Once-unskilledpeasants have largest deposits of iron and copper.Other in- been hired in factories, anduniversities are of- dustrial metals such as lead andzinc are found, as feringcreditforagricultural,scientificand well as gold, silver, diamondsand emeralds. The technical courses. area also contains theworld's largest forests, and United States aid to Latin Americahas reached the hydroelectric power potentialis perhaps the more than $11 billionsince the inception of the world's greatest program. Total current U.S. investment in Latin Still, South America lagsfurther and further America amounts to approximately$13 billion. behind as it battles the continuingproblems of inflation, declining markets, bad crop yearsand Loans Tied to Purchases outmoded policies. However, more than 90 per centof U. S. loans to The vast, impenetrable junglesthat cover ,much purchases of U. S. of the northern portion of thecontinent and the high Latin America were tied to South America goods that could be had cheaperelsewhere. In mountains that run the length of addition, the United States hasallotted Latin form natural barriers, hinderingcommunication of its market over and commerce. America a decreasing portionmaintaining a trade Although modern European cultureprevails in the last decade, currently Argentina and Chile, surplus of more than $100 millionwith its southern some of the countries, such as neighbors. Recent U. S. legislationhas lowered Indians still remain a large unassimilatedbody of from Latin the population, living apartand speaking only their tariffs on some goods it imports and Peru, for example, America, however. own languages. Bolivia Increasingly complex problems haveresulted have Indian majorities. from the inability of the United Statesand Latin In addition, South America'spopulation of about limit 190 million is increasing at a rateof nearly 3 per American nations to define a territorial sea cent a year. Slowly growingeconomies in many of which is mutually acceptable. The U. S. govern- the countries barely keep up withthe needs of their increasing masses, and little moneyis available to invest in development projects. t CON Newspapa With acute political andeconomic stresses,105 Communists and other leftists havemoved in to DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 of a 1966 law which 12-mile limit, has refused He reversed provisions ment, which recognizes a Peru, banned elections and politicalparties, includIng the to accept the 200-milelimit set by Ecuador, influential "Peronistas,"followers of the exiled Chile and Brazil. rebuff to the United former dictator Juan Peron.The popular dictator, In what was considered a who ruled from1943-1955,gathered alarge States,the Organizationof American States following, especially amonglabor. The Peronistas recently decided toinvestigate Ecuadorian single political force in the charges of U. S."economic aggression" and the still are the largest Ecuador instead of counfry and hope to-.;In the election Lanusse imposition of U. S. sanctions on scheduled for 1973. considering U. S. complaintsregarding the seizure Lanusse also granted a 19 percent pay raise for of U. S. fishing vesselsby Ecuador. workers in order tocounterbalance the high rate of Since 1960 into the presentdecade programs have cent in 1970. He the continent's massive inflation more than 20 per been started to combat teachers trained in- declared alternate"beefless" weeks in order to illiteracy. The 3umber of increase the amount of meatavailable for export. creased by 122 per cent,and the number of doctors production rose from (Agricultural and livestockproducts traditionally by 50 per cent. Electric powerhours and half a million account for 90 per centof Argentina's export 60 to 100 billion kilowatt built. But the great earnings.) miles of new roads were In contrast to Argentinawhich boasts over 90 per majority of the approximately283 million people of cent literacy, only 32 percent of Bolivia's 4.3 Latin America havereceived little benefit from million people are literate. these changes, so stillother action is being taken. Probably the mostbackward country in Latin America, Bolivia hasexperienced 186 coups d'etat Economic Integration Projects in its 145-year history.The most recent occurred Two economic integrationprojects, in the An- when leftist Gen. JuanJose Torres took the dean and River Plate areas, arecurrently under presidency from right-wingmilitary leaders who way. Argentina,Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and had just ousted Gen.Alfredo Ovando. Uruguay have begunwork together to develop Strong anti-U. S. sentimentin some sectors of the communication, power productionand tran- population is characterizedby student violence, the sportation facilities in the 1 5million-square-mile presence of Cubanrevolutionaries in the more River Plate basin thatincludes all or, part of the remote areas and theexpulsion of the PeaceCorps. five countries. A similar programOf economic Although Torres has promisedto make Bolivia cooperation has been initiatedby the Andean "a Socialist republic,"his failure to meet the nations of Bolivia, Chile,Colombia, Ecuador and conflicting demands of leftiststudents, miners and Peru. Both projects, thoughstill in the talking peasants has weakenedhis popular support. stages, are promising. and an outlet to the Meanwhile, the older and moreambitious Latin Lacking in natural resources composed of 10 sea, aboutthree-fourths of Bolivia'sincome is American Free Trade Association, derived from itstin mines. However,restive South American nationsand Mexico, has ex- and corrupt management perienced difficultiesin attaining itsgoal of miners, featherbedding members. LAFTA have long made themines a losing proposition, as lowering trade barriers between national debt. . has bogged down because offear that it will benefit evidenced by the large only the economicallystrongest counties and because most countries arereluctant to give up Brazilian Economy Strong of their domestic in- tariff protection for some In Brazil, the military-ledrevolution that toppled dustries. Goulart in 1964 con- The South American continentis occupied by 11 left-leaning President Joao Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, tinues in power. Gen. EmilioGarrastazu Medici, independent nations has concentrated onthe economic Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,Guyana, Paraguay, now president, cost of political and Peru, Uruguay and Venezuelaand the colonies of growth of his country at the (Dutch Guiana). personal liberties. French Guiana and Surinam Brazil's growth rate, 9 percent in 1970, is the Although naturally a veryrich country of great Inflation has decreased, cattle and wheat producers,Argentina has been highest in Latin America. instability as a massive $1 billionhousing program is plannedfor plagued by political and economic and innovative educationprojects with well as government inefficiency. 1971, training are beingin- Following several months oflarge-scale labor compulsory vocational Gen.Alejandro Agustin stituted. strikesandrioting, But Brazil is not withoutproblems. Many of the Lanusse, commander-in-chief of theArgentine disenchanted with armed forces, assumed power inMarch, 1971, after nation's 92.2 million peoplegovernment are and its ousting President RobertoLevingston. He had Medici's paternalistic limitation of per- helped put Levingston in power via amilitary coup widespread censorship, severe Soon afterhis sonal freedoms and thousandsof political arrests. less than 10 months before. Terrorism, especially in theform of kidnapings by inauguration Lanusse declared several measures clandestine group called in an attempt to bolster the economyand restore leftists and murders by a the country's 23 million the Death Squad (possiblycomposed of police- some political freedom to 'men), is also present. people. 106 The first freely elected Marxisthead of state, political ills. One of Pastrana's major efforts is PresidentSalvadorAllendeofChile,was directed at the cities in a sweeping urban reform inaugurated November 3, 1970. project. Allende, a founder of the Chilean SocialistParty, But his attention also is focused on rural areas was supported by a coalitionof leftists and came where, as in all Latin American countries, extreme out on top in the primarily three-candidate race need and political pressures combineto urge with 36 per cent of the votes. Under theconstitution, agrarian reform. A million Colombian peasant however, the congress must choosebetween the families who depend onagriculturetofeed two top candidates if none receives amajority of themselves are without sufficient land to provide votes. With the support of the ChristianDemocrats subsistence. Over 350 farms were seized during the the centrist party of incumbentEduardo Frei first half of 1971 by increasingly educated peasants Allende's election was confirmed by Congress. who are beginning to demand change. The assassination of two publicfigures since the On the other hand, the small five-acreparcels election of Allende marks an interruptionof a long often distributed in agrarian reform programs do tradition of adherence to democraticprocedure not make efficient use of theland. Favorable quite unique in Latin America. Althoughdebatable, competition with highly industrialized nations and the death of army commanderRene Schneider in dependence on agriculture to provide large por- October was attributed to rightists andthat of tions of national revenue necessitate the main- former Interior Minister EdmundoPerez Zujovic tenance of large mechanized farms toinsure greater harvests. to radical leftists. The problem becomes aggravated incountries Chile's Socialism Constitutional like Colombia, where 30 per cent of the gross national product is derived from agriculture. The Allende has promised to retain all constitutional already unstable economy suffers fromhigh rights for Chile's nearly 10 millionhighly literate unemployment, a chronic balance of payments people. He has used legal means toimplement shortage and violent fluctuation in theprice of socialism,often by accelerating the pace of programs instigated by Frei andearlierad- coffee, which accounts for nearly 70 per centof the ministrations. country's export earnings. A constitutional amendment permittingthe Ecuador's aging President Jose Maria Velasco nationalization of the holdings of three major U. S. Ibarra, South America's "greatdemogogue," Congress in closed his country's congress and courts andtook copper companies was passed by a dictatorial powers for himself in 1970.Unhesithfing which declared Allende supporters are in the protests, minority. U. S. interests in Chile's copperindustry, in his use of force to put down popular world's Velasco has grown dependent on the armedforces' including Kennecott's El Teniente, the good will to remain in power. largest copper mine, are valued at more than$600 Velasco, who has been president four times million. Whereas Frei's land-reform programbogged before and ousted three times, successfullyquelled Allende reduced a bloodless military coupin March, 1971. He also down in high costs and red tape, called for elections when his termexpires in mid- the maximum, acreage for farms exemptfrom promises. expropriation from 200 to 80, expropriating more 1972, but is known for his failure to keep than 500 farms during his first six monthsin office. Ecuador's Budget Balanced In some cases peasants have seizedlands before expropriation and before the government has been Although Ecuador's budget was balanced for the able to establish collective farms. first time in history in 1971, the country faces the The government also has initiatedhousing and same economic problemsexperienced by most public investment programs and allotted a 40-60 Latin American nations. These problems are per cent pay raise for the averageworker. As a compounded by a large percentage of Indians, who result of government spending, Allendefaces have yet to be assimilated into the economy. continuing inflation, a drop in foreignexchange Paraguay has been ruled under the dictatorship reserves and a rise in unemploymentto 8 per cent. of Gen. Alfredo Stroessner since 1959. Before he Nationwide municipal elections held in April, took over, it was a chaotic nation which had a 1971, indicate an increase in support forthe ad- record of 35 presidents in this century and was still ministration, with Allende-supported candidates reeling from a civil war which forced 300,000 into receiving nearly half the votes. exile. Especially since Allende officially recognized Until mid-1969 he seemed to be steering the Cuba and Red China, the UnitedStates has country toward democracy. Since then, however, maintained "cool and correct" relations with Chile, Stroessner has become more repressive as con- during its experiment with the compatability ditions in his country have worsened. The economy, of democracy and socialism. previously stable but never healthy, has developed The administration of Colombia'sPresident problems as trade has dropped, deficitsare Misael Pastrana Borrero, a Conservative,will be growingandtheonce-solidcurrencyfaces the last under the National Front systemthat dates devaluation. back to 1958 when Liberals andConservativ* In addition, the government of this Roman agreed to alternate power to heal thenatiodlii 7Catholic state has had a deep split with the church, which opposes the censorship,corruption, police Since the relatively peaceful election in 1968 of brutality and low pay for the mass of thepopulation Rafael Caldera, a veteran polidcian andmember that characterize Stroessner'sregime. Stroes- of the Social Christian Party, in theclosest election sner, in retaliation hasharshly repressed church in Latin American history, the political toneof functions. Venezuela has become increasingly nationalistic Under Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peru has a and leftist. supernationalistic leader who has surrounded Indicative of the country's mood is a recent himself with leftist-leaning advisers.After an- law calling for the nationalization ofalloil nouncing that all large landholdings are to be ex- properties by 1984. The world's largest petroleum propriated and converted into collectve farms exporter, Venezuela has the highest percapita including those of a number of U. S. citizens he income in Latin America almost $900 a year. declared that all foreign investment will belimited to 33 per cent after the initialinvestment has been Riches Poorly Distributed recovered. Another decree called for workers to Yet the industry, which provides 70 per cent of all share in 10 per cent of theircompanies' annual government income, employs only 24,000 people. As pretax profits. a result, the high income ispoorly distributed and Peru's Andean country has been shackledwith about one-third of the people are not fed, housed, or soaring inflation, drought, financialcrises and educated adequately. So while domestic industry economicstagnationand budgetarydeficits. and agriculture continue to grow and inflation is Despite massive foreign aid fromall over the negligible, =employment is high. world, Peruisstillrecuperating fromthe New, possibly very rich, oil deposits are atstake devastating earthquake of May 31, 1970 whichtook in an area involved in a border disputebetween more than 50,000 lives. Colombia z:nd Venezuela. In October, 1970, a state-ownedmining company Underpopulated and undeveloped, French called Minero-Peru was created with aninitial Guiana has been in French hands since 1626, ser- capital of $250 million. A few monthslater a ving mainly as a penal colony (Devil's Island) until European consortium tentatively agreed toinvest 1945, with an unsavory reputation ofcruelty, in Peru's mining industry.Realization of this disease and death. A part of- metropolitanFrance agreement is uncertain, however. since 1946, it is showing some gains, but great Former newspaper editor Jorge PachecoAreco natural obstacles, particularly the Amazon jungle is Uruguay's second president sinceabandoning its which covers most of its territory, stillhinder unwieldy nine-man nationalcouncil formof construction and industry. government in 1966. Working against Uruguay's good agricultural Nearby Surinam, traded by the British to the land and mechanization, a population more than 90 Dutch in 1667 for Manhattan Island, has hadvirtual per cent literate, a mild climateand adequate control over its internal affairs since 1954. roads and water, is a massive government welfare With a population composed ofDutch, East In- system. The government also employs more than a dians, Africans, Indonesians,Chinese and native third of the nation's workers, which is crushing the Idians, Surinam has skipped thephase of militant economy andstranglinginitiative.Anti- nationalism so prevalent in the LatinAmerican inflationary measures have been instituted to area and provides apolitically kable bastion of combat large rises in the cost of living. democracy.Unemploymentisvirtually Prominent Officials Kidnaped nonexistent and most urban residentsread and write at least one language. The kidnaping of prominent officials and large- Guyana, a former colony on thenortheastern scale bank robberies have been used asterrorisdc shoulder of South America,became independent in activities with only limited success by a Marxist- 1966, but still faces the problemswhich contributed inspired leftist group called the Tupamaros. Areco British Guiana. negotiate with the to a troubled colonial history as has repeatedly refused to Chief of these is the bitter racialdivision between terrorists, using increasingly repressive measures nearly half of the in an attempt to eliminate them. The United States the East Indians, who form reaffirmed its support of Areco's policy by refusing country's 735,000 population, andthe more than to negotiate with the group for the returnof U. S. 210,000 Negroes. Seriouseffortstoeliminatethisracial soil expert Claude Fly, who was released in March, Minister 1971, after seven months in captivity. discrimination have been made by Prime Uruguay's long tradition of democracy recently Forbes Burham, a British-educated Negrolawyer. congressional commission His chief opposition is headed byex-Premier Dr. came to the fore when a Cheddi Jagan, an East Indian dentist,educated in refused to permit Areco to close down a Tupamaros self-proclaimed Com- newspaper. the United States and a munist. The terrorism continues, however, as the group Racial strife isalso present in neighboring hopes for the election of a more tolerant president asTrinidad-Tobago. in November, 1971. Caribbean islands,such The considerable leftist terrorismprevalent in Negroes who in many cases havepolitical power, Venezuela in recent years abated somewhatin oe seeking economiccontrol, which is often in 1971. 10 bands of racial minorities. Central America
Six nations and a colony occupythe narrow had benefitted the other nationsat its expense. Central America isthmus whichdividesthe Honduras sustained an estimated $38million in- Western Hemisphere. About 14 millionpeople live traregional trade deficit in 1970 alone,while El Salvador, Guatemala and El Salvadoraccumulated large in this area, comprised of Guatemala, surpluses. Costa Rica and Nicaragua alsosuffered Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,Panama and indicated it is British Honduras. trade deficits, and Costa Rica has In order to present a united frontfor commerce restricting imports from the other market mem- with larger nations and to boosttrade among bers. Recently four of the nationslaunched an themselves, five of the little countriesbanded experimental reform program. Should itfail, the together in 1961 in what was hailed astheir most CACM would almost certainlycollapse. significant advance since they declaredtheir in- President Ramon Ernesto Cruz statedthat depencence from Spain in1821:the Central Honduras would be willing to negotiate areturn to American Common Market(CACM). the CACM if it makes concessionsto the poor nation, however. The election of aliberal president Growth Rate Increases of El Salvador in 1972 couldhelp patch up Hon- duran-Salvadorean relations and hasten the return In the early years of the CACM,intraregional of Honduras to the CACM. trade among Guatemala, Honduras,El Salvador, increased, and But Costa Rica and Guatemala,which does more Costa Rica and Nicaragua greatly than a quarter of its intraregionaltrade with the area's average growth rate rose to6.5 per cent Eastern yearly. Tariffs were reduced, eliminatingcharges Honduras, have already sent emissaries to on about 95 per cent ofall goods the five countries Europe in search of new trade markets. traded with each other. Commontariffs were also In the meantime CentralAmerica's population established on other imports, bringing an un- increases by 3.4 per cent each year,necessitating precedented burst of activity to the area_ new investment anddiversified sources of income. Where once these nations exportedmostly Probably the most backward of theCentral bananas, coffee, cotton and sugarand imported American nations, Honduras hashad 136 manufactured goods, they began making many revolutions in its 149-year history. In 1971,for the items themselves. A Central AmericanBank was first time in nearly 40 years,Hondurans elected set up, providing loansfor economic expansion. their president, veteran politicianRamon E. Cruz. Local and foreign investors establishedhundreds of factories, producing a variety oflight-industry Economy Lagging workers. goods and jobs to =employed After an initial spurt of growthfollowing the Multinational development projects were un- establishment of the CACM, the nation's economy dertaken, with plans for integratednetworks of has lagged. The exportation ofbananas which roads, telecommunications andelectric power. still account for 40 per cent of all exportearnings Health, education and labor programsalso were has slackened in recent years. The average per set up. capita income is only $253, as contrastedwith $3,980 Intense nationalism, unsettleddisputes and for the United States. Although someforeign unilateralactionsalteringtradeagreements capital has entered the country,Honduras still weakened the CACM in the latter part of thedecade needs better public administrationto spur diver- however. The "Soccer War," avicious conflict sification programs and better conditionsfor the which erupted following a series of soccermatches country's 2.7 million people, 55 per centof whom between Honduras and El Salvador,virtually are illiterate. paralized the CACM in mid-1969. Two yearslater fighting continued along the border,despite the establishment of a demilitarized zone. Newgpapig Finally, in January, 1971, Hondurasvirtually Cop leAr withdrew from the CACM, claiming the agreement109 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 feelthatthesubsequentreturnof Guatemala, which in 1954 wasthe first nation to many will present overthrow a Communistregime, isconstantly Salvadoreans to their native land threatened by terrorist actionsof opposing ex- problems to the labor forces of bothcountries. that 700 people were Democracy has taken firmest hold in Costa Rica, tremist groups. It is estimated implemented killed just during the first 10months of the state of where successive governments have siege which PresidentCarlosAranaOsorio a social reform programpioneered more than 10 declared in November, 1970to deal with the years ago. beenheld The nation prides itself on its high (85 percent) problem.Castroiteleftistshave than 30 responsible for the assassinationand kidnaping of literacy rate and its many schools. More government officials, businessmenand numerous per cent of the budget is spent oneducation. There fore. gn ambassadors, oftendemanding the are no nationalmilitary forces as such. in exchange for However, Jose "Don Pepe" FigueresFerrer, government release prisoners because hostages.Dozensofmurdersofuniversity elected president in 1970, faces problems professors, students and liberalshave been at- the budget has been running on a deficitfor years. tributed to equally active rightist groups. The national debt is more than doublethat of any Meanwhile the government isworking under a other Central American country and taxes arethe in an highest. Nonetheless, its per capitaincome of $431 five-year economic development program distributed attempt to improve conditionsfor Guatemala's five annually is the highest and most evenly million people, more than halfof whom are Indian, in Central America. illiterate and live in extremepoverty in rural Restoration of private banking has been soughtto areas. The programincludes plans to make ease the financial crisis,but the pressure of a high relevanttoruralneeds,land (3.8 per cent) birth rate poses long-termproblems education industrial and for the nation's economy. Costa Ricaoffers sub- redistribution for peasants, stantial possibilities for agriculture andlivestock agricultural diversification. production, but growth hasbeen slow and more diversification is needed. Somozas Rule in Nicaragua stress on agricultural The southernmost of thenations, Panama did not President Anastasio Somoza, whosefamily has join the CACM when it first wasset up, considering ruled Nicaragua's two million peoplesince the mid itself distinct from the othersbecause of the special 1930s, has announced that athree-man junta, relationship created by the U.S.-controlled Canal composed of two of Somoza'sLiberal Party Zone which divides the country. members and one representativeof the Con- Panama is a country tornby almost continuous servative Party, will rule for two yearswhen his political strife. The country's 1.5million people are term expires in 1972. now ruled by Brig.Gen. Omar Torrijos, com- In thefirst half of the 1960s,Nicaragua's mander of the national guard. economy grew to an average8 per cent annual About 25 per cent of the nation's grossnational growth. In recent years, however,the economic product is derived from theCanal Zone. Bananas, boom has faltered. Somoza claimshis country has produced and sold by the UnitedFruit Co., remain incurred heavy trade deficits and lostsubstantial the largest singleexport. With an extensive revenues as a result of CACMmembership. government public works program,backed by In addition to the economic slump,Somoza has deficit spendh4nd foreign loans, businessmen been confronted with renewedactivity from left- are showing increasedconfidence in the military wing guerrillas and extremelyactive political regime. opposition. However, a well-disciplinedNational Guard poses a deterrent to leftistunderground New Canal Recommended activities. Nicaragua received more percapita countries Early in 1971, a U. S. governmentstudy group foreign aid than most Latin American recommended the construction of a new$2.9 billion during the 1960s, including nearly $140million from of the present the United States. sea-level canal a few miles west El Salvador has become the mosthighly in- canal which is becoming obsolete. dustrialized CACM nation in recent years,with British Honduras, self-governingsince 1964, is about a not a part of the social andeconomic life of the rest industry and agriculture each producing of Central America. Highlyliterate, the English- quarter of the gross national product. speaking area is scheduled forindependence within Its population density of about 400 tothe square but a long-standing mile in this nation of 3.4 million is oneof the highest the British Commonwealth, 40,000 new claim to the territory byGuatemala clouds the in the Americas, however, and about future of the 120,000 inhabitants. jobs are needed each year just tooffset the annual citrus, good population growth of 3.4 per cent. Chiefly dependent on sugar and growth possibilitiesare predicted forBritish Despite rapid industriaization, thesejobs have be diversified not been provided. TheSalvadorean peasants, Honduras if agricultural exports can fewer than half of whom are literate,have often and expanded, commercialfishing developed and greater the once-prosperous timberindustry revived. A migrated to less crowded countries with balmy climate and ideal fishingand water sport opportunity. tourism a bright It was the settling of Salvadoreansin Honduras conditions make large-scale which formed the backbone of the SoccerWar, anal riossibility as afuture income-producer. Central America
Six nations and a colony occupy the narrow had benefitted the other nations at its expense. Central Americaisthmus which dividesthe Honduras sustained an estimated $38 million in- Western Hemisphere. About 14 million people live traregional trade deficitin 1970alone, while in this area, comprised of Guatemala, ElSalvador, Guatemala and El Salvador accumulated large Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and surpluses. Costa Rica and Nicaragua also suffered British Honduras. trade deficits, and Costa Rica has indicatedit is In order to present a united front for commerce restricting imports from the other market mem- with larger nations and to boost trade among bers. Recently four of the nations launched an themselves, five of the little countries banded experimental reform program. Should it fail, the together in 1961 in what was hailed as their most CACM would ahnost certainly collapse. significant advance since they declared their in- President Ramon Ernesto Cruz stated that depencence from Spain in1821:theCentral Honduras would be willing to negotiate a return to American Common Market (CACM). the CACM if it makes concessions to the poor nation, however. The election of a liberal president Growth Rate Increases of El Salvador in 1972 could help patch up Hon- In the early years of the CACM,intraregional duran-Salvadorean relations and hasten the return trade among Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, of Honduras to the CACM. Costa Rica and Nicaragua greatly increased, and But Costa Rica and Guatemala, which does more the area's average growth rate rose to 6.5 per cent than a quarter of its intraregional trade with yearly. Tariffs were reduced, eliminating charges Honduras, have already sent emissaries to Eastern on about 95 per cent of all goodsthe five countries Europe in search of new trade markets. traded with each other. Common tariffs were also In the meantime Central America's population established on other imports, bringing an un- increases by 3.4 per cent each year, necessitating precedented burst of activity to the area. new investment and diversified sourcesof income. Where once these nations exported mostly Probably the most backward of the Central bananas, coffee, cotton and sugar andimported American nations, Honduras has had 136 manufactured goods, they began making many revolutions in its 149-year history. In 1971, for the items themselves. A Central American Bank was first time in nearly 40 years, Hondurans elected set up, providing loans for economicexpansion. their president, veteran politician Ramon E. Cruz. Local and foreign investors established hundredsof factories, producing a variety of light-industry Economy Lagging goods and jobs to unemployed workers. After an initial spurt of growth following the Multinational development projects were un- establishment of the CACM, the nation's economy dertaken, with plans for integrated networks of has lagged. The exportation of bananas which roads, telecommunications and electric power. still account for 40 per cent of all export earnings Health, education and labor programs also were has slackened in recent years. The average per set up. capita income is only $253, as contrasted with $3,980 Intense nationalism,unsettleddisputes and for the TJnited States. Although some foreign unilateralactionsalteringtradeagreements capital has entered the country, Honduras still weakened the CACM in the latter part of the decade needs better public administration to spur diver- however. The "Soccer War," a vicious conflict sification programs and better conditions for the which erupted following a series of soccer matches country's 2.7 million people, 55 per cent of whom between Honduras and El Salvador, virtually are illiterate. paralized the CACM in mid-1969. Two years later fighting continued along the border, despite the establishment of a demilitarized zone. Finally, in January, 1971, Honduras virtually coatNewspapkg withdrew from the CACM, claiming the agreementill DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 feelthatthesubsequentreturnof Guatemala, which in 1954 wasthe first nation to many land will present overthrow a Cmmunistregime, isconstantly Salvadoreans to their native of opposing ex- problems to the labor forces of bothcountries. threatened by terrorist actions Democracy has taken firmest hold in Costa Rica, tremist groups. It is estimatedthat 700 people were implemented killed just during the first 10months of the state of where successive governments have CarlosAranaOsorio a social reform programpioneered more than 10 siegewhich President to deal with the years ago. declared in November, 1970 held The nation prides itself on its high(85 per cent) problem.Castroiteleftistshavebeen than 30 responsible for the assassinationand kidnaping of literacy rate and its many schools. More and numerous per cent of the budget is spent oneducation. There government officials, businessmen are no national militaryforces as such. foreign ambassadors, oftendemanding the Ferrer, government release prisonersin exchange for However, Jose "Don Pepe" Figueres ofmurdersofuniversity elected president in 1970, facesproblems because hostages.Dozens liberals have been at- the budget has been running on adeficit for years. profesrors, students and double that of any tributed to equally activerightist groups. The national debt is more than working under a other Central American country andtaxes are the Meanwhile the government isprogram in an highest. Nonetheless, its per capitaincome of $431 five-year economic development distributed attempt to improve conditionsfor Guatemala's five annually is the highest and most everdy million people, more than halfof whom are Indian, in Central America. illiterate and live in extremepoverty in rural Restoration of private banking has beensought to areas. The programincludes plans to make ease the financial crisis,but the pressure of a high relevanttoruralneeds,land (3.8 per cent) birth rate poseslong-term problems education industrial and for the nation's economy. CostaRica offers sub- redistribution for peasants, stantial possibilities for agricultureand livestock agricultural diversification. production, but growth hasbeen slow and more diversification is needed. Somozas Rule in Nicaragua stress on agricultural The southernmost ofthe nations, Panama did not President Anastasio Somoza, whosefamily has join the CACM when it first wasset up, considering ruled Nicaragua's two million peoplesince the mid itself distinct from the othersbecause of the special 1930s, has announced that athree-man junta, relationship created by theU. S.-controlled Canal composed of two of Somoza'sLiberal Party Zone which divides thecountry. members and one representativeof the Con- Panama is a country tornby almost continuous servative Party, will rule for two yearswhen his political strife. The country's 1.5million people are term expires in 1972. now ruled by Brig.Gen. Omar Torrijos, com- In thefirsthalf of the 1960s, Nicaragua's mander of the national guard. economy grew to an average8 per cent annual About 25 per cent of thenation's gross national growth. In recent years, however,the economic product is derived from theCanal Zone. Bananas, boom has faltered. Somoza claimshis country has produced and sold by theUnited Fruit Co., remain incurred heavy trade deficits andlost substantial the largest singleexport. With an extensive revenues as a result ofCACM membership. government public works program,backed by In addition to the economicslump, Somoza has deficit spending and foreignloans, businessmen been confronted with renewedactivity from left- are showingincreased confidence in themilitary wing guerrillas and extremelyactive political regime. opposition. However, a well-disciplinedNational Guard poses a deterrent to leftistunderground New Canal Recommended activities. Nicaragua received more percapita American countries Early in 1971, a U. S. governmentstudy group foreign aid than most Latin recommended the construction of a new$2.9 billion during the 1960s, including nearly$140 million from of the present the United States. sea-level canal a few miles west highly in- canal which is becoming obsolete. El Salvador has become the most British Honduras, self-governingsince 1964, is dustrialized CACM nation in recent years,with economic life of the rest industry and agriculture eachproducing about a not a part of the social and product. of Central America. Highlyliterate, the English- quarter of the gross national speaking area is scheduled forindependence within Its population density of about400 to the square but a long-standing mile in this nation of 3.4 million is oneof the highest the British Commonwealth, about 40,000 new claim to the territory byGuatemala clouds the in the Americas, however, and future of the 120,000 inhabitants. jobs are needed each year just tooffset the annual and citrus, good population growth of 3.4 per cent. Chiefly dependent on sugar jobs have growth possibilities arepredictedforBritish Despite rapid industriaization, these Honduras if agricultural exports canbe diversified not been provided. TheSalvadorean peasants, fishing developed and fewer than half of whom are literate,have often and expanded, commercial greater the once-prosperous timberindustry revived. A migrated to less crowded countries with balmy climate and ideal fishing andwater sport opportunity. bright It was the settling of Salvadoreans inHonduras conditions make large-scale tourism a which formed the backbone of the SoccerWar, and rssibility as a future income-producer. f,11. I s- The Caribbean
The Caribbean is the United States' "frontyard" change earnings. In 1970, Castro staked Cuba's facing Latin America. economy and his own reputation onthe country's It also is the spot where the history of thewhite ability to harvest 10 million tons of sugar.Although man in Latin Americabegins. Here the first white the yield that year was a record-breaking8.5 settlement was founded by ChristopherColumbus million tons, it was declared a failure by Castroand on a large island whichhe named La Isla Espanola had a disruptive effect on the rest of the economy. (corrupted to Hispaniola). Close toit he had As a result, Castro lowered the goal forthe 1971 discovered an even bigger island Cuba. harvest to seven million tons and declaredloafing a The two islands have played, andcontinue to crime punishable by six months to two yearshard play, a large role in hemispherehappenings. labor. Cuba gained independence from Spainwith U. S. The establishment of socialism in Cubahas had help during the Spanish-American War of1898, and diverse effects on the country. More than a quarter the U. S. military rule whichlasted until 1902 of the 8.5 million population is in schooland the provided great benefits for the islanders.Ad- illiteracy rate is plunging. Families are assured ministration was reformed, and civilservice and free medical care and many, especially peasants, educational systems were established.Public are receiving highersalaries. Due to the strict works were developed. Sanitation wasinstalled and rationing of most foods, consumer goods and even yellow fever eradicated. electricity, however, they find little to buy with their new earnings. Castro Ousted Batista Early in 1971, Castro received a lettersigned by 60 world-renowned intellectualsprotesting his Insurrection,violence and aseriesofdic- treatment of Heberto Padilla, a youngCommunist tatorships followed, culminating in theharsh, poet who was arrested in Havanaafter allegedly repressive regime of Fulgencio Batista. writing anti-Castro literature. About the same Vowing to return democracy to theisland, a time, Castro refused to allow the InternationalRed young leftist named FidelCastro led a guerrilla Cross to enter Cuba to investigate charges of war against Batista,toppling his government in cruelty to political prisoners. 1959. Afterassumingpower,however,he Cuba was ousted from the Organization of proclaimed himself a Marxist-Leninistand American States after an appeal by theUnited established the first openly Socialist nationin the States in 1962, but recently officialdispleasure Western Hemisphere. toward the country has been easing somewhat.The Thousands of people fledas he turnedall newly elected Socialist government of Chile,for privately owned businesses over to the stateand example, officially reopened diplomatic relations declared he would conscript labor to work on state with Castro in 1970, and Mexico neversevered its farms. diplomatic ties with the island nation. In April, 1961, anti-Castro Cubans,trained and assisted by the United States, invaded the760-mile- Hispaniola Government Toppled long island at the Bay of Pigs. The venturefailed when the United States did not provide thefull World attention also has been drawn to Cuba's Caribbean companion island of Hispaniola, par- military aid necessary, and the exiles were killed by the or captured. ticularly to the eastern two-thirds occupied In 1962 a crisis developed overRussian in- Dominican Republic. stallation on Cuba of missile sites equipped with Revolt toppled the government April 24,1965, as rockets capable of hitting any target in theUnited military leaders representing loyalistand rebel States. The late President Kennedy ordered anaval elements vied for power. Takingadvantage of the quarantine of the island and told theRussians to confusion, Communists, mostly organizedand remove their missiles, whichthey did. trained in Cuba, moved in to takecontrol. Although Castro does not align himself politically However, acting promptly toprevent establish- with Moscow, Cuba is economicallydependent upon the Soviet Union and increasesits debt to the larger country by more than $1 million daily. Cuba is basically a one-crop country sugar !SD CAPIN Nawgi'atmg accounting for fully 80 per cent of its foreign ex-113 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 ment of another hemisphereCommunist state, Since then its fortunes have steadily sagged,and President Johnson ordered U. S.troops into the what was once the most rewarding ofFrance's country to restore order andhalt bloodshed. An overseas possessions now is the sicknation of the inter-American peace force made upof U. S., Am erica s . Brazilian, Costa Rican, Nicaraguan,Honduran and Per capita income of the country averages about by the OAS to $80 a year lowest in the hemisphere and life Paraguayan troops was set up is 90 maintain a truce between loyalist andrebel forces. expectancy is only abnut 50 years. Illiteracy A peaceful formula finally wasreached, paving per cent, also highest in thehemisphere. French is the way for elections June 1, 1966,in which former the official language, but most of the nativesspeak President Joaquin Balaguer was an easywinner. Creole, a dialect. The administration was furtherstrengthened when At least 80 per cent of the Haitian preschool and Balaguer's Reformist Party scoredheavily, and schoolage children suffer from malnutritionin surprisingly, in 1968 municipal elections.Balaguer some degree; half die before the ageof 5. The rising was reelected to thepresidency by a large margin birth rate compounds the problem for a population in 1970. which already averages 430 persons to the square The result has been astrongrebufffor mile second in the hemisphere only to Trinidad- Balaguer's chief rival for power, formerPresident Tob a go. Juan Bosch, who returned to therepublic after a Natural factors contribute greatly to Haiti's period of self-exile in Spain. Now aproponent of a abject poverty. dictatorship with popular support, Bosch remains a Two-thirds of the Maryland-size country is major figure in his country's politics. mountainous and only about 2.2 million acresof The Dominican Republic has a longhistory of land are arable. Water is in short supply, aildsince Spain in the climate is semiarid, much irrigationis needed violence since it won independence from and 1821 and then freedom from the yokeof neighboring something which requires more technical Haiti in 1844. Revolution tore the countryuntil U. S. financial resources than are available without Marines landed there in 1916,intervening over outside assistance. debts owed U. S. and European creditors by the Frequent hurricanes p:.,se an additional menace country. The United States withdrewin 1924, by regularly ruining much of the coffee crop,which leaving behind a disciplined Dominican army. accounts for about half of Haiti's meagerexport revenues. For 14 years, however, the major impedimentto U. S. Helps Reconstruction Haiti's progress was the bloody, tyrannical rule of From it emerged an ambitioussoldier named its dictator, Dr. Francois Duvalier. First elected in Rafael Trujillo, who cfained powerand imposed an 1957 (after seven presidents had held powerin less iron-handed, ruthl: ..:s dictatorship on thecountry than a year), he subsequently declaredhimself until his assassination in 1961. A newregime under president for life. He lived in the capital city of Bosch, an intellectual, promisedbetter things, but Port-au-Prince in a white palace guarded by tanks, he was overthrown because of allegedCommunist antiaircraft guns and cannons until his death in infiltration. It was attempts to re-establishBosch April, 1971. which brought on the 1965 coup. "Papa Doe," as he was called, used a com- Much criticism of the United States wasvoiced in bination of murder, terror and voodoo mysticism to Latin America and elsewhere forsending troops wield unshakeable control over his fivemillion into the Dominican Republic. As aresult of this subjects, most of whom are direct descendantsof precedent,however,Communistleaders black African slaves brought in by theFrench. throughout the hemisphere are on noticethat they face the possibility of militaryintervention if they Young Duvalier Named Successor attempt unlawful takeovers of government. Since the revolt, also, the United States has Before his death, he had his 20-year-oldplayboy supplied money and technicians tohelp with son,Jean-Claude,namedhissuccessoras reconstruction, particularly the agrarian reform president for life. program considered vital tothe country's future. The direction the young dictator's government This would diversify agriculturalproduction and will take is still uncertain, as he has yet toestablish cut the dependence on sugar, once thebackbone of himself firmly in his father's place. Other nations the economy but now a glut on themarket. wait to see if an open struggle for powerwill take While the outlook for the Dominican Republic place among Duvalier family members, army and still is not clear and much remains tobe done to government officials and leaders of theTonton rebuild the country politically andeconomically, Macoute, the old dictator's personal Gestapo. the U. S. troops intervention blocked aRed seizure A change in government policy could resultin of power, halted violence and gave theDominicans increased U. S. investment and aid and contribute the opportunity to choose theirleaders with ballots to tourism. Although direct U. S. aid to thepoverty- not bullets. stricken nation has been cut off since 1963 following f- Haiti, which shares Hisnaniola islandwith the reports of Haitian corruption and graft, U.S. in- Dominican Republic, was the first (1804) nationin vestment has increased because of specialtax Latin America to gain independence. exemptons recently offered to foreign industry. Mexico
Mexico isa leader among LatinAmerican law and a new profit-sharing law fatten paychecks countries in terms of political., economic andsocial for factory workers, most farmers earn about$125 progress. a year, about one-fourth of thenational average. Elected presidents have succeeded eachother in Some 25 per cent of these farmers customarily do orderly fashion since the 1930s. Mexicanelections not drink milk or eat meat, eggs or fish.One-third are not characterized bythe violence of many Latin of rural schoolage children are not in school, and American elections, and the army does notget the dropout rate is 98 per cent. itself involved in politics. The government, recognizing the problem, is Economically, Meyico is the envy of otherLatin taking urgent action to improve rural development. American countries, with an annual realgrowth of New roads and housing are being built, electrical 6.8 per cent for the last decade. and irrigafion projects are being undertaken and This sustained economic growthreflectsa low-interest loans are being made available to change from a primary-production economybased small farmers. on agriculture and miningto one becoming in- Peasants from drought-stricken northern states, creasingly industrialized and self-sufficient. where land is no longer available for redistribution, private are being relocated in thetropical, sparsely Spurring this along have been a vigorous populated areas of the Yucatan peninsula. enterprise sector and a governmentpolicy which Technical assistance is offered in the form of has made economic development amajor national fertilizers aid anplication methods, pest and objective disease control, improved seeds and instruction in Public Investment the proper use of irrigation water. Public investment in roads, irrigation projects, With a literacy rate of about 70 percent, more electrification, railroads andcommunication has than 10 million Mexicans still cannot read orwrite. created a solid and broad basecapable of sup- Of these, over one million are Indianswho can't porting a broad range of industrialactivities. speak Spanish, the country's nationallanguage. This has enabled the nation's thrivingindustry to However, an intensive program has beenlaun- diversify into everything frompetrochemicals to ched by the government in therural areas to textiles, eleci.ronics and automobiles,and it is provide adult education for the farmersand to steadily increasing its production of steeland oil. prepare their children foradmission to rural Foreign businessmen show increasinginterest in schools. Mexico, and the U. S. investment hassurpassed $1 billion. Tourism also brings in over$1 billion Education Expanding yearly. Also, educational facilities are growingrapidly to And while some of the more highlydeveloped meet the great expansion in enrollments atpublic countries flounder in various fiscal crises,Mexico's institutions, and education is the largestsingle monetary unit, the peso, is one of theworld's more budget item, with an allotment more thantwice stable currencies, showing no fluctuation indollar that for the military. value since 1954. As in all Latin American countries,Mexico is Modern Mexico was born in the 1910 revolution, troubled with rapid population growth. Its rateof when the landless peasants rose upagainst the 3.5 per cent is so high thepopulation could double great landlords, and the country'spolitical foun- itself in 20 years. dation since has been its agrarian reform program, The infant mortality rate is triple thatof the under which land is given in small parcelsto the United States. The use of birth control measures is peasants. becoming somewhat more accepted in the 96 per Yet the agrarian population poses agreat ob- cent Roman Catholic country, eventhough the stacle to Mexico's progress, and the lotof the government prohibits dissemination ofbirth farmers, comprising about half the nation's52 control information. million population, is a weak spot in the otherwise booming economy. Sugar, cotton and coffee are Mexico's top export items worldwide, however. 115 Coplaf Metogroeug While periodic increases in the minimum wage' DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 9-71 The principal party to the right of the PRIis the Mexico's whole history is an accountof deter- had mination and dynamic action. Partido de Accion Nacional (PAN), which has which conquered limited success in running candidates. After 300 years of rule by Spain, Likehispredecessors,PresidentLuis the native Aztecs in 1519-21, theMexicans revolted Echeverria is firmly committed to carrying outthe in 1810, winning independencein 1821. turbulence followed, with ideals of the 1910 revolution developing Mexico A half-century of for Mexicans with government and privatecapital, governments falling on an averageof every nine including foreign capital so long as outsidein- months. Mel-.11co lost Texas in1836 and the rest of its holdings in what now is the U.S. West and South- vestors respect Mexican laws. with the United Though some U. S. businessmen haveexpressel west after defeat in the 1846-48 war concern over Mexico's policy of"Mexicanization' States. Benito Juarez, an of most business investments (requiring atleast 51 Social reforms were begun by per cent ownership byMexicans), Mexico's biggest Indian patriot, who becamepresident in 1858, but a which French invasion in 1862 installed apuppet govern- buyer and supplier is the United States, of Austria as emperor. accounts for over half of its southernneighbor's ment, with Maximilian foreign trade. Maximilian was overthrownand executed by This economic dependence on the UnitedStates Juarez, who again becamepresident in 1867. always has irked Mexicans, andthey have The country came underthe dictatorship of trade Porfirio Diaz (1877-80 and1884-1911) until the welcomed chances to broaden their country's revolution, which started 20 yearsof constant pattern. Japan and Wn.:-.A Germany haveextensive battling for power. business interests in Mexico, and thereis sortie turmoil, with military factionsand more than a trading with Communist countries , primarily sales The economy was wrecked, of wheat and cotton_ million lives were lost in theconflict. Mexico's own businessmen, helped bygovern" ment subsidies and small-businessloans, also are National Coalition Formed increasingly embarking on an internationaltrade Finally, the warring generalsformed a national and economic expansion program. coalition, the Party of RevolutionaryInstitutions One promising outlet is theCentral Ameri- (PRI), and this one-partyorganization has ruled can Common Market,which is being eagerlY ever since. wooed by businessmen and governmentofficialS. Peasants and workers who werefollowers of the In international Politics, Mexicotakes an in- individual generals quickly cameunder the PRI dependentstand,upholdingpoliciesofself- banner, and as new social groupsemerged in- determination and nonintervention,though dustrialists, professionals, intellectualsthey also remaining a staunch supporter of theOrganization were brought into theparty's fold. Military rule of American States. gradually gave way under this one-partysystem, Relations between the UnitedStates and Mexico until in 1946 Mexico beganelecting presidents who also are on a cordial basis. were civilians, notgenerals. One touchy issue, arising fromthe proximity of a The PRI now claims amembership of more than sub-developed nation to a super-developednatioll, eight million, and thoughit generally oversees has yet to be settled betweenthe two. Mexico has most facets of Mexican life,unquestioned progress set up border industrial zoneswith special low and stability have beenachieved, and individual tariff regulations in order to attractjobs for hun- freedom and action show continuinggains. dredsofitsunder-employed.U. S.industrY, Shortly before the 1970 elections thevoting age an2dous to take advantage oflow-wage Mexican was lowered from 21 to18, expanding the number of labor market, has established morethan 200 plants eligible voters by three million. across the border. Communism exists inMexiCo, but the Com- munist Party as snch is weak. Moresignificant is U. S. Labor GroupsProtest Socialist Popular the growing Marxist party, the Various U. S. labor groupshave protestedthe Party. It has less influence inlabor than in which permit theplants to education, but has had some successin stirring tariff regulations to poverty-ridden operate, claiming thepractice contributes unrest and violence among the unemployment at home.The same chargeswere farmers. which permitMexican Early in 1971, a number of students werearrested filed against the lawscommute to work inthe and charged with participating in aSocialist plot to "green card workers" to topplethegovernment.Thestudents,who United States. in a Moscow The two countries arestill working together originally left Mexico to study at a program of borderinspection calledOperation university, 7 were trained ir guerrillawaneAre controlling the smugglingof at a camp in Communist NorthKorea. They were Cooperation aimed at anorganizationcalledthe narcotics. of membersof A policy agreementwhich ended decades Revolutionary Action Movement. inAugust,1970,when. As a result of the incident, Mexicoexpelled five disputes was signed unwillingness to Presidents Nixon andDiaz Ordaz set the Soviet diplomats and dee., nred its ternational border once andfor all at the centerline continue to grant asylum to politicalrefugees from Rio Grande River. other countries. lief the meandering Canada
largest nation, Separationist feeling also occursin Manitoba, Canada is the world's second Saskatchewan and Alberta, the western"prairie trailing only the Soviet Union.It also is one of the Rather of Free World provinces" where much wheat is grown. most active members of the group thanbeingbasedonethnicproblems,the nations. westerners want separation becausethey feel other Inhabiting this great land is apopulation only don't care of the United States, Canadians and the federal government about one-tenth the size of that about their problems. with most of the 21.4million Canadians living brought to a peak Toronto, Montreal, Ot- The separationist problem was around the big cities like in October 1970 when Canadianssuddenly found tawa and Vancouver.For the entire country, this atmosphere averages about six personsto the square mile, themselves living in a war-emergency United States. And brought about by Trudeau'shard-hitting reac- compared with about 55 in the tion to kidnapings, assassinationof Quebec Labor since most of these largecenters lie within a 200- demonstrations. mile belt along the U. S.-Canadianborder, the Minister Pierre Laporte and great deal in Police were given power to makesearches and citizens of the two countries have a arrests without warrants,seizing more than 250 common. persons across Canada.Response to the govern- However, the Canadian characterand outlook rights in the crisis stem from a distinctivehistorical and social ment's decision to suspend civil background, which has given the nation a wayof won strong support athome, and approval also was life peculiarly its own. widespread among Canada's neighbors. of the country. In Quebec, French-Canadiansmake up 80 per One example is the ethnic makeup cent of the province's population,but control only Many feel that if the French-English Friction 10 per cent of the economy. economicdisparityinQuebec lessened,the About six million Canadians areof French an- separationist movement therewould diminish. cestry, and more than halfof those speak only In 1968, in an effort to heal thenationalistic rift, a French. About 11 millionCanadians trace their Commission of Bilingualism andBiculturism was national heritageto Britain,and speak only created to study the problem.In 1969 Canada English. Friction betweenFrench-and English- signed into law legislationmaking the federal speaking Canadians has at timescreated serious government officially bilingual.This gives equal crises which threatened to splitthe nation. language rightstoCanada's French-speaking The problem actually goes back sometwo cen- minority and sets up bilingualdistricts where turies, when England defeatedFrench forces in French-speaking persons will havethe right to Canada and took control of theterritory. trial, to consult federal officialsand to apply for At that time the population ofCanada was almost jobs all in French. entirely French, but in the nextfew decades thousands of British colonistsarrived. In 1867 the Elections Support Unity the Dominion British North American Act created Elections held in Quebec in April 1970,in which of Canada, linking Quebec,where most French- provinces in separatism was the key issue,supported the Canadians live, with the other existing position of a unified Canada takenby the victorious a confederation. complained that Federalist Liberal Party. French-Canadians since have In the international field, Canada,long a national they have been exploited andtreated as inferiors entity within the BritishCommonwealth, first by the English-Canadianmajority. demanding a new began moving forcefully in theworld scene on its The French-Canadians began own after World War IL constitution to recognize theseparate French has been identity, language and culture.In recent yea7s, Since 1945, the basis of its foreign policy Quebec Province has becomethesceneof support of the United Nations. nationalist terrorism, and manyof its inhabitants demand that it secede altogetherand become an independent state. Canadian Prime Minister PierreElliott Trudeau117 even has had troublevisiting Quebec, his home Cokklewgpat200 province, because of threats byradical separatists. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATTON Traditionally, Canada stressed its tieswith the As one of the world's great wheat-growing Commonwealth, the North AtlanticTreaty countries, Canada also has asserted itseconomic Organization (NATO) and the Americas. The first independence by selling wheat to Russia, Com- two gave Canada a chance to function inworld munist China and other Red nations. affairsandincommercewithoutcomplete However, Russia defaulted on a wheat-buying dependence on the United States. contract which expired in 1969, costing Canada Trudeau, however, has instituted ashift in about $200 to $300 million. Canada's defense policies to an emphasisplaced Canadian External Affairs Minister Mitchell firmly in the national interest. Sharp says the main motivation for the Canadian As a result, Canada's NATOforces in Europe, move for links with Peking are not simply to fur- once 10,000 strong, arebeing cut almost in half and ther trade but to promote world peace and develop the country will end its nuclear roleby 1972. Canada's status as a Pacific nation. This is also part of an effort to hold theline on While Canada has refused to recognize Peking's defense spending. Canada's armedforces, which sovereignty over The Republic of China (Taiwan), numbered 120,000 four years ago, arebeing cut to it does support seating of Red China in the United 80,000. In the past, Canada's forces havebeen used Nations and has agreed to sever relations with in many world trouble spots forpeace-keeping Taiwan. operations, such as Cyprus and the Congo. One Canadian measure which the United States In the Americas, however,there is an acute formally rejected was the extension in May 1970 of awareness by Canadians thattheir defense is Canada's territorial seas from three to 12 miles. bound up with that of the United States, thatthey Canada also created a 100-mile zone where ships ultimately are under U. S. nuclear protection. must conform to its pollution controls or be barred The two countries, in fact, have aPermanent from the area. Joint Defense Committee under whichhas been set These moves, regarded by the U. S. as attempts up the North AmericanAir Defense Command at "Arctic sovereignty," are importantbecause of (NORAD) and the joint network ofDistant Early the Northwest Passage which theCanadians could Warning (DEW) radar installations. control. Blessed with tremendous natural wealth, Domestically, Canada has had its share of Canadians, by hard work and skillful technology problems, with politics perhaps the most serious have been exploiting their richopportunities at an after the French-English issue. ever-increasing pace in recent years, achieving a Also, unemployment among French-Canadians standard of living which compares favorablywith who have moved from farms to cities in recent that of the United States. years runs at a rate of almost 10 per cent.Overall, The spectacular growth of Canadian manufac- the jobless rate was 6.2 per cent inJanuary 1971 turing,particularly since World War II has and is steadily climbing. changed the nation from a rural agrariansociety The federal government long has been in the into one which is primarily industrial and urbanin hands of the two major political parties the ch ar a cter. Liberals and the Conservatives. However, large U. S. investments have con- tributed greatly to this prosperity, with 60 per cent Governments Lacked Majority of Canadian industry financed byAmerican However, not since 1958 had the electors returned capital, and the Canadians are ever-consciousof a majority government atOttawa, and the minority the proximity and powerful influence oftheir great problem in the House of Commons meant that the southern neighbor. governments of retired Prime Ministers John More trade, in fact, flows betweenthe two Diefenbaker and Lester B. Pearson could be countries some $9 billion each way in 1968 than defeated any time all the opposition groups got between any other two countries. together. The U. S. provides 70 per cent ofCanadian The result was Via governments had to be foreign trade, and 6,090 industrial andcommerciul cautious in presenting legislation, and every item companies in Canada ar,: owned or controlledby of business had to be assessed on its chanceof American interests. getting through Parliament, leading to partisa- bickering and neglect of vital Lusiness. Joint Projects However, with the retirement in April 1968 of In addition, there is already an excl ange of Liberal Party leader Pearson as prime minister, hydro-electric power across the border; and the two the reins of office fell to Trudeau, aFrench- countries are now discussing possiblesharing of Canadian uitellectual and sportsman. water and energy resources, such asoil, gas and Trudeau quickly got dissolution of Parliament, coal. zud in a subsequent general election won a clear Canadians generally acknowledge the need of victory. U. S. money, but many fear that U. S.economic- His government has faced difficulties with a domination may lead to U. S. political dominat-on. housing shortage, inflation, rising prices and high LegislationhasbeensoughtbyCanadian unemployment. Th,_ government has insauted "nationalists" to cut U. S. participation inindustry direct credit controls. and has set up a commission Ito set wage and price guidelines. and encourage local ownership. 110 Maps of the World
Time and distance barriers have almost vanished in find the map of Africa, the Middle East and Europe this age of instant communications, supersonic flight, an invaluable aid. even space travel. For one thing, the map brings to graphic order Events in places once remote from the civilized changing boundaries and names of the nearly 50 na- world now appear on our television screens as they tions and dependencies in Africa's.huge jigsaw puzzle. are happening. Our troops leavefor a war half a world Also, the strategic importance of the Mediterranean away and are in the battle area in a matterof hours. Sea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf is illustrated by Satellitespeering at weather conditionsin one the map, as is the geographic scheme of the Soviet hemisphere spot danger signals for another part of Union's expansion of communism into Europe and the the world, and man is flying to the moon, fromwhere Middle East. the earth takes on the appearance of a global map in The Southeast Asia map shows the huge expanse of the sic. Communist China as it looms over its southern neigh- As tne world shrinks, events in other partsof the bors. The lesser-known island nations of that area are world take on increasing meaning, and deeper under- represented on this map, which also points up the role standing of news reports riona these areas is necessary great ocean bodies have had in isolating Oceania from not only for governments but forindividual citizens. the rest of the world in the past. One way to foster this understanding is by the use of The special significance of Canada and Latin Amer- maps. These reveal quickly andgraphically one coun- ica to the United States is made clear by the map of try's geographic relationship to another, the relative Latin America and part of North America. size of a nation's territory, the isolation of a cityfrom If technology has made the world an interde- the sea, from a border or from another city. pendent community of men, then it has made tile It is easily seen on a map, for example, how events Western Hemisphere an intimate neighborhood, ant! in Cuba might affect the United States, Mexico or the map clearly indicates why this is the case. Haiti because of those countries' proximity to Castro's It also suggests the geographic importance of the island. Latin American Big Three Mexico, which separatc's A map's lines qui-kly 17dicate problems a country Central America from the United States; Brazil, which s ,ich as Lesotho m_ght havebecause of its landlocked shares borders with all south American nations ex- position inside South Africa. West Berlin's situation cept Ecuador and Chile, alld Argentina, made formida- in East Germany also can appreciated more readily ble by its wide expanses of accessible land and its with the help of a map. temperate climate away from the tropics. In this section are several esrecially drawn maps shr.,wing areas discussed in the text of the accompany- ing series of pamphlets. Coplat Newvat200 Students of international affairs in those areas will DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
119
9-0 II 1 I. Ao g - k4f, A k1,11) Ir4 11/444tqr )1p441`r 4e410 : 1# # OA Otk4;0 : : . I : : .I 111 A *Dakar N\SENEGAL Niamey CHAD Khartoum YEMEN ADEN,.. Bathurst GUINEA Bamako * /VOLTA Ouagadougou* UPPER oc L NIGERIA Vs* Fort.Lamy SUDAN AFARSFRENCH 'AND TERRITORYOF THE' ISSAS THE . *Conakry 2 IVORY COAST 26 TOGO DAHOMEY 29 Addis Ababa 24 Accra *GHANA v, *Porto Novo Lagos CAMEROON 30 CL,. Bangui* AFRICAN REPUBLIC 12 ETHIOPIA SI 0 it INDEPENDENT NATIONS OF AFRICA Pao Yaounda Mogadiscip treasperre,hName, ki761 et,erce ofFormerlyBaler (sq.mo And Population NumberCod* RIO MUNI CJ 0 33 THE CONGO Entebbe UGANDA 11 KENYA 10 1 Burund(BotswaAlgeria (1962) 66) BelgiumBritainFrance 275,000919,591 10,747 14,000,000 3,600.000 600,000 3642 2 *Libreville GABON 0 -04/ RWANo's ChadCentralCameroon (1960) Africa (1960) Rep. 119601 FranceFrante 495.753236,293183,581 3.700,0001,500,0005,800,000 123013 Brazzaville rt. Bukoba Kigali * Usumbura *Nairobi CongoEquitorialDahomey (1960) Guinea(1960) (1969) FranceSFparanince 132,04643,48310,852 2,700,000 900,000 492833 * Kinshasa BURUNDI TANZANIA ,rr,sr,s.ii-fi' GhanaGabonGambiaEthiopia (19601((957) (19651(1942) BritainFranceItaly 102,089398,35091,843 4,005 25,000,000 9,000,000 400,000500,000300000 322619 7 34 a"rr i 4-I1.4 50 LiberiaLesothoKenyaIvoryGuinea Coast (1963) 11847)1(958) ((966) ((960) NoneBritainFrance 224,960127,52094,9254100011,716 10,900,0004,300,0003,900,0001,2000001,000,000 2344102420 * Luanda 37 * Dar, ei * MallMalawiMalagasyLibya 11960) (1951) 119641 Rep. ((960) FranceBritainFItraalnyce 464,000228,000679,358 36,100 4,400,0006,300,0008100,(1001,900,000 154846 4 rr:, MALAWI )1' t NigerMoroccoMauritania 1(969) (1956) 1(960) FrameSpainFrance & 489,189419,231172,834 15,700,000 3,800,0001,209:10 1416 1 ANGOLA 40 ZAMBIA 48 11 rr. RwandaRhodesiaNigeria ((960)1(962) ((965) BelgiumBritainBriteIn 356,669150,33310,166 55,100,000 3,600,0005,000,000 35392918 Lusaka gom41601SierraSenegal Leone Rep,(1960) (19611 BritainItaly19ritainFrance & 246,201 27,69975,750 2,700,0002,600,0003,900,000 22 9 47 * Zombael 38 MALAGASY , ?sr SouthTanzaniaSwazilandSudan Artrrn ((956) (1910) (196))1(968) BritainBritain 967,500471,445363,708 6,704 20,100,00013,200,00015,800,000 400,000 374543 6 SOUTH-WEST Salisbury* Q, ..0, ' REPUBLIC to UgandaTurnslaTog0The Congo ((960) 1(956)(19621 (1960) BritainFranceBelgium 905,563 58.00020,400 17,400,0005,100,0001,900,000 34 1127 3 AFRICA RHODESIA 39 Tafiañarive * ZambiaUpperUnited VoltaArab 0964) 1(960)Rep,(Er/OB(1923) BrilainFranceBritain 288,130105,869386,10091,134 33,900,0008,600,0004,300,0005,400,000 4725 5 41 BOTSWANA 42 0 46 Name OTHER NATIONS OF AFRICA Controlled Area Cods Windhoek Gaberonliers Angola PrOVInceOverseasPortugal Ily 481,351(Sq. Mi.) Population5,700,000 Number 40 Mbabane * SWAZILAND LOtiretigo Marques lin!IssasofFrench (he Mars Territory and the TerritoryMoroccoOverseasFrance 8,880 740 125,00050,000 3) 8 54MasefLESOTHO GuineaPoduguMozambique re ProvinceOverseasPortugalTerritory 297,731 14,000 7,700000 500,000 2138 SOUTH AFRICA 43 vqe South-West Africa AssignedMandateSo. Africa 317,887 600.000 41 17 , 4 ' :.14'