Transportation and Storage of Oil and Gas

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Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «Тюменский государственный нефтегазовый университет»

А. А. Бондаренко, И. Д. Коваленко, А. В. Чумакова

TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF OIL AND GAS

Учебное пособие для практических занятий по дисциплине «Технический английский язык» для студентов, обучающихся по направлению 131000 «Нефтегазовое дело»

Тюмень ТюмГНГУ 2013 УДК 811.111 (075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ.-923 Б 811

Рецензенты: кандидат социологических наук, доцент Е. Г. Молодых-Нагаева кандидат социологических наук, доцент Е. И. Аржиловская

Бондаренко А. А. Б 811 Transportation and storage of oil and gas. Учебное пособие для практических занятий студентов, обучающихся по направлению 131000 «Нефтегазовое дело» / А. А. Бондаренко, И. Д. Коваленко, А. В. Чумакова. — Тюмень : ТюмГНГУ, 2013. — 96 с. ISBN 978-5-9961-0762-9

Основная цель учебного пособия заключается в развитии языковых компетенций студентов, способствующих формированию достаточного уровня владения английским языком по специальности. Учебное пособие состоит из двух частей, в основе которых лежат тексты по нефтяной тематике с заданиями лексического и грамматического характера, направленными на овладение словарным запасом по специальности. Пособие содержит теорию по грамматике и лексику к каждому разделу пособия, а также упражнения для закрепления грамматического и лексического материала. Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов, обучающихся по направлению 131000 «Нефтегазовое дело».

УДК 811.111 (075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ.-923

ISBN 978-5-9961-0762-9 © Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «Тюменский государственный нефтегазовый университет», 2013

CONTENTS

Unit 1. Historical development of oil pipelines 4 Unit 2. The methods of transporting petroleum 9 Unit 3. Types of pipelines and storage tanks 17 Unit 4. Pumping stations 21 Unit 5. Materials 24 Unit 6. Manufacture of pipelines 28 Unit 7. Arctic pipeline construction methods 30 Unit 8. Ditching and laying 34 Unit 9. Bending, welding and coating 37 Unit 10. Testing 40 Unit 11. Environmental impact 43 Unit 12. Experience in pipeline construction 46 Unit 13. Cryogenic pipeline 49 Supplementary reading 51 Список используемой литературы 95

UNIT 1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF OIL PIPELINES

Study the following vocabulary

1. pipe line (line) – трубопровод 2. oil field – нефтяное месторождение, промысел 3. trunk line – магистральный трубопровод 4. connect – соединять 5. trench – траншея, ров 6. because of – из-за 7. lay (laid, laid) – прокладывать (трубопровод) 8. dig (dug, dug) – рыть, копать 9. by means of – посредством, с помощью 10. spade – лопата 11. rope – канат, верёвка 12. scraper – скрепер 13. ditcher – канавокопатель 14. pipe-bending – трубогибочный 15. pipe screwing – трубозавинчивающий 16. mileage – протяженность, расстояние в милях 17. appear – появляться 18. distribution – распределение 19. bulk – большое количество 20. oil pipe-line net – сеть нефтепроводов 21. efficiency – производительность, эффективность 22. delivery capacity – пропускная способность 23. thin – тонкий 24. opinion – мнение 25. confine – ограничивать 26. crude – сырой, необработанный, неочищенный 27. crude petroleum – сырая нефть 28. slurry – раствор 29. inch – дюйм

Exercise 1. Read this text about pipelines development.

The first pipeline in Russia was laid in 1878. It was a short line built for the transportation of oil from the Balahani oil fields to the town of Baku.

Its construction was followed by the building in 1904 of a trunk line from Baku to Batumi. It connected the oil fields of Baku with the port of Batumi. Its length was 833 km. It should be noted that before the October Revolution there were few pipe lines in Russia, their construction being difficult because of the absence of such equipment as tractors, cranes, excavators and etc. The trenches for laying a pipe were dug by means of spades, the pipe was laid into them with the help of ropes without using any machinery. Now to help the builders there is first class machinery, powerful tractors, bulldozers, scrapers, ditchers, pipe bending, pipe- screwing and pipe-laying machines. A considerable mileage of trunk pipelines has been constructed in our country after the Revolution. The trunk lines Grozny to Tuapse, Emba to Orsk, a new line from Baku to Batumi were among the first pipelines, built at that time. Recently there have appeared two major lines in our country: the 2795-mile Friendship and the 4968-mile Siberian line. Pipelines have proved to be the most economical method for the distribution of natural gas and the transportation of oil in bulk; therefore the oil pipeline net is increasing from year to year. The basic task of the pipeline builders is to increase efficiency and delivery capacity of the line. For this purpose the length and the diameter of the lines are growing continuously. At present there is an increasing tendency to use longdistance, large-diameter pipes (up to 42 inches, i.e. more then one meter); at the same time thinner wall pipes are coming into use. There has been a general opinion that pipe line transportation is confined to crude petroleum, but this is not necessarily the case. At present an extensive research program is being carried out on solids pipe lining, including slurry and capsules. Other possible materials being considered for pipeline transportation are coal, iron ore, potash and even com.

Exercise 2. Find English equivalents of the following words in the text.

Месторождение нефти, магистральная линия, прокладывать трубопровод, транспортировка нефти, трубоукладочные машины, посредством, значительная протяженность, расширять сеть трубопроводов, повышать производительность и пропускную способность, сырая нефть, трубогибочные машины, отсутствие оборудования, распределение природного газа, транспортировка нефти в больших количествах.

Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the most economical method for the transportation of oil and gas? 2. When was the first pipeline laid in Russia? Speak about it in more detail? 3. What was the first trunk line in Russia? When was it built and what was its length?

4. Why were there very few pipelines in Russia before the October revolution? 5. How were the pipelines built at this time 6. What are the two major pipelines laid recently? 7. What is the basic task of the pipeline builders? 8. What is the largest diameter of oil pipelines? 9. What material besides oil and gas can be transported through pipelines?

Exercise 4. Read the dialogue.

Alex – Hello. Travis – How do you do? Glad to meet you. How did you spend your vacation? Did you go anywhere? Alex – This summer I had practice in the North of our region. Travis – Oh, it's interesting. What did you do there? Alex – As you know I am a student of the faculty of pipeline transport, so our aim was to see the pipeline with our own eyes and to watch how it operates. Travis – Tell me some more details about it. Alex – The pipeline is a gigantic structure, it was laid for only two years in spite of the difficult natural conditions. The workers that were building this line were provided with all the necessary equipment. People of many nationalities took part in the construction. Travis – You were greatly impressed by what you have seen, were you not? Alex – Yes, I was. It is difficult to imagine what great efforts had been made by the builders in the construction of the pipeline. All the operations on the pipeline are fully automated. I would like to take part in the construction myself. Travis – Thank you for your story. I wish you good luck. See you soon. Alex – Good bye.

What are the guys talking about? How did Alex spend his vacations? What new has he learnt? What he said about the pipeline?

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

1. Первый трубопровод в России был построен для транспортировки нефти от месторождения Балахани до города Баку длинной в 833 километра. 2. Перед Октябрьской революцией строительство трубопроводов было затруднено из-за отсутствия необходимой техники, такой как тракторы, краны и экскаваторы. 3. Траншей выкапывались лопатами, а трубы укладывали с помощью канатов, без использования специального оборудования.

4. Недавно в нашей стране появились два главных трубопровода: Дружба и Сибирская магистраль. 5. Доказано, что трубопроводы являются самым экономичным способом транспортировки нефти и газа в больших количествах. 6. Основной задачей строения трубопровода является увеличение его пропускной способности. 7. В современном проектировании трубопроводов наблюдается тенденция использования более длинных трубопроводов с большим диаметром. WORD BUILDING

Many nouns in the English language are formed from the verbs with the help pf suffixes

Verb Suffix Noun improve -ment improvement manage -ment management elect -ion election discuss -ion discussion inform -ation information organize -ation organization jog -ing jogging spell -ing spelling

There are common suffixes added to nouns or verbs and they describe people and their jobs.

-er -er -or -ist dancer driver actor economist builder manager constructor journalist farmer employer operator artist

Exercise 6. Form nouns from the given verbs with the help of suffixes.

Verb Noun to educate ……………………………………….. to improve ……………………………………….. to arrange ……………………………………….. to equip ……………………………………….. to build ……………………………………….. to transport ……………………………………….. to distribute ……………………………………….. to consider ………………………………………..

Exercise 7. Write down the name of a person or a thing that does these things. act ………………… bend ………………… employ ………………… screw ………………… sing ………………… connect ………………… economics ………………… dig ………………… translate ………………… scrap ………………… manage ………………… ditch …………………

PASSIVE VOICE

Active voice Passive voice Present simple They lay pipes. Pipes are laid. He uses a spade. The spade is used. Present continuous They are laying pipes. Pipes are being laid. He is using a spade now. The spade is being used now. Past simple They laid pipes. Pipes were laid. He used a spade. A spade was used. Past continuous They were laying pipes. Pipes were being laid. He was using a spade. The spade was being used. Future simple They will lay pipes. Pipes will be laid. Present perfect They have laid pipes. Pipes have been laid. He has dug a trench. A trench has been dug. Past perfect They had laid pipes. Pipes had been laid. He had dug a trench. A trench had been dug.

Exercise 8. Turn from active into passive.

1. We transport oil through pipelines. 2. Our institute carried out an extensive research program. 3. Soon we will transport iron ore, coal and other materials through pipelines. 4. The designers are continuously working at the problem of increasing the delivery capacity of pipeline. 5. Last year this time we were completing the construction of a new trunk line. 6. The designers will be working at this problem for some years. 7. Since the October Revolution our country has constructed a considerable mileage of trunk pipelines. 8. Prior to 1878 people had transported petroleum in barrels. 9. The workers will finish preparation of the line till autumn. 10. People dug the trenches with the help of spades.

Exercise 9. Turn from passive into active.

1. The first pipeline in Russia was laid in 1878. 2. It was built for the transportation of oil from oilfields. 3. The pipe was laid into trenches with the help of ropes. 4. At present an extensive research program is being carried out on solids pipe lining. 5. The capacity of the pipeline is effected by many factors. 6. The extension of the oil pipeline net is paid much attention to in our country. 7. The movement of oil through pipelines is influenced by a variety of factors.

Exercise 10. Translate into English.

1. За открытием новых нефтяных промыслов обычно следует строительство системы трубопроводов. 2. На пластмассовые трубы не влияет влага. 3. О Сибирском трубопроводе говорят как о самом большом трубопроводе в нашей стране. 4. На книгу Шухова "Строительство трубопроводов" ссылаются многие учёные. 5. За строительством трубопровода Баку-Батуми последовало строительство трубопровода Грозный-Туапсе.

UNIT 2 THE METHODS OF TRANSPORTING PETROLEUM

Study the following words

1. choice – выбор 2. a barrel – бочка 3. a can – бидон 4. to weld – сваривать 5. to rivet – клепать, заклепывать 6. railroad tank car – ж. д. цистерна 7. sufficient – достаточный 8. to hold – держать 9. point of view – точка зрения 10. to conduct – проводить, вести 11. refined – очищенный

12. scarce – редкий, имеющийся в небольшом количестве 13. prior to ... – перед, до 14. considerable – значительный 15. to accomplish – осуществлять, выполнять 16. bymeansof – с помощью, посредством 17. a carrier – транспортёр 18. chiefly – особенно, главным образом

Exercise 1. Study the following phrases. both ... and – как... так; и ... и... the former – первый the latter – последний either... or ... – или ... или ... neither... nor... – ни ... ни ... either – любой neither – никакой on the one hand – с одной стороны on the other hand – с другой стороны as well as ... – также, как ... as well – также as far as ... is concerned – что касается... by far – гораздо, значительно, намного

Exercise 2.Translate these sentences into Russian.

Pipelines may lie both over and under the ground. Both engineers and workers understand the importance of the task. They must consider both the pressure of the gas and the diameter of the line. Barrels and cans may be used to transport petroleum. The latter are usually smaller in size than the former. Tanks for the storage of petroleum can be vertical and horizontal. The former are sometimes very high while the latter are low and long. Tanks are made of steel either by welding or by riveting steel sheets. Neither barrels nor railroad tank cars are sufficient for transporting large quantities of oil. In either case it is important to take into account economic importance. Neither of these methods is good. Pipelines may be used to transport either crude oil or refined products. A machine should be neither small nor large. On the one hand pipes are widely used to transport oil, on the other hand they are no less important for moving gas. We must take into consideration on the one hand the distance to be covered and on the other hand the property of the material to be transported. Oil as well as its products... Pipelines are important

10 for moving gas as well as crude oil. Pipes are made of iron, steel and plastic material as well. As far as gas is concerned ... As far as tank cars are concerned, they are still used where neither rivers nor pipelines are available. The application of welding in pipe joining was by far the most important factor in speeding up the work of laying pipes.

Exercise 3. Translate the following phrases into English.

Oil pipelines, natural conditions, steel sheets, oil products, water transportation, crude oil, refined products, economic importance, long distance transportation, modem petroleum transportation.

THE METHODS OF TRANSPORTING PETROLEUM AND THEIR RELATIVE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The choice of the method of gas and oil transmission depends largely on the distance to be covered, the natural conditions and the property of the material to be transported. Besides oil pipelines both petroleum and its products may be transported in special containers, such as barrels and cans. The latter are usually smaller in size than the former. They are made of steel either by welding or riveting steel sheets. Much metal is needed for this method of transporting oil and oil products. Neither barrels nor railroad tank cars are sufficient for transporting large quantities of oil. Water transportation of oil in tank ships or in tankers holds the second place in economic importance. From the point of view of international trade, this method of transportation would rank first as a great part of the foreign trade is conducted in tankers. In our country with its vast territory the transportation of oil through pipelines proves to be of great importance; on the other hand the transportation in barges is no less important for moving crude oil as well as its refined products over areas where rivers are not scarce., As far as gas transportation is concerned, there is only oné way to transport gas and that is through pipelines. Prior to 1920 a considerable part of a long distance transportation of crude oil was accomplished by means of railroad tank cars. Now railroad tank cars are used as a carrier of refined products that go into domestic consumption. Since pipelines by far the most important factor in modern petroleum transportation, we shall be chiefly concerned with the transportation of petroleum by this method.

Exercise 4. Write the ending of the following sentences.

1. The choice of the methods of oil and gas transmission depends on ... 2. Besides oil pipelines both petroleum and its products may be transported in...

3. Water transportation of oil and refined products is conducted in ... 4. In Russia with its vast territory the transportation of oil through pipelines ... 5. There is only one way to transport gas ...

Exercise 5. Answer the following questions.

1. What factors does the choice of the method of gas and oil transmission depend on? 2. What methods of oil transportation are known? 3. What is the most economical method of oil transportation? 4. What method of transportation is used in international trade? 5. What methods of gas transportation do you know?

GRAMMAR ADJECTIVES. DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Односложные и двусложные прилагательные Положительная Сравнительная Превосходная степень степень степень small smaller the smallest large larger the largest big bigger the biggest happy happier the happiest

Exercise 6. Form the comparative and the superlative degree of the following adjectives.

Hot, long, short, clever, silly, great, red, black, white, thin, thick, fat, nice, warm, cold, merry, small, tall, high, weak, strong, heavy, light, green, ; dry, clean, dirty, wide, deep, brave.

Запомните особые случаи образования степеней сравнения Положительная степень Сравнительная степень Превосходная степень old elder, older the eldest the oldest far farther, further the farthest, the furthest good better the best bad worse the worst

Exercise 7. Translate into English.

Старый, старше, самый старый, самый старший, мой старший брат, мой старый друг, дальше, самый дальний, самый длинный, короче, счастливый, счастливее, самый счастливый, самый лучший, самый черный, длиннее, хуже, лучше, теплее, ее лучший друг, ее младший сын, его старший сын

Многосложные прилагательные Положительная степень Сравнительная степень Превосходная степень interesting mоrе interesting the most interesting beautiful more beautiful the most beautiful

Exercise 8. Fill in the blanks with the correct comparative or superlative forms.

thin sad long far wet dirty dangerous expensive difficult patient good old easy short exciting cheap hot reliable wonderful slow late easy hard long fast little bad useful many great

Exercise 9. Translate these sentences into English.

Я знаю интересную историю. Он знает более интересную историю. Она знает самую интересную историю. Это длинный путь. Это более длинный путь. Это самый длинный путь. Ее работа очень важна. Его работа важнее. Моя работа самая важная. Это плохая песня. Это еще более плохая песня. Это самая плохая песня. Он хороший инженер. Он более хороший инженер. Он самый лучший инженер. Он принес ей красивый цветок. Он принес ей более красивый цветок. Он принес ей самый красивый цветок. Он рассказал нам о счастливом человек. Он рассказал

нам о более счастливом человеке. Он рассказал нам о самом счастливом человеке. Это были самые счастливые дни в ее жизни. Это очень легкая задача. Дайте мне боле трудную задачу. Летом дни длинные, а ночи короткие. 22 июня – самый длинный день. В июле дни короче. В декабре дни сами короткие. «Четверка» – хорошая отметка, но «пятерка» лучше. «Пятерка» – самая лучшая отметка. Самая плохая отметка – «двойка». Твое платье, конечно, очень красивое, но мое платье красивее. Мой папа – великий мужчина. Это более теплое пальто.

Exercise 10. Put the adjectives into comparative or superlative degree.

1. Which is (large): the United States or Canada? 2. What is the name of the (big) port in the United States? 3. Moscow is the (large) city in Russia. 4. The London underground is the (old) in the world. 5. There is a (great) number of cars and buses in the streets of Moscow than in any other city of Russia. 6. St. Petersburg is one of the (beautiful) cities in the world. 7. The rivers in America are much (big) than those in England. 8. The island of Great Britain is (small) than Greenland. 9. What is the name of the (high) mountain in Asia? 10. The English Channel is (wide) than the straits of Gibraltar. 11. Russia is a very (large) country.

Remember: as ... as – такой же ... как; not so .„. as — не такой... как

Exercise 11. Fill in the gaps with as ... as or so ... as.

1. Mike is ... tall ... Pete. 2. Kate is not ... nice ... Ann. 3. My room is ... light ... this one. 4. This book is not ... thin ... that one. 5. Sergei is... old ... Michael. 6. She is ... young ... Tom's brother. 7. This woman is ... good ... that one. 8. Nick's English is not ... good ... his friend's. 9.1 am not ... tall ... Pete. 10. This woman is ... young ... that one. 12. I am ... thin ... you. 13. Kate is ... lazy ... her brother. 14. This child is not . . small . . that one.

Exercise 12. Translate these sentences into English.

1. Этот дом такой же высокий, как тот. 2. Сегодня вода в реке не такая теплая, как вчера. 3. Ты не такой умный, как папа. 4. Индия не такая большая, как Китай. 5. Темза такая же красивая, как Нева. 6. Его бабушка не такая старая, как дедушка. 7 Яблоки такие же вкусные, как сливы, но не такие вкусные, как груши. 8. Русский музей такой же богатый, как Эрмитаж? 9. Державин не такой знаменитый, как Пушкин. 10. Днепр не такой длинный, как Волга. 11. В прошлом году август был такой же жаркий, как июль.

Exercise 13. Translate these sentences into English.

1. Этот дом выше того. 2. Сегодня вода в реке холоднее, чем вчера. 3. Папа умнее тебя. 4. Китай больше Индии. 5. Его бабушка моложе дедушки. 6. Груши вкуснее яблок. 7. Наша кошка меньше нашей собаки. 8. Мой брат моложе меня. 9. В прошлом году февраль был холоднее января, 10. Днепр короче Волги. 11. Эрмитаж богаче Русского музея.

Exercise 14. Translate these sentences into Russian

1. What is your height? You are taller than me. 2. She felt as strong as her brother. 3. We started earlier than you. 4. He was more careful than I. 5. This student is the most attentive in our group. 6.1 need a warmer coat. 7. He is as tired as you. 8. He was one of the most experienced workers at the factory. 9. Better late than never. 10. She was not so attractive as her mother. 11. His work is not so difficult as mine. 12. He was the eldest in the family. 13. It is easier to swim in the sea than in the river. 14. This is the smallest room in our flat.

Exercise 15. Fill in the gaps with as ... as, so ... as or than.

1. Our house is not ... big ... yours. 2. The new cinema in our district is much bigger ... the old one. 3. We are ... proud of our district ... you are of yours. 4. The house I live in is ... old ... the one my sister lives in. 5. Exercise No.2 is easier ... Exercise No.3. 6. Nevsky Prospect is more beautiful ... our street. 7. My composition is not ... long ... yours.

Exercise 16. Open the brackets using the appropriate degree of comparison.

1. This man is (tall) than that one. 2. Asia is (large) than Australia. 3. The Volga is (short) than the Mississippi. 4. Which building is the (high) in Moscow? 5. Mary is a (good) student than Lucy.6. The Alps are (high) than the Urals. 7. This garden is the (beautiful) in our town. 8. She speaks Italian (good) than English. 9. Is the word "newspaper" (long) than the word "book"? 10. The Thames is (short) than the Volga. 11. The Arctic Ocean is (cold) than the Indian Ocean. 12. Chinese is (difficult) than English. 13. Spanish is (easy) than Ger- man. 14. She is not so (busy) as I am. 15. It is as (cold) today as it was yesterday. 16. She is not so (fond) of sports as my brother is. 17. Today the weather is (cold) than it was yesterday. 18. This book is (interesting) of all I have read this year. 19. January is the (cold) month of the year. 20. My sister speaks English (bad) than I do. 21. Which is the (hot) month of the year? 22. Which is the (beautiful) place in this part of the country? 23. This nice- looking girl is the (good) student in our group.

Exercise 17. Open the brackets using the appropriate degree of comparison.

1. Oil is (light) than water. 2. We shall wait for a (dry) day to go on the excursion. 3. A bus is (fast) than a tram. 4. Take some of these sweets: they are very (nice). They are (nice) than the sweets in that box. 5. He clearly did not like the explanation, and as he listened to it, he became (angry) and (angry). 6. He worked (hard) and (hard) as the end of the term came nearer. 7. The (tall) trees in the world grow in California. 8. Please be (careful) next time and don't spill the milk again. 9. Bobby was a (quiet) child. He was (quiet) than his sister. 10. Her eyes are (grey) than mine. 11. He was the (fat) man in the village. 12. As he went on, the box became (heavy) and (heavy). 13. My sister is the (tall) girl in her class. 14. Who is the (attentive) student in your group? 15. It is autumn. Every day the air becomes (cold), the leaves (yellow). 16. This is the (beautiful) view I have ever seen in my life. 17. Your handwriting is now (good) than it was last year; but still it is not so (good) as Nick's handwriting. Nick has a (good) handwriting than you. And of course Nellie has the (good) handwriting of all.

Exercise 18. Translate these sentences into English.

1. Здание Московского университета – самое высокое в столице. 2. Наш город не такой большой, как Киев, но он такой же красивый. 3. Не- вский проспект – одна из самых красивых улиц Санкт-Петербурга. 4. Кто самый младший ученик в нашей группе? – Петров. Но он самый высокий. 5. Грамматика английского языка трудная, но английское произношение труднее. 6. Магазины на нашей улице больше, чем магазины на вашей улице. 7. Наш телевизор такой же хороший, как этот. 8. Эта комната светлее той. 9. Погода сегодня хуже, чем вчера. Сегодня холоднее, и идет дождь. 10. Моя комната не такая большая, как комната моей подруги, но она светлее и теплее. 11. Какая из этих книг самая интересная? 12. Ноябрь не такой холодный месяц, как январь. 13. Мой отец – очень занятый человек. 14. Крым – одно из самых лучших мест для отдыха. 15. Сегодня он чувствует себя гораздо лучше.

Exercise 19. Fill in the blanks with the correct comparative or superlative forms.

I went on holiday last year but it was a disaster! My hotel room was …………… (small) than the one in the photograph in the brochure. I think it was …………… (small) room in the hotel. The weather was terrible too. It was …………… (cold) in England. The beach near the hotel was very dirty – it was …………… (dirty) all the beaches on the island. The food was …………… (expensive) I expected and I didn’t have enough money. One day I went shopping in a big department store and I broke a vase. It was ……………

(expensive) vase in the whole shop. But …………… (bad) thing of all was that I lost my passport and I couldn’t go back home. It was …………… (horrible) holiday in my life.

UNIT 3 TYPES OF PIPELINES AND STORAGE TANKS.

Study the following vocabulary to intend – предназначать gathering – сборный to collect – собирать a well – скважина storage tank, storage plant, storage reservoir нефтехранилище refinery – очистительный завод to produce oil – добывать нефть to consume – потреблять to separate – отделять mud – буровой раствор by gravity – самотеком sedimentation plant – отстойник sedimentation – отстаивание capacity (of a tank) – ёмкость, вместимость to calculate – рассчитывать to design – проектировать, конструировать as early as, as far back as + дата – ещё no longer – больше не not any longer – to meet the demand (for) – удовлетворить спрос to install – устанавливать, прокладывать carrying capacity – пропускная способность

Exercise 1. Translate these words paying attention to the suffixes.

to collect – collection – collecting – collected – to consume – consumer – consumption – to produce – production – producing – produced – to separate – separation – separating – separated – to install – installation – installing – installed

TYPES OF PIPELINES AND STORAGE TANKS

Oil pipelines are structures intended for moving oil from one place to another. They fall into three classes: 1) gathering pipelines laid on the territory of the oil field for collecting oil from different wells to central storage plant, 2) lines for pumping oil from fields to refineries, 3) trunk pipelines connecting oil producing districts with large seaports or consuming areas. Gathering lines are constructed for collecting the oil produced from different wells of the oil field, for separating water and mud and for moving oil into reservoirs or gathering tanks. From gathering tanks oil flows through the system by gravity into sedimentation plants. After the sedimentation is over oil is pumped into the oil field storage reservoir or storage tanks for further transportation. Now every seaport and nearly every railway station have some tanks for storing oil and its products. Tanks are known to be vertical and horizontal. The former are sometimes very high while the latter are low and long and look very much like the railroad tank cars. Big tanks are able to store hundreds of thousands of tons of oil or oil products. Tanks are usually made of steel but sometimes concrete tanks are known to be used. Much metal is needed to build tanks of great capacity therefore the engineers constructing them should design them as economical as possible. The well-known Russian engineer Shuhov calculated and designed the first tank as early as 1883. His works are often referred to by Russian and foreign specialists in oil transportation. A situation often develops when the field suddenly increases in productivity • and an existing pipeline is no longer sufficient in capacity to meet the demand put upon it. In this case an additional net of pipes called "looping" is sometimes installed for the purpose of increasing carrying capacity. It consists in laying several miles of additional pipes parallel and connected at intervals with the original line.

Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.

1. What types of pipelines do you know? 2. What are gathering lines intended for? 3. Where is oil usually stored? 4. What kinds of oil storage tanks or reservoirs do you know? 5. What are they made of? 6. Who was the first to design a storage tank? 7. What is looping? 8. When is it constructed?

GRAMMAR GERUND

Герундий – неличная форма глагола, имеющая грамматические особенности как глагола, так и существительного, и всегда выражает действие как процесс.

Ex: increasing – увеличение heating – нагревание

Active Passive Indefinite heating being heated Perfect having heated having being heated

Функции герундия в предложении:

1. Подлежащее: Reading is a great pleasure. Чтение (читать) – большое удовольствие.

2. Именная часть сказуемого: Her hobby was reading detective stories. Её любимое занятие – читать (чтение) детективов.

3. Дополнение: а) прямое: She likes reading. Ей нравится читать (чтение), в) предложное: They spoke about their travelling to England. – Они говорили об их поездке в Англию.

4. Определение: There are different ways of learning English words.

5. Обстоятельство: After reading this article they decided to make a report on this theme. Прочитав (после того, как прочитали) эту статью, они решили сделать доклад по этой теме.

Отличие герундия от причастия:

Перед герундием могут стоять: 1. Предлоги (см. функции предложного дополнения, определения, обстоятельства);

2. Притяжательные местоимения: his reading; 3. Существительное в притяжательном падеже: Pete’s reading is good.

Exercise 3. Translate these sentences. What part of a sentences the gerund is?

1. Building a pipeline is not a simple engineering problem. Transporting oil was accomplished by a pipeline. Heating viscous oil resulted in increasing the carrying capacity of the pipeline. Laving a pipeline has to be done very carefully. 2. When West German firms refused to export large diameter tubes to our country the latter started producing them itself at the beginning of 1962, they proved to be not worse but better than those manufactured by the West German firms. The pipeline will be capable of transporting 40–50 million tons of oil per year. The welding process consists in joining two parts by fusing their surfaces together. Difficulty is experienced in working with the materials 3. There are many methods of laving underwater pipe lines. The technique of welding has made great progress in recent years. Pipelines for transmitting petroleum are made of steel. 4. The capacity of pipelines can be increased by adding pumping stations. In designing a pipeline for the simultaneous handling of oil and gas, the initial and terminal pressures of normal operation must be calculated. This process is carried out without preheating. Without being subjected to special treatment this material cannot be used for manufacturing pipes.

Exercise 4. End the following sentences using the gerund.

1. Gathering lines are constructed for ...сбора нефти из всех скважин месторождения 2. The engineers are investigating the possibilities of... производства труб 3. Storage tanks are designed for ... хранения нефти 4. Engineers increase the delivery capacity of a pipeline by ... увеличения диаметра труб 5. Many factors must be taken into consideration in ... конструировании трубопроводов 6. The pipeline was constructed ahead of time due to ... использования современной техники 7. Within recent years pipelines have been constructed without... использования муфт (collars) и винтовых соединений (screw connections) 8. Now the transportation of oil is accomplished without... подогрева нефти 9. The greatest difficulty is experienced in ... получении коррозийно- устойчивого материала

10. We increase the resistance of metals by ... повышением их температуры 11. We protect a pipe from corrosive effects by ... покрывая её изоляционным материалом.

UNIT 4 PUMPING STATIONS

Study the following words trunk line магистральный трубопровод to locate располагаться to oppose препятствовать, мешать to offer оказывать (сопротивление) velocity скорость viscosity вязкость magnitude величина to vary [ veôri] менять, изменять attempt попытка to heat нагревать in order to для того, чтобы exhaust [ig:'z3 :st] выпускной, выхлопной to utilize, to use использовать gain прирост average средний, обычный agent фактор, причина resistance сопротивление to impart сообщать by virtue of благодаря, посредством to interpose вставлять, вклинивать to consume потреблять, расходовать to continue продолжать route маршрут to adopt принимать, выбирать triplex тройной

Remember the following expressions. to result from – являться результатом, в результате чего-нибудь to result in – приводить (в результате) к чему-нибудь

Exercise 1. Translate the sentences paying attention to these expressions.

1. An ever increasing demand for oil products resulted in the construction of numerous refineries. 2. The construction of numerous refineries resulted from an ever increasing production of oil. 3. Increasing of the efficiency resulted from the development of quite new methods of operation. 4. The use of automation resulted in the release of labor.

Exercise 2. Translate into English.

Подогрев нефти привёл к увеличению пропускной способности трубопровода. Увеличение пропускной способности трубопровода произошло в результате подогрева нефти. Совместная (joint) работа учёных и геологов привела к открытию новых месторождений. only – только the only – единственный

Exercise 3. Translate into English.

Pressure loss, inner wall, pipe's inner surface, income oil, the main trunk line, the first main line pumping station, the main pumping station equipment, oil field storage reservoir, the most easily obtained fuel, cooling water tower, a given initial pressure, a given set of conditions.

Exercise 4. Translate into English.

Working out new methods we increase the productivity of labor. Having worked out an efficient method of making large diameter tubes, our industry became independent of foreign firms. Carrying out the experiment, the scientist noticed that... Having carrying out the experiment, the scientists analyzed substances obtained. Heating the oil, we reduce its viscosity. Having heated the oil, we pumped it through the pipeline. Being heated oil becomes less viscous. Having been heated for several hours, the oil was pumped through the pipelines.

Exercise 5. Translate into English.

1. Переводя статью... 2. Переведя статью... 3. Используя метод...

4. Использовав метод... 5. Читая статью ... 6. Прочитав статью ... 7. Увеличивая диаметр... 8. Увеличив диаметр ...

Pumping stations

From the oil field storage reservoir the main trunk line starts and here the first main line pumping station is located. When oil is pumped through pipe, the transmission is opposed by frictional resistance to flow, which is a product of two factors. The first of these is the frictional resistance developed between the inner wall of the pipe and the outer cylinder of oil making contact with it. The second is due to the internal resistance to movement of the oil itself. The magnitude of the resistance offered by these frictional forces will depend upon the length of the pipe through which the oil is pumped, the velocity of flow, the conditions of the pipe's inner surface and the viscosity of the oil. The latter property will vary within wide limits, which changes the temperature of the oil. Variation in oil temperature from summer to winter will cause sufficient change in oil viscosity which affects the capacity of a line. In former years attempts were made to heat oil before its leaving a pumping station in order to reduce its viscosity which resulted in increasing line capacity, heat from the exhaust of steam pumps being utilized. However the oil soon lost its temperature and the gain in capacity was slight. Modem practice on average crude oil does not provide for preheating. Only in the case of the heaviest oils transported for a short distance is preheating justified at present. The motivating agent enabling oil to overcome these several resistances to flow is the pump, which imparts a certain initial pressure to the oil, by virtue of which it moves through the pipe overcoming the resistance interposed until the pump pressure is entirely consumed. If flow is to continue the oil must then be given a new impetus by passing it through a second pump. The pressure loss per unit length of pipe is seen to be a quantity of prime importance in all pipeline calculations. Knowing this for a given set of conditions it will be possible to calculate the distance through which oil may be transmitted with a given initial pressure and the space between the pumping stations along the route of the line. Pumping stations are usually located at approximately equal intervals and the equipment for all stations on the same line may be practically standardized. The design of the station will depend to a large extend upon the type of power adopted. As oil is the most easily obtainable fuel it is generally used as a source of power at pumping stations along a line. In the case where oil is too valuable to be used as a fuel, steam power is used.

The main pumping station equipment usually consists of engines (either oil or steam ones) and pumps, which are sometimes driven by the engines. There are different kinds of pumps. They may be either of vertical triplex or horizontal duplex plunger type operating at different pressures having capacity ranging from 5000 to 45000 bbls per day. Auxiliary equipment includes cooling water towers for cooling the engines; generators for supplying electric current for engine ignition, the operation of water pumps and the illumination of the grounds and structures; and some storage tanks or reservoirs for storing the income oil in case repair of the pumps when they are stopped for some time.

Exercise 6.Answer the questions.

1. Where is the first main line pumping station located? 2. What will the magnitude of the resistance depend upon? 3. What factors affect the capacity of a line? 4. What is the pump used for? 5. At what intervals are pumping stations located? 6. What will the design of pumping station depend upon? 7. What does the main pumping station equipment consist of? 8. What does auxiliary equipment include?

UNIT 5 MATERIALS

Study the following vocabulary wrought iron сварочное железо became available in bulk стала получаться в большом количестве replace заменять grade сорт, вид price цена add добавлять medium carbon steel среднеуглеродистая сталь high tensile steel высокопрочная сталь exceptional circumstances исключительные обстоятельства alloy сплав, сплавлять toughness жесткость

24 content содержание unfortunately к сожалению unsuitable неподходящий, непригодный hardness твёрдость brittleness хрупкость weldability свариваемость exception исключение compare сравнивать replacement замена insertion вставка drawback недостаток

Materials

The first pipeline was manufactured from wrought iron. Since the end of the last century when steel became available in bulk and in the price considerably below that of wrought iron this material replaced wrought iron almost completely. There are different grades or types of steel. The chemical composition and physical properties of steel depend upon different methods of its manufacture and upon certain elements such as carbon added during its manufacture. At the present tirrçe for the manufacture of pipes medium carbon steel is usually used though high tensile steel has been utilized for exceptional circumstances and for high-pressure lines. Other materials being used for pipelines include aluminum, titanium and their alloys. When two or more metals are alloyed they form a new metal which is called an alloy. Steel is often alloyed by the addition of other metals such as nickel, chromium, manganese, etc., to increase its strength and toughness and increase its life by increasing its corrosion resistance properties. In general corrosion resistance increases with the chromium content and decreases as carbon content rises. Unfortunately, most corrosion-resistant alloys of steel are unsuitable for oil and gas pipes because of the following: they are too costly. Difficulty is experienced in working with them because of hardness, brittleness and poor weldability. With exception of some brass (copper and zinc) fittings alloys are not extensively used in oil and gas industry for pipe making. Iron and steel pipes are most widely used because of their mechanical strength and reasonable price as compared to a pipe made from other metals. In past few years plastic pipes are known to have found wide application. Main use of them so far is in replacement and insertion into existing systems. Biggest advantages of plastic pipes are their resistance to corrosion and labor saving due to light weight and simple method of joining. The main drawback or disadvantage is lower mechanical strength and limited temperature range.

Exercise 7. Find English equivalents in the text.

Производить (изготавливать) трубы, коррозийно-устойчивые сплавы, за исключением, по сравнению, твердость, свариваемость, из-за, механическая прочность металлов, путём добавления, увеличить прочность, вообще, к сожалению, испытывать трудность, находить широкое применение, преимущество, недостаток.

Exercise 8. Answer the following questions

1. What was the first pipeline manufactured from? 2. What material replaced iron? ' 3. When did steel become available in bulk? 4. What do the chemical composition and physical properties of steel depend upon? 5. What grades of steel are used for manufacturing pipelines? 6. What other materials are used for pipelines? 7. What is an alloy? 8. Why is steel often alloyed with other metals? 9. Why are most alloys unsuitable for oil and gas pipes? 10. What new materials have found wide applications for the production of pipes? 11. What are the main advantages of plastic pipes? 12. What are the main disadvantages of plastic pipes?

Exercise 9.Translate the following suffixes paying attention to the suffixes. to replace – replacement – replaceable to add – addition – additional – additionally to except – exception – exceptional – exceptionally . strong – strength – strengthen tough – toughness – toughly to resist – resistance – resistant fortune – fortunate – fortunately – unfortunately – fortuneless to suit – suitable – unsuitable hard – hardness – hardly brittle – brittleness to weld – welding – welder – weldable – weldability reason – reasonable – reasonably to apply – application – applicable

GRAMMAR INFINITIVE

Инфинитив – неличная форма глагола, имеющая свойства как существительного, так и глагола.

Формы инфинитива

Active Passive Indefinite He is glad to help his friend. He is glad to be helped. Он рад помочь своему другу. Он рад, что ему помогают. Continuous He is glad to be helping his friend. Он рад, что помогает своему друг (сейчас). Perfect He is glad to have helped his He is glad to have been friend. helped. Он рад, что помог своему Он рад, что ему помогли. другу.

Функции инфинитива

1. Подлежащее: To make mistake is easy. 2. Дополнение: He likes to read books. 3. Именная часть сказуемого: His task was to complete the work in time. 4. Обстоятельство цели: The text to be translated is on the table.

Exercise 10. Translate into Russian. Which part of a sentence is the infinitive?

1. То solve this problem is extremely important. 2. To solve this problem we had to make a great number of experiments. 3. The problem lo be solved is very important. 4. The engineers had to solve many problems before designing this machine. 5. The scientists are trying to solve an important problem. 6. This worker is too inexperienced to solve this problem without any help.

Exercise 11. Translate into Russian paying attention to the infinitive.

1. То determine (in order to determine ...) the size of the new line we must know some factors. 2. To insure (in order to insure ...) the pipe being perfectly clean it is often washed. 3. To meet an increasing demand for oil the geologists should search for new oil fields. 4. To increase the delivery capacity of the oil and gas pipelines engineers are looking for new materials and methods. 5. Steel is often alloyed to increase its strength. 6. The lines must be large enough to meet maximum requirements.

UNIT 6 MANUFACTURE OF PIPELINES

Study the following vocabulary

1. seam – шов 2. plate – пластина 3. strip – полоска 4. billet – болванка, металлическая заготовка 5. to forge – ковать 6. buttwelded – сваренный встык 7. lapwelded – сваренный в нахлёстку 8. an edge – край, кромка 9. squarely – прямо 10. to scarf – соединять, сращивать 11. to thread – нарезать резьбу 12. fusion welding – сварка плавлением t 13. to pierce – пробивать, прорезать, просверливать 14. punch – пробойник 15. rough – грубый, необработанный 16. leaky – дающий утечку, неплотный 17. collar – хомут, муфта 18. wrench – гаечный ключ 19. tongs – клещи, щипцы 20. tightly – туго, плотно 21. to draw – тянуть, затягивать 22. hollow – пустой, полый 23. coupling – соединительная муфта, сцепление

Manufacture of pipelines

Modern tube making is divided into two classes: welded pipelines and weldless or seamless pipes. In the former case the tube is made from plate or strip bent in the circular form and welded along the seam. In the latter the pipe is made from a solid billet forged into the hollow form. Welded pipelines can again be subdivided into three classes: buttwelded, lapwelded and electrically welded.

The buttwelding process consists of forming the strip into thé circular form in such a manner that the edges of the strip meet squarely without overlapping. In lapwelding the strip is scarfed at the edge so that when bent into shape two edges overlap, thus giving a comparatively large welding surface as compared with the thickness of the strip. There are several types of electric welding all of which consist of converting the strip into the circular form and there after welding along the seam by arc of fusion welding. In the weldless processes the heated billets are pierced by punches or rotary pierces thus forming rough thick tubes considerably shorter and thicker than the size required. These rough tubes are extended in length and reduced in thickness by passing through rolling or forging processes. This is generally carried out without reheating. Welded or seamless pipe lengths are then to be connected to each other by means of screwed connections or by welding. Screw pipe is threaded on each end and joined by a collar. The threaded pipe is inserted in the collar and drawn as tightly as possible by using pipe tongs which are nothing more than large wrenches. The joint so made is often defected and leaky due to difficulty in obtaining well-matched threads. Up to the time of the World War II practically all joints of pipelines were of the screwed and coupled type. The progress made in the recent years in the technique of welding, which has resulted in low costs and high efficiency has led to welded joints for pipelines being extensively used. Within recent years a number of important pipelines have been constructed by welding the joints with the aid of oxyacetylene or electric arc welding. Welded joints may be made as strong as pipe itself and since the pipe is not weakened by the cutting of threads it may be somewhat lighter weight than when screw joints are used. Because of this and since no collars or their fittings are needed welded pipes are considered to be cheaper. If the welding is properly done welded lines are also more secure against leakage. Most lines being laid at present are a combination of the welded and plain end pipes. Plain end pipes are called so because neither end of any section of the pipe is threaded. The joints are connected by couplings. The pipe is welded into length usually 130 feet (and even much more) and joined with a plain end coupling. This allows for expansion and contraction in lines. An ideal pipeline would be a continuous pipe able to withstand all common forms of corrosion and all reasonable forces exerted upon it.

Exercise 1. Answer the questions.

1. What classes is modem tube making divided? 2. What classes can welded pipes be subdivided?

3. What does buttwelding process consist of? 4. What does lapwelding process consist of? 5. What does electric welding consist of? 6. Describe the weldless process of tube making. 7. Describe the process of connection of welded and seamless pipe lengths. 8. What can you say about the quality of screwed connection of pipe lengths? 9. What's the modem practice of pipe lengths connection? 10. What are the advantages of welded joints? 11. Most lines being laid at present are a combination of the welded and plain end pipes, aren't they? 12. What type of pipeline would be an ideal pipeline?

Exercise 2. Retell the text according to the plan.

1. There are two classes of modem tube making. 2. Welded pipes are subdivided into three classes. 3. The weldless process of pipe making. 4. Screwed connection of pipe lengths, its disadvantage. 5. Welded joints of pipe lengths. 6. Advantage of welded joints. 7. Plain end pipes.

UNIT 7 ARCTIC PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Study the following vocabulary

1. preparation – подготовка 2. right-of-way – трасса трубопровода 3. narrow – узкий 4. clearing – расчистка 5. cover – покров 6. root – корень 7. bush – кустарник 8. thaw – оттаивать 9. grading – планировка, планировочные работы на трассе 10. slash – вырубка 11. push aside – отталкивать, отодвигать 30

12. reinforce – укреплять, усиливать 13. access road – подъездная дорога 14. damage – вред, повреждение 15. adverse – вредный, неблагоприятный 16. permafrost – вечная мерзлота 17. pad – площадка 18. compact – уплотнять 19. avoid – избегать 20. environment – окружающая среда

Exercise 1. Find Russian equivalents for the following English words.

1. clear повреждение 2. condition выравнивать 3. narrow нижний 4. right-of-way вечная мерзлота 5. lower укреплять 6. grade очищать 7. damage узкий 8. reduce трасса 9. permafrost уменьшать 10. reinforce условие

Exercise 2. Translate the following group of words.

Ground cover, hand clearing, weather conditions, ice roads, material movement, access roads, snow roads, work pads, permafrost thawing, right-of- way surfacing; pipeline construction methods, winter road construction, pipeline construction work, construction work pads.

Arctic pipeline construction methods. Preparation of the right-of-way

In arctic conditions an attempt is made to use a narrow right-of-way. Clearing is done inside the established limits of the right-of-way. All clearing is done by hand. Lower ground cover and roots of trees and bush are left intact to help in reducing erosion or permafrost thawing. Grading is minimized for the same reason. Siberian pipelines are in flat terrain; therefore, little or no grading is required.

Since hand clearing is utilized, this work is commonly begun before the beginning of winter and provides an open area on which winter road construction may begin as soon as weather conditions permit. Slash from clearing may be used to reinforce ice roads, but is usually just pushed aside and left. All pipeline construction work must be done on the right-of-way. Material movement is also limited to the right-of-way or access roads specifically constructed for that purpose. In our country all northern pipeline construction is done in winter. No permanent access roads nor right-of-way surfacing are provided. All transportation and construction are done on frozen ground over compacted snow or ice roads and construction work pads. The clearing of the right-of-way must be conducted carefully to avoid unnecessary damage to the soil and minimize adverse effects on the natural environment.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions

1. What kind of right-of-way is used in arctic conditions? 2. How is clearing done? 3. Why are lower ground cover and roots of trees left intact? 4. Why is grading minimized? 5. When is clearing commonly begun? 6. How is material movement done? 7. When is all northern pipeline construction done in our country? 8. Are permanent access roads or right-of-way surfacing provided? 9. How are all transportation and construction done? 10. Why must clearing the right-of-way be conducted carefully?

Exercise 4. Find synonyms:

Arctic, use, commonly, movement, ground, utilize, soil, usually, transportation, terrain, northern, reduce, minimize.

Exercise 5. Find in the text all Passive Constructions and translate them.

Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences using Passive Constructions:

1. В северных условиях строительство трубопроводов проводится зимой. 2. Зимние дороги строятся для доставки строительных материалов. 3. Все строительные работы должны проводиться на трассе.

Exercise 7. Translate into Russian the following phrases:

Arctic conditions, a narrow right-of-way, to make an attempt, to leave intact, to reduce erosion, flat terrain, an open area, to reinforce ice roads, access roads, frozen ground, compacted Snow roads, to avoid damage, natural environment.

Exercise 8. Translate into English:

1. В северных условиях при сооружении трубопроводов обычно используют узкую трассу. 2. Расчистку трассы обычно проводят вручную. 3. Чтобы уменьшить эрозию и оттаивание вечной мерзлоты, нижний земляной покров и корни деревьев оставляют нетронутыми. 4. Трубопроводы в Сибири находятся на равнинной местности. 5. Выравнивания земли почти не требуется. 6. Расчистка трассы должна проводиться осторожно, чтобы избежать повреждения грунта. 7. Также следует уменьшать вредное влияние на окружающую среду.

Exercise 9. Say whether the statements in the following sentences are correct or not, using the following phrases: it’s true, it is not true, on the contrary.

1. In arctic conditions a narrow right-of-way is used. 2. Clearing the right-of-way is done by machinery. 3. Grading is done on a wide scale. 4. In arctic conditions pipeline construction work is accomplished in summer

Siberian pipeline development

In the late 1960’s, the giant Medvezhye gas field was discovered in Western Siberia near the mouth of the Ob River. Immediate plans were made to connect this field into the gas system west of the Urals. This was done by a 56- in. diameter main line to the Nadym River, the first of that size in Russia. Then two 48-in. lines were laid. This system began operation in late 1972. By 1976 the original line had been paralleled by another 56-in. line running the entire distance into European Russia. In 1977, a third 56-in. line was constructed along the same right-of-way but this one begins about 130 km east of Medvezhye at the even larger Urengoy gas field.

An additional 56-in. line, from Urengoy to Chelyabinsk, was placed in service in 1979. Only a few hundred kilometres of these lines running east of the Ob River are in permafrost. In 1970, the giant Samotlor oil field was discovered in Western Siberia several hundred kilometers south of the gas fields. Rapid development occurred. By 1973, a 48-in. pipeline had been laid to the west to move the oil. Two 48-in. gas lines were also laid 180 km west to the town of Surgut to fuel a major power station. Recently, a gas line was built several hundred kilometers southeast out of the Samotlor area to the town of Novokuznetsk.

Exercise 10. Find the answers to the following questions in the text:

1. When was the giant Medvezhye gas field discovered? 2. When was the original 56-in. line paralleled by another 56-in. line? 3. Where was a third 56-in. line constructed and where does it begin? 4. Do these lines run in permafrost? 5. When was the giant Samotlor oil field discovered?

Exercise 11. Finish the sentences according to the text and translate them:

1. Immediate plans were made .... 2. Two 48-in. gas lines were also laid .... 3. An additional 56-in. line ....

UNIT 8 DITCHING AND LAYING

Study the following vocabulary

1. ditching – разработка (рытье) траншеи 2. ditching machines – землеройные машины 3. backhoe – кран-трубоукладчик 4. depth of freezing – глубина промерзания 5. penetrate – проходить 6. support – опора 7. berm – насыпь 8. failure – авария, повреждение 9. operation – управление, работа 10. stoppage – остановка, прекращение работы

11. erosion – эрозия, выветривание 12. occur – случаться, иметь место 13. interruption – перерыв, остановка 14. swamp – болото 15. dampfer – гаситель колебаний

Exercise 1. Find Russian equivalents for the following English words:

1. depth a. болото 2. laying b. проходить 3. support c. глубина 4. ditching d. работа 5. swamp e. насыпь 6. occur f. случаться 7. failure g. рытье 8. penetrate h. опора 9. operation i. прокладка (трубопровода) 10. berm j. повреждение

Exercise 2. Translate the following groups of words:

Permafrost areas, support failure, operation stoppage, berm erosion, transmission pipeline, swamp construction, permafrost pipeline, wind vibration, vibration dampfer, swamp land; pipeline construction plan, large-diameter aboveground lines.

Ditching and laying

Ditching is usually accomplished by normal methods. Ditching machines and backhoes are used. When the depth of freezing is penetrated, the ground below is unfrozen. Almost all pipelines in permafrost areas are laid aboveground, either on supports or in berm. In fact, the lines are laid above the permafrost, not in it. Even though there have been numerous support failures on the aboveground sections of pipelines, no operation stoppages have resulted. Berm erosion also occurred on pipelines, but it has not resulted in any interruptions of service. Thus, it can be said that permafrost has not caused any serious problem. The main problems on the Northern pipelines are connected with swamp. This may be so because of the vast amount of swamp land involved. For example, if according to the pipeline construction plan 53.000 km of main transmission pipeline are to be built, 20.000 to 23.000 km would be swamp

35 construction, and only 130 km would be in permafrost. Support failures take place more often in swampy areas then in permafrost. All of the permafrost pipelines are considered to be experimental to some degree, because all sorts of supports are being experimented with. After several years of experiments, it is concluded that moving support is necessary for large- diameter aboveground lines. The wind vibration on the Northern pipelines also created an important problem, but it was solved very rapidly with the vibration dampfers.

Exercise 3.Answer the following questions:

1. How is ditching accomplished? 2. What machines are used? 3. How are pipelines laid in permafrost areas? 4. Has permafrost caused any serious problems? 5. What causes the main problems in northern pipeline construction? 6. Where do support failures occur more often: in swampy areas or in permafrost? 7. What kind of supports proved to be the most suitable tor large-diameter aboveground lines? 8. How was the problem of wind vibration solved?

Exercise 4. Use the proper words and expressions:

1. Almost all pipelines in permafrost areas are laid (underground, aboveground). 2. Berm erosion (involved, connected, occurred) on pipelines. 3. The main problems on the Northern pipelines are connected with (permafrost, wind, swamp). 4. (Stable, moving) support is necessary for large-diameter above-ground lines.

FROM THE HISTORY OF PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION IN SIBERIA

After World War II development of hydrocarbon reserves both oil and gas in Russia has greately expanded. Most of this development has been remote from the population and industrial centers of the country. This has necessitated a vast network of main transmission pipelines to move the oil and gas to the centers of use. This pipeline network now totals near 200.000 km, much of it of large-diameter pipe. For the last several years construction of main cross-country pipelines has reached about 10.000 km a year averaging 48-in. in diameter. Most of Russia's major new hydrocarbon discoveries have been in Western Siberia. These discoveries have proved to be very large. 36

Since the consumption center for oil and gas is in European part, west of the Ural Mountains, and thousands of kilometres away, large-diameter long distance pipelines have been required. The first major pipeline to be constructed east of the Urals was the 20-in. Tas-Tumus-Yakutsk gas pipeline in Siberia. Construction was begun in 1964. The line has been in operation since 1967 without interruption. Soon after start of construction of the Yakutian gas pipeline, work began on a 20-in. gas line to supply the town of Norilsk in North Western Siberia. This line has been paralleled with a 28-in. line. Both the Yakutsk and Norilsk pipelines traverse continuous permafrost terrain.

Exercise 5. Find answers to the following questions in the text:

1. What can you say about oil and gas development in Russia after World War II? 2. Where were most of Russia's major new oil and gas discoveries made? 3. Why was it necessary to build large-diameter long-distance pipelines? 4. What was the first major gas pipeline in Siberia?

UNIT 9 BENDING, WELDING AND COATING

Study the following vocabulary

1. bending – гнутье 2. coating – изоляция, нанесение защитного покрытия 3. yard – склад, парк 4. stringing – развозка и раскладка труб вдоль трассы 5. conventional – обычный 6. mandrel – центратор 7. weld – сварной шов, сварное соединение, сваривать 8. ambient temperature – температура окружающего воздуха 9. welding shelter – защита при сварке 10. resistancewelding – сварка сопротивлением, контактная сварка 11. pipe lengths – отдельные трубы 12. visual inspection – визуальный осмотр 13. hot-oilpipeline – трубопровод с подогревом нефти 14. Х-гау – рентгеноскопия 15. lowering-in – укладка (спуск) трубопровода в траншею

16. fiber glass – стекловолокно 17. non-destructive test – неразрушающий метод контроля 18. enamel – эмаль 19. tape – лента

Exercise 1. Find Russian equivalents for the following English words:

1. welding a) испытание 2. bending b) соединение 3. stringing c) сварка 4. coating d) гнутье 5. testing e) спуск трубопровода в траншею 6. lowering in f) нанесение защитного покрытия 7. ditching g) раскладка труб вдоль трассы 8. joining h) рытье траншеи

Exercise 2. Find English equivalents:

1. conventional a) отдельные трубы 2. weld b) лента 3. pipe length c) защита при сварке 4. fiber glass d) обычный 5. tape e) визуальный осмотр 6. welding shelter f) сварной шов 7. visual inspection g) сварка сопротивлением 8. resistance welding h) стекловолокно

Exercise 3. Translate the following group of words:

Pipe bending, pipe diameter, temperature limits, air temperature, line size field bending, coating damage, coating type.

Bending, welding and coating

Pipe bending on the Northern pipelines is done in accordance with American standards. Radius of maximum bend is 25 pipe diameters. A large number of bends are made in the yard before stringing, but bending on the right- of-way is common. No new methods of bending have been developed, though some experimental machines have been used. Conventional equipment is applied, and mandrels are employed.

About 65 % of the welds in a pipeline are made by automatic processes; the remaining 35 % of the welding is done by hand on the right-of-way. There are no ambient-temperature limits on welding, but practically very little work is done at air temperature below -40 °C. Welding shelters are utilized. Electrical- resistance welding for joining pipe lengths is being developed. Visual welding inspection followed by nondestructive testing is common. On the 48-in. and 56-in. diameter pipelines, 100 % X-ray is employed. One hundred % X-ray is also required on any line size when new methods are employed and would be required on any hot-oil pipeline in the Arctic. Polyethylene tapes are commonly employed for pipeline protective coatings. They are ordinarily applied over the ditch on lowering in. Fiberglass- reinforced enamel coatings are used in some areas but not as in the past. Bends of the pipe with hard polyethylene coatings are usually made in the yard before stringing, but field bending at air temperatures down to –20 °C is accomplished successfully without coating damage. Therefore use of this coating type is likely to increase.

Exercise 4. Answer the questions.

1. How is pipe bending done on the Northern pipelines? 2. Where are bends commonly made? 3. What methods and machines are used for bending? 4. How is welding made? 5. What kind of welding is being developed for joining pipe lengths? 6. How is the quality of welding inspected? 7. What kinds of protective coatings are commonly employed? 8. Are any other kinds of protective coatings used?

Exercise 5. Say whether the statements in the following sentences correct or not using the following phrases: it's true, it is not true, on the contrary.

1. Pipe bending on the Northern pipelines is done according to American standards. 2. Bending on the right-of-way is not done. 3. Welding on the Northern pipelines is done only automatically. 4. All welding is done at air temperature below –40 °C. 5. Welding shelters are not utilized. 6. Visual welding inspection is not used. 7. 100 % X-ray is employed on the 48-in. and 56-in. diameter pipelines. 8. Polyethylene tapes are commonly employed for pipeline protective coatings. 9. Fiberglass-reinforced enamel coatings are not used. 10. The use of hard polyethylene coatings is not likely to increase.

SIBERIAN MAIN LINES

There is no standard definition of an "Arctic Pipeline". For climatic reasons, particularly the very cold winters and for terrain conditions, particularly swampy ground and permafrost all the Siberian pipelines must be qualified as "Arctic Pipelines" even though they may stretch south of the 60th parallel. All Arctic cross-country pipeline work is to be done during the 5 months of October through March. The 56-in. pipelines from Medvezhye to the Nadym River, a distance of about 100 km, are in berm, overlying continuous permafrost. The berm is of fine-grained sandy soil. Wind erosion has been a problem, laying some sections of the lines bare. West of the Nadym River, only discontinuous permafrost is encountered. Therefore, conventional buring is employed. There is no temperature control on these lines. The original 56-in. line from Urengoy to Medvezhye crosses both continuous and discontinuous permafrost at near the thawing temperature. It was considered possible that part of it 130 km would be constructed aboveground and insulated. The remaining part would be buried. From Medvezhye to the west, the line would be buried as the earlier lines were. It was also believed that the line would be constructed to operate as a chilled gas pipeline at 3° to 1°C throughout the area of discontinuous permafrost and beyond. Refrigeration would be terminated after the line passes Vologda, a distance of over 2.000 km from the starting point. Operation in the chilled mode was accomplished both for increased pipeline throughput and for permafrost considerations.

Exercise 6. Answers the following questions.

1. Why must all the Siberian pipelines be qualified as "Arctic Pipelines"? 2. When is the work on Arctic cross-country pipelines to be done? 3. What will the line from Medvezhye to the West operate in the chilled mode for? 4. Is this line buried or constructed aboveground?

UNIT 10 TESTING

Study the following vocabulary

1. testing – испытание, проверка 2. to pressure – поднимать давление

3. test pressure – испытательное давление 4. working pressure – рабочее давление 5. raise – повышать 6. working level – уровень рабочего давления 7. leak – утечка 8. yield – текучесть 9. elevate – поднимать, возвышать 10. hold – держать, удерживать

Exercise 1. Find Russian equivalents for the following English verbs:

1. test a) оставаться 2. design b) понижать 3. differ c) предотвращать 4. reduce d) испытывать 5. lower e) требовать 6. remain f) определять 7. prevent g) различать 8. divide h) проектировать 9. determine i) уменьшать 10. require j) делить

Exercise 2. Translate the following groups of words:

Test pressure, leak test, air test, design pressure, river crossing, pipe length, test requirement, wall thickness.

Testing

Testing in our country differs somewhat from common practice elsewhere. Testing is done in two 12-hr phases. The line is first pressured to test pressure for 2 hr; then the pressure is reduced to working pressure and raised back to test pressure for the remainder of the first 12 hr. After that, the pressure is lowered to working level and held for the second 12 hr for a leak test. Crude oil lines are hydrostatically tested to 90 % of yield. Gas lines are most often air tested and they are tested to 110 % of design working pressure. Gas pipelines of Category 1, i.e. at road or river crossings, through or near town, and at pump or compressor stations are tested to 125 % of design working pressure. Elevated lines near the gas fields in the Arctic are frequently tested with gas. Some hydrostatic testing is done at low temperatures using heated water at

41 high pressure and working quickly to prevent freezing. Similar procedures were used on the Alyeska pipeline in Alaska. Hydrostatic testing consists of so-called "pre-tests" and main tests after the pipelaying. The "pre-tests" are used to examine the pipe lengths for sections such as at river crossings before the pipeline laying. Thus, previously tested pipe meeting the test requirements is used for the parts where the work is likely to take much time. The pipeline is divided into several sections for the hydrostatic tests. The sections are determined basically on those of wall, thicknesses mainly of 0.281 and 0.250 in.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions.

1. Does testing in our country differ from common practice? 2. How is testing done? 3. How are crude oil lines tested? 4. How are gas lines tested? 5. How are gas lines of Category 1 tested? 6. What pipelines belong to Category 1? 7. How are elevated lines near the gas fields in the Arctic tested? 8. What tests does hydrostatic testing consist of? 9. What are "pre-tests"? What are they used for? 10. Where are previously tested pipes used? 11. Is the pipeline divided into sections for the hydrostatic test? 12. How are the sections determined?

Exercise 4. Say whether the statements in the following sentences correct or not using the following phrases: It’s true, it is not true, on the contrary.

1. Testing pipelines in our country does not differ from common practice. 2. Testing is done during 48 hours. 3. The pressure is maintained unchanged for a minimum of 48 hr. 4. Crude oil lines are hydrostatically tested to 90 % of yield. 5. Gas lines are most often hydrostatically tested. 6. Hydrostatic testing consists of "pre-tests" and main tests. 7. "Pre-tests" are used after the pipe laying.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE YAKUTIAN GAS PIPELINE

The 20-in. diameter Yakutian gas line runs 293 km from gas fields on the Vilyuy River to the town of Yakutsk. This pipeline traverses continuous permafrost terrain. Work was done both in winter and summer, with most being Аccomplished in winter because of better access over frozen ground. The only access was along the right-of-way from either end. Aboveground, buried, and berm-type construction are all employed. Aboveground and berm construction cover 192 km (120 miles) of the distance, the northern two-thirds. Aboveground portions are on untreated-timber H-supports. The line simply rests on these supports with no attempts made to secure the line to the supports. Sections are anchored about every 600 to 650 m. Permafrost in the area averages about 300 m thick. The active layer averages 1.5 m with a maximum of 2 m. The ground temperature at depth is –2.6 °C. In the southern third, where the pipeline is buried, the soil is thermally stable sandy loam of low ice content. Most of the aboveground and berm construction is in areas of swampy ground. Aboveground sections get very cold in winter and quite warm in summer. Aboveground sections are completely bare. Buried and berm-covered pipe is coated with fiber-glass-reinforced enamel. In general, the buried and berm- covered portions of the line have been the most successful. The line is more stable in these locations, and no troubles have been experienced.

Exercise 5. Answers the following questions.

1. Where does Yakutian gas line run? 2. What kind of terrain does it traverse? 3. When was the work on the line done? 4. What types of construction were used? 5. Are aboveground sections covered with insulating material? 6. Where is the aboveground and berm construction used? 7. What is buried and berm-covered pipe coated with? 8. What type of construction proved to be the most successful? Why?

UNIT 11 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Study the following vocabulary

1. environment – окружающая среда 2. impact – воздействие, влияние

3. inevitable – неизбежный, неминуемый 4. interruption – прерывание, нарушение, остановка 5. logistics – материально-техническое обеспечение 6. wild – дикий 7. to elevate – поднимать, возвышать 8. ravine – овраг, лощина 9. depression – впадина, углубление 10. to damage – повреждать, наносить ущерб, вредить 11. stream ecology – экология рек 12. restoration – восстановление, реконструкция 13. interference – вмешательство, препятствие 14. drainage – осушение 15. treatment – обращение (с чем-либо) 16. prevention – предотвращение, предупреждение 17. to prohibit – запрещать 18. thermal erosion – термическая (тепловая) эрозия

Exercise 1. Find the corresponding Russian equivalents for the English words:

1. change a) воздействие, влияние 2. right-of-way b) неизбежный, неминуемый 3. environment c) вмешательство, препятствие 4. interruption d) окружающая среда 5. inevitable e) вечная мерзлота 6. impact f) изменение 7. interference g) прерывание, остановка 8. permafrost h) трасса трубопровода

Exercise 2. Find the corresponding Russian equivalents for the English words

1. to prevent a) поднимать, возвышать 2. to take into consideration b) наблюдать, соблюдать 3. to elevate c) предупреждать, предотвращать 4. to prohibit d) иметь место, встречаться 5. to occur e) запрещать 6. to mean f) принимать во внимание 7. to observe g) означать

Exercise 3. Translate the following phrases:

Inevitable environmental charge, as far as pipeline construction is concerned, environmental impact, natural depressions, stream ecology, natural drainage, damaged tundra, severe thermal erosion, environmental-protection laws, air river crossings.

Environmental impact

Pipeline construction usually results in interruption of natural conditions along the right-of-way with inevitable environmental change. As far as pipeline construction in Siberia is concerned minimum environmental impact is observed with winter construction, and that is the usual practice, not only for environmental reasons, but for logistical ones. Wild animals are taken into consideration in pipeline design, and animal paths are made by elevating the line over ravines and other natural depressions. Air river crossings are chosen as being least damaging to stream ecology. Recultivation of soils and restoration of right-of-way are required after construction. Berm construction is the least chosen of construction types because of its interference with natural drainage. Permafrost is a major factor in any work in the far north. At the present time, it is believed that very little if anything can be done for physical restoration of damaged tundra in the permafrost region, and biological restoration is very slow. The best treatment is prevention of damage in the first place. Summer work is prohibited. Severe thermal erosion occurs at some places on the Northern pipelines even with winter construction. This damage is considered impossible to repair and it is this type damage that the environmental-protection laws are meant to prevent on future Arctic pipelines.

Exercise 4. Answer the questions.

1. What does pipeline construction usually result in? 2. When is minimum environmental impact observed in pipeline construction in Siberia? 3. What must be taken into consideration in pipeline design? 4. What is required after pipeline construction? 5. Why is berm-type construction the least chosen? 6. What is the major factor in any work in the far north? 7. Is summer work prohibited? 8. What form of damage is considered impossible to repair?

MESSOYAKHA-NORILSK GAS PIPELINE

The 20 and 28-in. gas pipeline from Messoyakha gas fields to Norilsk are laid above ground the entire distance. Terrain is arctic tundra overlying thick permafrost. The lines are bare and there is no temperature control. As in the case of the aboveground sections of the Yakutian pipeline, support problems have been experienced, mainly with the lines jumping off the supports. In an attempt to improve on the Yakutian experience, all types of pipe supports have been employed, some quite experimental. Support construction may be of timber, steel, or concrete. Winter storms in this region are characterized by very high winds, so in addition to thermal movement, vibration induced by the wind has contributed to support failures and to pipe jumping off supports. To prevent wind-induced vibrations, support spacing would have to be shortened more than required to support the weight. As a solution of vibration problem, a vibration dampfer has been developed. This device consists of a strut (стойка) composed of small-diameter pipe inserted inside another. These devices are installed intermediately between pipe supports. Their use permits almost double the distance between pipe supports that would otherwise be required to prevent vibration. All pipeline construction was done in winter over frozen ground. All maintenance work must also be done in winter. Summer work on the tundra is prohibited.

Exercise 5. Answer the questions.

1. How is gas pipeline from Messoyakha gas fields to Norilsk laid? 2. What problems did the constructors of this pipeline face? 3. What types of pipe supports have been employed on the Messoyakha- Norilsk gas pipeline? 4. What are the reasons of support failures and pipe jumping off supports in winter? 5. How was the vibration problem solved? 6. What does the dampfer consist of? 7. Where are these devices installed and what does their use permit? 8. When was all pipeline construction work done? 9. Is summer work in the tundra prohibited?

UNIT 12 EXPERIENCE IN PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

Study the following vocabulary

1. experience – опыт 2. major – большой

3. hot-oilpipeline – трубопровод с подогретой нефтью 4. above-ground – наземный 5. steel pile – стальная свая 6. cross-beam – крестовина, поперечная балка 7. to employ – применять, использовать 8. beneath – внизу, под, ниже 9. to maintain – поддерживать, сохранять 10. thaw-stablepermafrost – вечная мерзлота, неподверженная оттаиванию 11. permafrost-freeground – земля без вечной мерзлоты 12. bury – зарывать (в землю) 13. all-weatherroad – дорога на любую погоду 14. to carry out – осуществлять 15. approach – подход 16. to precede – предшествовать 17. failure – недостаток 18. error – ошибка 19. conventional – обычный

Exercise 1. Find the corresponding English equivalents for the Russian words:

1. осуществлять a) to employ 2. предшествовать b) to maintain 3. применять, использовать c) to bury 4. поддерживать, сохранять d) to carry out 5. зарывать e) to precede

Exercise 2. Find the corresponding Russian equivalents for the English words:

1. failure a) поперечная балка 2. entire b) опыт 3. approach c) стальная свая 4. cross-beam d) весь 5. bury e) недостаток 6. experience f) подход 7. steel pile g) закрытый

Russian and north American experience in pipeline construction

Russia has tremendous experience in the construction of major pipelines in an area with very cold winters. The Siberian pipelines are characterized by winter construction. As to North America, Alyaska is the most important Arctic pipeline there. This is hot-oil pipeline crossing almost 800 miles of continuous and

47 discontinuous permafrost. About half of it is above-ground on a steel pile and cross-beam support system employing thousands of heated pipes to maintain frozen ground beneath. Only in thaw-stable permafrost-free ground is the line buried in the conventional manner. An all-weather road was built to serve during construction. Extensive grading was carried out, and an all-weather right-of-way surface prepared along the entire length of the pipeline. In fact, all construction was done in summer. A major difference between Arctic pipelining in Russia and North America is in the approach to projects. In North America, extensive theoretical work, testing and experimentation precede the design and beginning of construction. In Russia theoretical work is done in a number of design institutes to select a design. Then construction begins. Experimental programs are carried out on the full-scale functioning pipeline. Failures and errors are corrected in operation. Thus, it can be said that Arctic or winter pipeline construction techniques in Russia and in North America do not materially differ. Experience to date has been somewhat different, but that is a result of natural and political influence and not of differences in technique.

Exercise 3. Answer the questions.

1. What can you say about Russia experience in pipeline construction in an area with cold winters? 2. What is the most important arctic pipeline of North America? 3. What is its length? 4. What interesting facts have you learnt about Alyaska pipeline? 5. What methods of pipelaying are employed in America to maintain frozen ground? 6. In what places (grounds) is the line buried in the conventional manner? 7. What preparations were carried out before the beginning of the construction? 8. In what season was all construction done? 9. What is the major difference between Arctic pipelining in Russia and North America? 10. Do winter pipeline construction techniques in Russia and in North America materially differ?

SITE ACCESS

Major materials delivering and storage sites are established at selected locations on the river banks during summer for further distribution over frozen ground in winter. Without rivers construction of the Siberian pipelines would be more difficult. Siberia has some of the world’s greatest rivers. Those rivers form the major transportation network for the North.

From the river-bank material-storage sites, construction equipment, line pipes and other materials are moved over frozen ground during winter. Winter roads are constructed, usually along the right-of-way. Winter roads are made of packed snow or ice. To construct a winter road or construction work pad, any existing snow cover is first removed or compressed to assist in frost penetration of the natural ground. Snow roads are built simply by hauling in and compacting snow to the required depth. Ice roads are constructed by spreading water, and 2 to 3 cm are built up every 2 hours. Timbers and logs are often used to strengthen the ice. There is a formula used to determine the ice or compacted-snow thickness required for a given set of conditions and the time needed to freeze a given thickness of ice. With compacted snow or ice thickness determined per the formula, adequate roads and construction pads are obtained, and no damage is suffered by underlying vegetation.

Exercise 4. Answer the questions.

1. Where are major materials delivering and storage sites established? 2. Why construction of the Siberian pipelines would be more difficult without rivers? 3. What are winter roads made of? 4. In what places are snow roads constructed? 5. What are timber and logs used for during ice roads construction?

UNIT 13 CRYOGENIC PIPELINE

Study the following vocabulary

1. cryogenic – криогенный 2. to convey – транспортировать, перевозить 3. liquid hydrogen – сжиженный водород 4. to convert – превращать 5. expenditure – расход, трата 6. gradually – постепенно, последовательно 7. liquefaction plant — завод по сжижению газа 8. to dispense with ... – обходиться без чего-либо 9. thereby – таким образом, посредством этого 10. to cool – охлаждать

Exercise 1. Find the proper Russian equivalents for the following English verbs:

1. to convey a) охлаждать 2. to convert b) обходиться без чего-либо 3. to dispense with c) превращать 4. to cool d) получать 5. to obtain e) потреблять 6. to require f) требовать 7. to leave g) исправлять 8. to consume h) покидать 9. to evaporate i) транспортировать

Cryogenic pipeline The main problem is not how to obtain hydrogen but conveying it over long distances. Transporting gas through pipes is eight times as expensive as transporting oil. Many compressor plants have to be built along the route in order to maintain the high pressure of dozens of atmospheres in the pipeline. Calculations show that the best method is to convey liquid hydrogen at a temperature below 20 ° Kelvin (–251 °C). Converting vast amounts of hydrogen into liquid form is an enormous problem and highly power-consuming. The production of one kilogram of liquid hydrogen consumes 17–20 kilowatt-hours of electricity. Soon mankind will have to produce trillions of cubic meters of hydrogen every year. Storing and transporting such a vast quantity will only be possible if hydrogen is in liquid form. As far as power expenditure is concerned, it is remarkable that under conditions of large-scale production only half the power will be needed to produce liquid hydrogen. By evaporating a certain amount of hydrogen it will be possible to maintain the required temperature in the pipeline. No matter how perfectly insulated against heat the cryogenic pipeline may be, hydrogen will gradually warm up when it leaves the liquefaction plants. St. Petersburg scientists have developed an original method of dispensing with additional cooling plants. If a small amount of hydrogen is allowed to freely evaporate from the surface of the flow into the vacuum, the heat required for evaporation will be taken from the liquid hydrogen, thereby cooling it down.

Exercise 2. Answer the questions.

1. Why do many compressor plants have to be built along the route of cryogenic pipeline? 2. Why is gas transportation through pipes more. expensive than oil transportation? 3. What is the best method to convey liquid hydrogen? 4. Why is converting hydrogen into liquid form an enormous problem? 5. How much energy will be needed to produce liquid hydrogen? 6. What is the main idea of the method developed by St. Petersburg scientists?

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

PIPELINE SECURITY: NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR TODAY’S DEMANDING ENVIRONMENT.

Picture 1. Pipeline

The protection of oil, gas and refined product pipelines against sabotage, illegal tapping and terrorist action, combined with the detection of leaks and inline equipment failure, is a high priority in all countries, but has been notoriously difficult to achieve. Oil and gas installations are critical infrastructure of high importance and value. If a pipeline is damaged, significant revenues will be lost, harm may be caused to the environment, and the leakage could be a potential danger to the local population. More importantly, a terrorist attack on an unprotected pipeline could have catastrophic consequences. This article describes how the latest developments in pipeline monitoring and security technology meet the challenges of today’s demanding environment (look picture 1). New sensing solutions provide greater visibility into the pipeline network and buy operators additional time before an event occurs, allowing for repairs, evacuations or a security response to reduce potential damage or losses. A Vulnerable Network Of Strategic Assets It has never been more important to ensure the safety and reliability of production and distribution assets for the oil and gas industry. In a fragile economy, threats to pipeline infrastructure can have a significant effect on both industries and communities, whether they are intentional disruptions or inadvertent damage caused by excavation equipment, land movement or pipeline leaks. For pipeline operators, the three main types of third-party damage are theft, terrorism and construction work. Pipeline tampering and pilferage are

51 common problems in developing countries. Pipelines are also an easy “soft target” for terrorist organizations whose declared aim is to damage Western economic and political interests. A typical transportation and distribution system for natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons can extend hundreds of miles and comprise thousands of sensors, valves, pumps and controllers. In the United States, the national pipeline system is an extensive mode of transportation with unique infrastructure security characteristics and requirements. Virtually all the critical pipeline infrastructure is owned or operated by private entities. There are:  161,189 miles of hazardous liquid pipelines  309,503 miles of natural gas transmission pipelines  1.9 million miles of natural gas distribution pipelines According to the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), the majority of pipeline incidents are caused by “damage by outside force.” Property damages alone for more than 300,000 miles of transmission pipe can cost operators millions of dollars annually. Limitations Of Existing Technologies Most petroleum producers recognize the importance of deploying an effective pipeline monitoring and surveillance solution, which includes a round-the-clock vigil on key operational parameters in the distribution network, as well as monitoring leakages, electronic surveillance and physical patrolling of the right-of-way. In a continuing effort to remove the guesswork from pipeline operations and reduce costs, many techniques have been developed to address risks and maintenance needs in a strategic fashion. Common pipeline security measures include aerial surveillance, ground patrolling, installation of pipeline warning boards/markers, deployment of security personnel, and conducting awareness campaigns to educate habitants along the pipeline route. Advanced telecommunication systems and leak detection systems are also widely used to improve the monitoring and remote control of pipelines. However, armed security guards cannot be everywhere at the same time. Closed-circuit television (CCTV) security cameras are effective for surveillance, but are less useful if not incorporated into a complete security system. Plus, their infrastructure costs are not economically viable. Radar is proven as a long-range water and surface-based solution, but again, is not economically viable due to the need for power and network connectivity. Most conventional pipeline security systems rely upon point-sensing technologies to estimate locations of events. Positioning these systems in the correct and most relevant locations can be a challenge. They can also be affected by a single large and often harmless event blinding the system to specific activities that can affect the process. Overall, the majority of existing detection technologies only provide notice that a damaging event has occurred, allowing an operator to put into place reactive countermeasures to stop the associated costs from escalating.

Latest Pipeline Monitoring Solution In recent years, innovative technologies for pipeline surveillance against third-party damage or intrusion have become increasingly available. With advances in miniaturized sensors, standardized data processing and reliable communications, oil and gas companies now have access to robust tools for the monitoring of extended and complex pipeline systems (look picture 2). One of the most effective solutions for pipeline monitoring involves a technique known as Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS), which can convert a fiber optic cable into a listening device. A DAS system is designed to prevent pipeline damage from occurring in the first place by providing advance warning of the events leading up to an incident. Attaching DAS equipment to one end of a standard fiber optic cable, such as those used for telecommunication, creates an acoustic array of virtual microphones every 10 meters along the fiber. Using sonar-processing techniques, the sounds received from the virtual microphones are analyzed and converted into a simple graphical display showing the operator what is happening along individual lengths of the fiber. For example, the sensor system can detect the difference between mechanical digging and a person walking. It can also pick up the sound of leaks from gas pipelines.

Picture 2. Damage monitoring

DAS systems are comprised of two key elements: an optical interrogator unit and an acoustical processing unit. The interrogator unit sends a pulse of light down the fiber optic line with most of the light reaching the other end. However, a small percentage of light returns to the source — this effect is called “backscatter.”

Sound or vibration near the fiber changes the backscattered light, and these changes are analyzed by the interrogator unit to re-create the sound or vibration that caused them. The sounds are sent to the acoustical processing unit, which analyzes the sounds using sonar processing algorithms to create specific alarms for a given event or sequence of events. The passive nature and inherent long-term reliability of fiber optics, together with the ability to string together thousands of individual sensing elements in individual optical fibers, make DAS a compelling technology for meeting demanding pipeline monitoring and security requirements. The most advanced DAS-based solutions are designed to perform acoustic sensing for pipeline condition monitoring and leak detection on the same strand of fiber, making them ideal for retrofit projects with existing cable installations. These systems can also cover up to 60 miles of cable between power and network connections. Better accuracy, fewer false alarms As demonstrated at oil and gas pipeline facilities worldwide, DAS technology provides around-the-clock distributed acoustic monitoring over very long distances. Operators can monitor the entire length of the fiber optic cable continuously and detect, classify and locate any number of simultaneous disturbances anywhere along the fiber with excellent resolution. Most importantly, the signal extracted from each section of fiber is unaffected by the vibration on any other section. DAS-based pipeline monitoring employs a processing architecture for analyzing acoustic activity that draws upon decades of military sonar research. This tells the operator what the threat is and eradicates false or nuisance alarms. The system interrogation unit automatically learns the normal background level of vibration along each section of fiber and then sets appropriate amplitude thresholds for each location. This enables the operator to locate any threat with a high degree of accuracy. Detection ranges from the pipeline itself depend on the type of soil surrounding the fiber, but DAS can typically detect a person walking when they are 5–10 meters away from the buried fiber with manual digging 5–15 meters away. The technology can detect vehicles 5–15 meters away from the fiber and identify mechanical digging or other larger machinery at a distance of 20–50 meters. Some systems even present real-time event data in a manner where classified alerts are shown on a map display with location coordinates. For longdistance applications, this capability is particularly beneficial for threat response and can be used to cue other security platforms such as CCTV or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Integration of DAS technology with process automation systems, fire and gas safety equipment, plant security systems, and gas metering and regulation stations allows operators at different facilities to see alarms in parallel – in the

54 same format – to provide additional time for evacuations or to avert a potentially life-threatening event. Typical industry applications DAS technology can be cost-effectively deployed on various types of pipeline systems to provide around-the-clock monitoring for threatening activity and abnormal operating incidents within the vicinity of the line and surrounding assets. Typical applications include: Third-party interference With a DAS-based monitoring system, operators have a reliable means of locating potentially hazardous movement within the pipeline corridor. Human movement can be detected within a few feet of the sensing cable, and mechanical digging identified up to much longer distances. In many cases, this allows intrusion to be detected and alarmed before contact with the pipe is made. Asset protection The DAS solution can utilize the fiber optic network around remote facilities to detect any unwanted intrusion and protect assets such as block valves and compressor stations. In addition, it can be integrated with existing security systems to activate cameras and personnel. This can be monitored at a central control center overseeing a number of diverse locations. Event alarming A key feature of DAS is to provide alerts for real threats only. This technique not only picks out the acoustic fingerprint of an event, but also monitors its activity over a short period of time to build up an exact picture of what the event is. In this way, nuisance alarms are effectively minimized. The use of “smart zones” allows for flexible alert settings to protect different regions (i.e., varying terrains such as roads and rivers) at different times of the day. For example, traffic on a road during the day may be no issue, but a vehicle arriving late at night, stopping, and unloading several people is quite different. Leak detection DAS technology is able to detect the low frequencies associated with a gas pipeline burst. Where gas leaks cause a change in the temperature around the fiber, the technology can provide early warning and avoid dangerous and costly delays in detection. The possibility of combining this capability with the detection of leaks that cause an acoustic impact around the fiber enhances the security function. Pig tracking and profiling DAS can follow the progress of a pig throughout the pipe network by tracking the acoustic signature. When a pig passes through a girth weld inline, the resulting pressure pulses propagate through the pipe, which can be picked up a considerable distance away. This allows the use of cleaning pigs to gain valuable data that help in constructing a picture of the pipeline's condition over time and will also identify the location of a stalled pig.

Equipment monitoring Various pieces of pipeline equipment (especially those with rotating parts such as pumps, valves or generators) produce strong acoustic fingerprints. DAS technology can detect changes in the underlying acoustic signature of equipment and machinery. As such, it can be employed to monitor previously unmonitored assets at remote locations and produce an alert when equipment fails. An example would be the failure on an air conditioning unit cooling essential electronics; the alarm will allow the operator to prevent heat damage to critical or high-value equipment. Reporting and forensic analysis By recording all activity in the vicinity of a pipeline, before and after analysis of particular activities and events such as earthquakes can be undertaken to make sure the integrity of critical assets has not been compromised. This data also allows engineers to develop further in-depth analysis of activity if required. Conclusion Challenges to the safety and security of pipeline systems are diverse and ever changing. This situation calls for a well-designed, reliable and intelligent pipeline monitoring system. Advanced solutions such as DAS technology provide operators with detailed, real-time information about incidents or accidents on the line, thus significantly reducing response time in the event of a natural disaster, equipment failure, third-party interference or attack. (By Adrian Fielding, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pipeline-security-new- technology-today%E2%80%99s-demanding-environment)

‘PERFECT STORM’ SHINES LIGHT FOR MORE INFRASTRUCTURE IN NEW ENGLAND

Picture 3. Algonquin gas transmission

With what could be viewed ominously as the perfect storm bringing a much rougher winter than last year’s to New England, concerns about the need for additional natural gas infrastructure in the region have once again been dramatically underscored. As severe weather helped drive energy consumption in recent months, the use of natural gas for power generation also climbed 3 % between January and October 2012 in the Boston area, compared to the same period the previous year, according to U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) data. At the same time, gas flow from the west and south reached near-capacity levels on existing pipelines with the region’s primary supplier – the Algonquin Gas Transmission system – having operated at “high utilization” since mid-2012. “It’s a pretty clear indication there is not enough pipeline capacity going into New England,” said Andrew Soto, AGA’s senior managing counsel of federal regulations. “That explains the basis differential – the value of moving gas into the region is so high, given the cold weather and the demand (look picture 3)”. Prices, too, have reflected this value and need for more infrastructure in New England’s spot market since November, with the Algonquin Citygate trading point selling at $2 more per MMBtu than is paid in New York City – historically comparable to New England prices – and $3 per MMBtu more than Henry Hub prices. And, according to ISO New England, which oversees the region’s electricity market, a megawatt hour cost about $150 in early February, compared to about $30 a year earlier. “When you look at specific data points around the country, you don’t see a lot of price movement, even in what would be considered cold weather,” Soto said. “There is a tremendous amount of price stability at all the other points. This really is a localized phenomenon.” Spectra Energy, owner of the Algonquin system, is looking to help meet the increasing demand for natural gas from home heating and electric generation, while lowering energy costs, with construction of the Algonquin Intermediate Market (AIM) expansion project. An open season on the project, with a contemplated expansion capacity of 450,000 Dth/d, was completed in November, drawing “robust interest” that Spectra is working to convert into “binding commitments,” according to Richard Kruse, company vice president of Regulatory Affairs. Most of the work on the project, targeted for completion in November 2016, is expected to take place within existing rights-of-way and at company- owned facilities in Connecticut, Massachusetts and New York. “What we have seen in the last couple of years is what has become a market that is as tight or tighter than New York City was, in terms of moving gas from the west to the east,” said Kruse, concerning the Boston area. “Of course, that’s all driven by the market desire to access Marcellus and relatively less-expensive gas.”

Much of the cost relief for New York City customers came last year when Spectra’s New York-New Jersey expansion was certified, sending gas prices down, based solely on the fact that the 16 miles of new pipeline and 5 miles of replacement pipeline to the company’s Texas Eastern Transmission and Algonquin Gas Transmission would be adding 800 MMcf/d of capacity in November 2013. LDCs And Power Plants With a number of midstream proposals on the table, “you have a pretty clear market signal that it’s going to drive further investments,” Soto said. The question then becomes, who’s going to hold the contracts and buy capacity on the future infrastructure? “That’s where it gets a little complicated,” he noted. “A lot of the increased demand for natural gas in New England is driven by the power- generation sector, which has not traditionally relied on firm pipeline contracts.” Data from ISO New England showed natural-gas fired energy generation has grown from 15–51 % in the relatively short time between 2000 and 2011. Meanwhile, LDCs hold the vast majority of firm capacity on the Algonquin in order to ensure the winter needs of residential and business customers are met; during less-than-peak times of the year, LDCs release that excess capacity to other customers. “Power plants have been one of the big markets taking advantage of that (LDC releases). Quite frankly, that’s probably a good ‘win-win’ for both customers,” Kruse said. “The challenge – and it’s an opportunity in our mind – is as natural gas has become the fuel of choice for new electric generation … these plants have been hooking up and are using natural gas longer and longer.” One problem becomes obvious: Power plant operators now want to run at high-load factors during the winter – the same time LDCs are pulling back capacity. This creates a challenge for the electric industry, which needs the gas- fired generators to maintain the reliability of the electricity grid, but says its operators can’t afford the capacity because they aren’t paid enough in the electricity market. Selling To The Grid As a rule, power generators have sold energy to the power grid, or retained it, depending on how each particular company is set up. The rate for those transactions is negotiated in the market place. Historically, the Public Utility Commissions (PUCs) have not compensated utilities for the cost of constructing facilities. At the far end of the cost spectrum, nuclear plants – which take roughly 10 years to construct with investments of between $5–7 billion – must make long-term investments without knowing the future price of the power the company will sell, or the level of rate increases that will be allowed. “That dynamic has not been resolved and that problem exists for other types of power generation; it’s just the numbers are not as big as they are on the

58 nuclear-side,” said Mark Bridgers, a design and construction consultant at Continuum Advisory Group. “If you want to see more facilities built, then you’ve got to change the ways that the utilities are compensated for the selling of that power.” He suggested the best approach might be to allow for more accelerated cost-recovery or by formulating long-term arrangements structured similar to bonds that carry rate-structure guarantees. “The industry was set up to facilitate the investment of long-term assets. We are getting the exact opposite of that right now.” Bridgers, however, was not optimistic about a consensus being drawn on a cost-recovery method, and Kruse opined that there are so many cost-recovery suggestions “surfacing in so many different forms, it’s hard to keep track of them.” Said Bridgers, “The whole rate structure was essentially set up to get the utilities to be willing to put 50-year money in play with the recognition that they could do so with a reasonable return on that investment.” Fast-forward to today and PUCs are regulating utilities in a way that essentially forces utilities to make no decision or, alternatively, make short-term, low-risk investments because the market is so dynamic, he said, adding that, with medium-sized gas facilities being built and online within a year, “there’s not any other solution for the future other than gas.” Meanwhile, other movement on the infrastructure front in the region is already under way. Summit Natural Gas of Maine won approval in January to provide natural gas to 17 communities in the central part of the state, along a roughly 20-mile pipeline between Augusta and Winslow that would tap Spectra’s 833,317 MMBtu/d capacity Maritimes and Northeast Pipeline. Gas service for homeowners and businesses closest to the mainlines is targeted to begin in late 2014. Also on track, a Williams project in partnership with Cabot Oil & Gas and Piedmont Natural Gas that would develop a major pipeline project, connecting the Appalachian natural gas supplies in northern Pennsylvania with northeastern markets by 2015. The 120-mile Constitution Pipeline will have 650,000 Dth/d capacity, running along a 30-inch pipeline from Susquehanna County, PA to Iroquois Gas Transmission and Tennessee Gas Pipeline systems in Schoharie County, NY. In conjunction, Iroquois will develop the Wright Interconnect Project, an expansion of its existing compression and metering facilities in Wright, NY. Separately, Portland Pipe Line has told Vermont lawmakers it would consider shipping tar sands oil from Western Canada across New England. CEO Larry Wilson told the state House Fish, Wildlife and Water Resources Committee “that is an option we would absolutely consider.” Such a move would require reversing the flow of pipeline now carrying oil delivered by ship to South Portland, ME, then to a refinery in Montreal.

However, this plan is already facing stiff opposition from environmentalists concerned about spills. “Fundamentally, natural gas is abundant in North America and a reliable fuel,” said Soto. “When you see high prices in New England, that’s a localized concern, and that’s the market working to provide a price signal that says ‘more infrastructure is needed.’ The notion that ‘Well, we shouldn’t rely on natural gas because of the high prices,’ I think, is a false one. This is a market signal, and what it is telling us is that we need to build more pipe.” (By Michael Reed, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/%E2%80%98perfect- storm%E2%80%99-shines-light-more-infrastructure-new-england)

2012 WORLDWIDE PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION REPORT

P&GJ’s worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these, 88,976 represent projects in the planning and design phase; 29,647 miles reflect pipelines in various stages of construction. Natural gas pipelines again account for the majority of projects under construction and planned. Supporting this is a Global Data report that indicates approximately 75 % of the total global planned pipeline additions during 2011–2015 will be gas. The report says the Asia Pacific region should be responsible for 41.8 % of total planned pipeline additions with China and India being the frontrunners.

Picture 4. Mileage of pipelines

Construction Overview Following is a look at new and planned pipeline miles in the seven basic country groups, (see area map): North America – 31,951; South/Central America and Caribbean – 11,571; Africa – 7,617; Asia Pacific 34,295; Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe – 19,537; Middle East – 11,480; and Western Europe and European Union – 2,172 (look picture 4). North America Nothing has changed the outlook for the North American energy industry quite like the discoveries in the shale regions in the U.S. and Canada. North America – which accounts for 26,300 miles in the planning stages and 5,651 miles under construction – should remain strong. Those building pipelines in shale regions can expect higher costs. Ziff Energy Group reports pipeline owners are seeing higher construction costs in the shale regions of Marcellus, Eagle Ford, Haynesville, Barnett, Woodford, Fayetteville, and Horn River. After analyzing costs of 120 pipelines from the past decade, Ziff Energy Group’s results show the average estimated shale gas pipeline rose in 2011 to almost $200,000/inch-mile, three times higher than 2004. “All North America geographical regions appear to experience consistently higher pipeline costs than prior years,” commented Julia Sagidova, gas analyst and lead author of the report. “The Marcellus shale gas region (Pennsylvania) is the most expensive with an average cost of under $300,000/inch-mile. These large-diameter (24–36 inches) projects are typically 120 miles in length and cost $500 million.” The report noted that the 30 % rise in steel costs over the past year along with new industry regulations and practices to reduce right-of-way and minimize environmental effects are driving up construction costs. In North America, work is progressing on DCP Midstream’s 700-mile Sandhills Pipeline. DCP is using new construction and existing pipeline to build a 100,000–120,000-bpd NGL pipeline that will run from West Texas to Mont Belvieu in East Texas. The pipeline will be phased into service, with the first completed in the third quarter to accommodate DCP’s growing Eagle Ford liquids volumes. Service to the Permian Basin will be available as soon as the Q2 2013. Greencore Pipeline Company LLC, a fully owned subsidiary of Denbury Resources Inc., is building the 231-mile, 20-inch Greencore CO-2 Pipeline from the ConocoPhillips Lost Cabin Gas Plant in Fremont County, WY, to a point in the Bell Creek oil field in Powder River County, MT. The CO-2 transported by the Greencore Pipeline will be used for enhanced oil recovery at the existing Bell Creek oil field. Completion is scheduled in late 2012. Still awaiting a construction start is TransCanada’s $7 billion Keystone XL Pipeline. The route of the 1,661-mile, 36-inch crude oil pipeline begins at Hardisty, Alberta and extends southeast through Saskatchewan, Montana, South Dakota and Nebraska.

Late last year, the State Department announced it would delay a final verdict on whether the pipeline is in the national interest until early 2013 in order to conduct an environmental analysis of an alternative route that would navigate the pipeline away from environmentally sensitive areas in Nebraska. North America also accounts for several pipelines in the planning and engineering phase, including Kinder Morgan’s 240-mile Cochin Marcellus Lateral Pipeline that will originate in Marshall County, WV and terminate at an interconnect with the KM Cochin Pipeline in Fulton County, OH. Once completed, the pipeline will transport NGLs from the Marcellus producing region of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio to fractionation plants and petrochemical facilities in Illinois and Canada. The target in-service date for the pipeline is mid-2012. Enterprise Products Partners L.P. plans to build a 1,230-mile pipeline to transport ethane from the Marcellus and Utica shale regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio to the company’s natural gas liquids storage complex at Mont Belvieu, The pipeline would have an initial capacity of 125,000 bpd and can be expanded to meet increased shipper demand. Commercial operations are slated in Q1 2014. One ok Partners will invest $910 million to $1.2 billion by late 2013 to: 1) construct the new 570-mile, 16-inch Sterling III NGL Pipeline to transport either unfractionated NGLs or NGL purity products from the Midcontinent to the Texas Gulf Coast; 2) reconfigure its existing Sterling I and Sterling II NGL distribution pipelines to transport either unfractionated NGLs or NGL purity products; and 3) build a 75,000-bpd NG fractionators, MB2, at Mont Belvieu. The Sterling III Pipeline will cost between $610-810 million and have an initial transport capacity of 193,000 bpd with possible expansion to 250,000 bpd. The pipeline will traverse the Woodford shale and provide transport capacity for NGL production from the growing Cana-Woodford Shale and Granite Wash play. Completion is scheduled in 2013. Getting Alaska’s North Slope (ANS) natural gas to market has been an elusive goal since oil production started in the late 1970s. Plans to build a major natural gas pipeline to deliver ANS natural gas to markets have come and gone over the years. One project still being evaluated to deliver North Slope natural gas is the 1,717-mile TransCanada-ExxonMobil Alaska Pipeline that would extend from Prudhoe Bay to points near Fairbanks, and Delta Junction, AK and then to the Alaska-Canada border where it would connect to a new pipeline that will link up with the pipeline system near Boundary Lake, AB. TransCanada plans to file permitting applications in both the U.S. and Canada in Q4 2012 with approvals anticipated in Q4 2014. Construction of the $32–41 billion project is scheduled to start in 2015 with first gas being available in mid-2020. Still awaiting a development decision is Canada’s Mackenzie Valley natural gas pipeline project that received the stamp of approval from an

62 independent panel charged with considering the environmental, social and economic impacts of the proposed $16 billion, 743-mile line on the Northwest Territories. In Mexico, a McDermott International subsidiary completed a project to install three oil and gas pipelines for PEMEX Exploración y Producción in the Bay of Campeche. Asia Pacific Countries in the Asia Pacific region are undertaking massive construction projects to meet growing energy demand. The region accounts for the highest number of new and planned pipeline miles. Some 20,234 miles represent projects in the engineering and design phase; 14,061 miles reflect projects in various stages of construction with China, India and Australia the most active areas. Work is winding down on one of China’s most significant projects: Petro China’s second West-to-East natural gas pipeline. Eight regional lines should be completed by June. The pipeline will carry 30 Bcm/a of gas from central Asia and northwest Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the Yangtze and Pearl River deltas. Total pipeline length, including regional lines, is 5,656 miles. The project traverses 15 provincial regions and will serve more than 400 million people. A third West-to-East gas pipeline project is expected to take more than 20 Bcm/a of gas from central Asia; a fourth and fifth are planned in the future. China's first West-to-East pipeline, which pipes gas from Tarim Basin of Xinjiang to Shanghai, is designed to transmit 12 Bcm/a of natural gas. In Yunnan Province, China National Petroleum Corp. (CNPC) is building two pipelines and a refinery to transport and process oil and natural gas from Myanmar starting in 2014. The planned 550,000-bpd oil pipeline and the 12 Bcm/d gas pipeline will each require 500 miles of construction in Myanmar to the China border city of Ruili. The two lines will then extend another 1,056 miles in Yunnan Province before reaching their destination. In India, a consortium of four state-run companies led by Gujarat State Petronet Ltd. (GSPL) has received contracts for construction of three major pipeline projects. The contracts are for the 951-mile from Mallavaram-Bhilwara in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh to Bhilwara in the northern state of Rajasthan, the 1,025-mile Mehsana-Bhatinda pipeline from western to northern India and the 466-mile pipeline to Jammu and Kashmir from Bhatinda. In Thailand, Punj Lloyd is building a 185-mile pipeline for PTT LNG to transport gas from an LNG terminal near Rayong. The project requires 45 horizontal directionally drilled crossings and is set for completion by year-end 2013. Australia/Papua New Guinea LNG continues to be the big newsmaker in Australia which accounts for seven sites under construction and eight more in the planning or engineering phase. Marking the start of one of the country’s latest mega-projects is the $16 billion Santos GLNG LNG plant on Curtis Island. The plant includes the development of coal seam gas (CSG) resources in the Bowen and Surat Basins in southeast Queensland, construction of a 261-mile gas transmission 63 pipeline from the gas fields to Gladstone, and two LNG trains with a combined nameplate capacity of 7.8 mtpa on Curtis Island. Once completed, GLNG alone will supply 11 % of Korea’s domestic gas needs and 9 % of Malaysia’s gas consumption. First LNG exports should start in 2015. In western Australia, Chevron Australia and its joint venture partners ExxonMobil, Shell, Osaka Gas, Tokyo Gas and Chubu Electric Power are working on the multibillion-dollar Gorgon Project. The project will develop the Greater Gorgon area gas fields, located off the northwest coast where five fields have been discovered. In Papua New Guinea, Esso Highlands Ltd., operator of the PNG LNG project, continues to make progress on meeting the 2014 startup window. Esso awarded the EPC contract to a joint venture of Chiyoda and JGC Corp. for a 6.6 MMt/a LNG plant, with two trains. The contract includes construction of the 435-mile natural gas pipeline from Southern Highlands to Port Moresby in PNG. The pipeline work is projected to be completed when the $10 billion LNG project gets off the ground in 2014. FSU – Eastern European Countries Russia and nations in the FSU and Eastern Europe hold promise for future oil and gas activity and several are constructing and planning extensive pipeline networks to Europe and the Asia Pacific region. Nord Stream AG inaugurated the Nord Stream twin pipeline system on Nov. 11 which runs from Vyborg, Russia to Lubmin near Greifswald, Germany. The two 760-mile offshore pipelines are the most direct connection between the vast gas reserves in Russia and energy markets in the European Union. When fully operational later this year, the pipelines will have capacity to transport a combined total of 55 Bcm of gas a year to the EU for at least 50 years. Construction of Line 1 of the twin pipeline system began in April 2010 and was completed in June 2011. It began transporting gas in November 2011. Construction of Line 2, which runs parallel to Line 1, began in May 2011. The second line is planned to come on stream later this year. Each line has a transport capacity of 27.5 Bcm/a of natural gas. Transneft is contractor and operator on the Zapolyarye-Purpe oil pipeline project. The 310-mile Zapolyarye-Purpe pipeline, with capacity to ship up to 45 MMt/a of crude, will transport oil from the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District and northern Krasnoyarsk territory. Some 750 miles of supply lines will need to be built. Zapolyarye-Purpe will connect fields on the Yamal Peninsula to the Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean pipeline (ESPO). The pipeline will be constructed in three phases with the final phase scheduled for completion in 2016. Transneft reports that the second stage of the East Siberia-Pacific Ocean (ESPO) pipeline carrying Russian crude to Asian-Pacific markets and the U.S. should be in service by year end, well ahead of schedule. The first part carrying

30 MMt/a of East Siberian crude to Skovorodino near the Chinese border was launched in 2009. Once the second part of the ESPO pipeline from Skovorodino to Kozmino is completed, capacity to the Pacific coast will increase to 30 MMt/y. Work got under way last year on Kazakh’s KazTransGas and China’s Trans-Asia Gas Pipeline Co. Ltd.’s Beineu-Bozoy-Shymkent Gas Pipeline, which is the second stage of the Kazakhstan-China Gas Pipeline. The 916-mile project will be built in two phases; the first involves laying 723 miles from Bozoy-Shymkent and constructing a compressor station near Bozoy. This phase is set for completion in 2012. Second-phase activity, to be completed from 2014-15, includes a 193-mile section from Beineu–Bozoy and a compressor station in Karaozek. Another 26 branches will be built from the mainline during the first and second phases to supply communities along the route. BP has proposed an alternative pipeline project to feed Europe with Caspian natural gas. The South East Europe Pipeline would link a major Azerbaijan gas field to a hub in Austria running from western Turkey across Bulgaria and Romania to Hungary’s border, a similar route to that of EU-backed Nabucco pipeline. South East Europe Pipeline would be 810 miles, one-third the length of Nabucco, making it a more economical project. As operator of the Shah Deniz field – the main Azeri gas natural field – BP may have influence over which pipeline the Shah Deniz consortium will choose. Two other pipelines – Nabucco and Russian-backed South Stream – are proposed to tap Azeri gas for export to Europe. A final investment decision on the $20 billion Azeri development is expected in 2013. Gazprom and China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) plan to partner to build the 1,616-mile Altai Pipeline to deliver natural gas from western Siberia to northwestern China. The contract period is 30 years and the supply volume, upon reaching design capacity, will be 30 Bcm/yr. First supplies are planned for 2015. Africa Limited energy development in Africa is due to political, economic, operational and geopolitical risks. The region accounts for 6,683 miles of planned pipelines and 934 miles under construction. One area that may hold promise for near-term activity is Nigeria. At the World Petroleum Congress in Qatar, Minister of Petroleum Resources Diezani Alison-Madueke outlined $130 billion in investment plans for oil and gas sectors over the next five years, calling for construction of 1,245 miles of oil and gas pipelines to boost domestic gas supply, a petrochemical plant, new fertilizer and manufacturing plants and three greenfield refineries. Also in Nigeria, Shell Petroleum Development awarded a contract to Saipem for the Otumara-Saghara-Escravos Gas Pipeline. The 26-mile pipeline, ranging from 2 to 12 inches, will collect 30 Mcf/d of processed associated gas

65 from the western Niger Delta and send it through the Escravos-Lagos system to the domestic market. Total E&P Angola is developing the CLOV project – an integrated development of a four-field offshore cluster. A total of 34 subsea wells will connect to the CLOV FPSO unit which has processing capacity of 160,000 bopd and storage capacity of 1.78 million barrels. Serimax is conducting the welding works for the project that involves 500 welds of 10- and 12-inch pipe. The pipe will be installed in 1,000-1,400 meters of water. Project completion is due in 2013. Total Gabon awarded the Sea Trucks Group a contract to install a 20-mile, 18-inch concrete-coated gas pipeline between the Anguille and Torpille fields off Gabon. The installation work is expected to start this spring. China and Tanzania signed a $1 billion loan agreement to build a natural gas pipeline in East Africa. The 330-mile pipeline would extend from southern Tanzania to the capital, Dar es Salaam. The 36-inch pipeline will have transport capacity of 784 MMcf/d. Awaiting a construction start is the 2,565-mile Trans-Saharan Gas Pipeline (TSGP) planned by the Nigerian National Petroleum Company and Sonatrach. Total, Gazprom and the European Union have all displayed an interest in assisting construction. EU officials say the pipeline could supply 20 Bcm/y of gas to Europe by 2016. Western Europe/EU While pipeline activity in Western Europe and EU Countries was expected to increase following a decision by the European Commission to provide US$1.9 billion in grants to ensure that some 30 gas project would not be delayed, the growing financial crisis among many EU countries could derail near-term activity. Those projects scheduled to receive grants include the 500-mile Interconnector Turkey-Greece-Italy (ITGI) project, 130-mile Poseidon Pipeline, 281-mile Skanled Pipeline, 2,050-mile Nabucco Pipeline, 235-mile Odessa- Brody project and the 130-mile Slovakia- Hungary Interconnector. One area where pipeline work is under way and planned is the North Sea. Subsea 7 is working under an EPIC contract from Total E&P UK Limited on the Laggan and Tormore deepwater gas field development located west of Shetland in the North Sea. Subsea 7’s principal scope of work comprises the engineering, fabrication and installation of 88 miles of 8-inch and 2-inch piggy-backed service pipelines and the engineering, supply and installation of 1 x 77-mile control umbilical and associated subsea structures and tie-ins. Phase 1 offshore operations encompassing pipelines and umbilical installations and pre-commissioning activities are scheduled to start shortly. Phase 2 offshore operations, encompassing tie-in and commissioning activities, are scheduled to start in 2013.

Saipem is installing a subsea pipeline in the Ormen Lange northern field development in the Norwegian Sea for A/S Norske Shell. The project is being developed with a subsea template located in 900 meters of water and tied back to Ormen Lange by two 12-inch production pipelines, a 6-inch service line and a control umbilical. In the Barents Sea, Eni Norge awarded a contract to Technip valued at 200 million Euro for the Goliat field development. Goliat will be the first Norwegian oil-producing field north of the Arctic Circle in the Barents Sea. It is located 59 miles northwest of the city of Hammerfest on the Norwegian coast. Offshore installation work is scheduled to be carried out over three construction seasons from 2011–2013. Middle East In the Middle East 8,805 miles of pipelines are planned and 2,675 miles are in various stages of completion. RASGAS (joint venture between Qatar Petroleum and ExxonMobil) plans to develop the multibillion-dollar Barzan natural gas project in the North Field reservoir offshore Qatar in the Arabian Gulf. Work includes a natural gas offshore production system with conventional wellhead platforms, intrafield pipelines, 180 miles of up to 24-inch export pipeline to the onshore Barzan Gas Plant in Ras Laffan Industrial City (RLC). First-phase production is scheduled at 1.5 Bcf/d. In Saudi Arabia, Saudi Aramco awarded an EPIC contract to Saipem for the Al Wasit Gas development of the Arabiyah and Hasbah offshore fields. This encompasses 12 wellhead platforms, two tie-in platforms and an injection platform, a 36-inch, a 160-mile export trunkline, 125 miles of mono-ethylene glycol (MEG) pipelines, 125 miles of subsea electric and control cables and 25 miles of offshore flowlines. Also included are shore approaches and 75 miles of onshore pipelines. ConocoPhillips and Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) awarded the Shah Gas project in Abu Dhabi to the Al Jaber Group. The project requires construction of facilities including gas-gathering systems, processing trains and product pipelines. Adnoc has said it expects first production by late 2013 or early 2014. In the UAE, Technip, in consortium with NPCC, was awarded an EPC contract by ZADCO for the Satah Full Field Development project, 124 miles northwest of Abu Dhabi. The $500 million contract includes offshore brownfield works to existing wellhead platforms and production manifold platform, installation of infield pipelines, as well as modifications and installation of facilities at the onshore Satah plant at Zirku Island. Leighton Offshore is working under a $58 million contract from Iraq’s South Oil Company as part of the Crude Oil Export Facility Reconstruction Project (Sea Line Project). This involves developing two offshore platforms, a 47-mile, 48-inch oil pipeline and a Single Point Mooring system. The project will expand export capacity by building a pipeline connecting storage sites to the offshore crude oil export terminal near Basra in southern Iraq.

Foster Wheeler’s Global Engineering and Construction Group was awarded a project management consultancy (PMC) services contract by South Oil Company (SOC) for the Iraq Crude Oil Export Expansion Project. This calls for installation of two onshore and offshore pipelines plus three single-point moorings and a central manifold and metering platform. Scheduled for completion in 2013, the project is expected to boost Basra export capacity from 1.8 MMbp/d to 4.5 MMbp/d by 2014. South & Central America/Caribbean Several South, Central American and Caribbean countries are implementing plans for new pipeline infrastructure. In Brazil, Petrobras is constructing a 530-mile ethanol pipeline to link the main ethanol- producing regions in Minas Gerais and São Paulo to the large consuming centers of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The pipeline will have capacity to transport 21 MMcm/a. The first section will extend 125 miles from Ribeirão Preto to Paulinia. Phase two involves construction northward through states in the mid-west. The system will be extended to Barueri and Guarulhos in greater São Paulo and Duque de Caxias in Rio Di Janeiro. The pipeline should be brought online in 2014. Pacific Rubiales Energy Corp. has partnered with EXMAR to develop an LNG export project in northern Colombia. The project involves construction and development of a liquefaction and regasification barge, a small-scale vessel designed to deliver LNG to industrial consumers, and development of a pipeline from the company's La Creciente gas field to the Caribbean coast. Front-end engineering and design have begun. The project and pipelines are expected to be operational in 2013. A recent Rigzone report outlined an MOU calling for a joint venture by Russia’s Rosneft and Petroleo de Venezuela (PDVSA) to develop heavy crude oil reserves in Venezuela as part of the Carabobo-2 project. Crude oil production is expected to peak at above 400,000 bpd. It the plan goes forward, work will cover the exploration and development cycle as well as construction of surface facilities and pipelines. There are plans to add a special processing facility (upgrader) with a capacity of 200,000 bpd to bring extracted oil up to commercial quality. Commercial oil will be transported for export to the Araya port through a trunk pipeline to be built by PDVSA. (By Rita Tubb,vhttp://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/2012-worldwide-pipeline- construction-report)

PIPELINE INTEGRITY: IT’S NOT JUST HARDWARE

BP Pipelines’ Cushing Terminal in Oklahoma. The integrity of pipelines is a matter of serious concern for those within the oil and gas industry, and for those watching from the outside as well. All the attention is, of course, fully justified.

Picture 5. Storage reservoir

Many pipeline networks around the world are beginning to show their age, and maintaining their integrity is a constant challenge (look picture 5). The stakes are, after all, very high. Keeping pipelines safe, reliable and efficient is essential to minimizing the risk of high incident events that can have a devastating impact on life, reputation, production and the environment. Pipelines are, however, not just hardware. Behind the physical infrastructure there lies a complicated network of assets that is critical for managing and maintaining the pipeline process. Process control software is one element of pipeline integrity management which has, to a large extent, been overlooked (i.e. a “hidden asset”). Yet this process critical software allows the pipeline infrastructure to be operated efficiently, safely and reliably. Any malfunction in the process software network can have catastrophic effects for the pipeline as a whole. Despite the risks of system failure, a staggering 90 % of production companies do not have secure systems in place to adequately protect all of their process critical software. Yet operators are often totally dependent upon software to support their pipeline control systems. The critical process software at the heart of these systems is intrinsically linked to the smooth running of the pipeline, the quality of the product being transported, and the safety of the network and its operators. The consequences of poor process software management can be as severe as would be the case in a failure of the physical assets themselves. Therefore, within the industry, it is essential that operators recognise that process software is an integral part of the pipeline process and requires as much attention as other physical assets. Four key factors which affect the integrity of these vital software assets are: compliance, security, change management, and disaster recovery. Operators must examine their preparedness systems in each of these key areas. The old adage applies: there’s no point in closing the barn door after the horse has bolted. Given the risks and financial consequences associated with poor

69 management of process critical software, it behaves every operator to have effective systems in place. Compliance: The Rules Are The Rules The oil and gas industry is obliged to comply with a variety of international safety standards, guidelines and regulations governing pipeline process control software. These requirements demand, among other things, secure backup of process critical software code and documents, configuration management, including change control and fault logging, user password management, security of information, and audit trails. If operators neglect to install an effective system to address these responsibilities, they risk non- compliance with industry standards. In other words, the best way to stay on the right side of the rules is to have effective software management in place. Security: Assets Need To Be Guarded An essential element of any process software system is making sure the right person will always have access to the right information at the right time. By the same token, ensuring that the wrong person never has access is crucial to guaranteeing the effective management and security of process critical software. These basic truths were demonstrated recently by the cyber attack on Iran’s national oil company. Given the sophistication and determination of hackers, the risk of information security breaches is ever increasing. Aware of this threat, ICS-CERT, the investigative division of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, has recently initiated a program to raise awareness of the problem with its "Gas Pipeline Cyber Intrusion Campaign.” Contrary to popular perceptions, the hacker is not the most common cause of security breaches. The most frequent problem arises because of the increased number of users who have access to process critical software. Keeping track of these users and controlling their access is a significant challenge to all pipeline operators. According to a recent study, 43 % of security incidents in 2010 were perpetrated by an insider. On occasion, these are unintentional breaches. However, far more serious, a user, employee or contractor can deliberately infiltrate a system in order to steal data or disrupt process control systems. According to the 2011 Global Information Security Survey by CIO Magazine and PwC, the average loss resulting from each security breach was $875,146. Of those surveyed, 42 % reported financial loss as the biggest impact of these breaches, while 30 % listed intellectual property theft as the most serious impact. Among respondents, 30 % said the reputation of their business had suffered because of the breach, while 17 % were affected by fraud, and 14 % reported loss of share value. The message is clear: the more people who have access to critical systems, the greater the risk of security breaches. In order to guard against such threats, managers must put in place a secure system to control access to process control software. Change Management: Staying Ahead Amid Constant Change As anyone who has a computer knows, software constantly evolves, necessitating frequent updates. This plain truth has enormous implications for

70 the pipeline industry. Effectively managing inevitable changes to process critical software is crucial to ensuring that operators maintain control over their systems and can react quickly should problems arise (look picture 6).

Picture 6. Tanker

Recent evidence has highlighted “parallel software changes” as one of the main problems encountered. This arises when simultaneous alterations are made to the same software, often creating multiple versions of software applications. At the least, this can reduce efficiency by wasting time and money. At worst, the chaos of parallel software changes can cause injury, damage and lost production. When a change to an existing or developing software asset is desired, it is vital that the proposed adaptation is thoroughly checked for safety, functionality and compliance before being approved and implemented. Strict procedures need to be followed so that changes are properly developed, approved and effectively put in place. Disaster Recovery: Be Prepared In order to appreciate the impact that process software can have on production, operators should consider the following: What would the effect on safety, production and the environment be, if process software failed or was corrupted and the correct replacement was not readily available? What would an unplanned shutdown of a pipeline system lasting one hour cost them? What if the shutdown stretched to a whole day, or a week? Despite the potentially high costs associated with control system software failure, many operators give scarce thought to the security and integrity of this important asset until something goes wrong. CDs carelessly stuffed in unlocked drawers or workshop filing cabinets suddenly become important, but who knows where they are? The various media used to store process software coding is vulnerable to corruption and can also be misplaced. Original equipment manufacturers and

71 systems integrators may hold copies of the proprietary (operating) software for control devices and systems; however, they do not routinely retain copies of all the system’s configuration coding. Often this is written and applied by the operator’s engineers and contractors during the life of a control system. In addition, carelessness with regard to the periodic backing up of crucial software can exacerbate the problems when something suddenly goes wrong. The software required might be stored miles away from where the problem has arisen, thus causing unnecessary delay and additional costs of transportation. In other words, the costs associated with an ineffective back-up system highlight the importance of being able to access the right software at the right time. Taking Control Given all these risks, it is clear that hidden asset integrity is just as important as the integrity of physical assets – pipes, pumps and valves. Recognizing these risks, Asset Guardian Solutions Ltd. created an intuitive software-based toolset that helps to manage the process critical software essential to automated process control systems. This toolset addresses all of the above key areas affecting the integrity of oil and gas assets. It delivers compliance with industry guidelines and directives, provides back up in the event of a shutdown, enables the secure management of software and helps to manage change. This means that software problems can be avoided, or, when they occur, that the damage they cause is kept to a minimum. Many companies, including BP and Technip, have already reaped the benefits of the unique services offered by Asset Guardian Solutions Ltd. For instance, BP Pipelines has used these services to ensure that the integrity of their process critical software is securely accessible anywhere via the BP network. BP recognizes the security of its onshore and offshore systems means not just maintaining the hardware, but also pre-empting potential software problems before they occur. Many oil and gas companies are, however, yet to grasp the importance of assuring the integrity of hidden assets. While they might be impressively vigilant when it comes to the security of physical asset, they fail to pay due attention to the importance of process software. Until they do, the risks associated with non-compliance, security, change management and disaster recovery will continue to be an underlying threat to the business. (By Sam Mackay, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pipeline-integrity- it%E2%80%99s-not-just-hardware)

PC&E’S PIPELINE SYSTEM: FROM HELL AND BACK

In less than three years, the San Francisco-based combination utility Pacific Gas and Electric Co. (PG&E) has had to reconstitute its vast natural gas transmission and distribution system on a scale that is unprecedented for the U.S. pipeline sector.

Picture 7. Pipe laying

With PG&E as the focal point, the U.S. industry has been touched by the fallout from the September 2010 failure of the company’s high-pressure, 30-inch transmission line in San Bruno, CA (look picture 7). From the charred ruins and loss of life resulting from that pipeline rupture and explosion, PG&E not only had to rebuild its physical gas components, it had to rebuild its work force, its spirit as a multibillion-dollar energy-providing organization and its trustworthiness among regulators, elected officials, customers and the general public. Less than a year into San Bruno’s aftermath, the California utility giant reached out nationally to snag gas industry veteran Nick Stavropoulos, then with National Grid, to run its natural gas system, consisting of 5,800 miles of transmission pipelines, 42,000 miles of distribution mains and numerous underground storage facilities, all spread over 70,000 miles of service territory. A salient fact for the rebuilding effort is that 2,088 miles of its transmission pipelines traverse high consequence areas (HCA) that include some of America’s most seismically active and diverse topography. At the midway point, Stavropoulos and PG&E seem to be up to the challenge in a four-year full-court press to complete a $4 billion pipeline upgrade plan and revamping of the company’s pipeline integrity management program. Along the way, there also has been an attempt to change PG&E’s culture and the previous negative perceptions of many of its stakeholders. When asked to give himself a grade, Stavropoulos declined to do so, but allowed that what the company has accomplished so far is precedent-setting. He added, when it comes to operating a safe, reliable pipeline system, “You’re never finished. The job is never done.” Stavropoulos has brought in other experienced pipeline industry veterans, such as Jesus Soto, senior vice president for gas transmission operations, who has more than 20 years of senior executive experience at El Paso Natural Gas – some of that during the company’s recovery following the Carlsbad, NM rupture of a 30- inch interstate transmission pipeline that killed a dozen people in 2000. Internal corrosion was eventually cited as the cause and Soto has never forgotten it.

PG&E also recruited Mel Christopher as senior director of gas systems operations to lead its completely revamped gas control center operations. Christopher, who has been on board about 18 months, came with 30 years of industry experience, 27 of which were with the PNM Resources utility operations in Albuquerque, NM. Both Soto and Christopher bring strong philosophies with them. Both underscore the extraordinary nature of PG&E’s challenge so far, dissecting vast amounts of high-pressure transmission pipeline segments in Class 3, 4 and HCA areas. “The concentration for this effort is unprecedented,” said Soto, while reciting what he calls the “intricacies” of working in limited spaces, while dealing with issues of noise, traffic control, limited work hours and operating heavy equipment in populated areas. “That’s very different than doing hydrostatic testing in rural areas,” he said. In consolidating and totally reorganizing PG&E’s gas control for both its transmission and distribution pipeline systems, Christopher said he is not “simply rebuilding,” and if that were the case his mission would be a failure. “We’re building what is the front line in public and employee safety at PG&E,” he said. Under mandates from federal and state regulators, particularly the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), PG&E has embraced advanced technology and extensive new training for its thousands of gas system employees, from top to bottom, including experienced contract workers. Nevertheless, some oil and pipeline industry associations have urged Congress and the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) not rush to endorse technology that has not proved reliable or cost-effective in the field. Technology, however, is an undisputable key to PG&E’s massive undertaking, and Christopher highlights that in describing what the company is trying to do with its gas control center. He thinks the technology is a “first-of- its-kind,” the place “where the industry has to go.” The center’s interlacing is a combination of advanced software and the deployment of a lot of smart communications technology and devices. Noting that the company has not come to this epiphany on its own, Christopher said a lot of benchmarking of “best-in-class” operations in the industry has helped PG&E paint a whole new vision of its gas control operations and what they should be. The gas control center will have to be the traditional “control, monitor and respond” operation with co-located transmission, distribution and gas dispatch functions. However, it must also expand its “philosophy,” Christopher said, to be more real-time “proactive and predictive.” That means it must have a preventive core, turning the myriad of pipeline data from the field into “intelligence.” And to do that, he said, technological innovations are needed. “Response is still critical, but to the extent we can prevent something, that’s all the better,” Christopher said, noting it won’t all come together when PG&E opens its new consolidated gas control center in the East San Francisco

Bay suburbs later this year; it will take up to five years to be fully operational under the new philosophy and organization. PG&E asked what technologies it could apply to make emergency response in the field more effective, and the answer was interconnected iPads for all field personnel and a “smartboard” in the control center. “We can put critical information on the smartboard at the same time technicians are viewing it in the field,” Christopher said. Ultimately, PG&E’s pipeline safety and enhancement plan (PSEP) implementation needs the control center as its focal point. “The heart of any integrity management system – transmission and distribution – is to understand the risks of your system,” said Christopher, adding that what counts is what is known about an entire system – the network, pipe and valves – and what is needed to protect its integrity. “We are connected directly to the integrity management programs in the control center,” he said. “In real time, to maintain the integrity, the control center needs to know the condition of the entire system, its regulators, and we’re gathering all that data real time and monitoring it and modeling it against performance models that we have on the network.” As an extension of earlier work covering several years, PG&E and a Silicon Valley maker of measurement instruments, Picarro Inc., announced last fall it was expanding its collaboration on a technology for more accurate detection of natural gas pipeline leaks. PG&E decided to deploy six of the vehicle-mounted, super-sensitive gas leak detectors throughout its service territory. PG&E has billed itself as the first utility in the nation to use this new technology. Picarro and PG&E contend that the leak-detection equipment is 1,000 times more sensitive than traditional leak-detection equipment with capability to detect leaks down to one part-per-billion in ambient air, while reducing false positives from naturally occurring methane. At one point near the end of 2012, the pair conducted a “road show” to demonstrate the equipment in different communities around the utility service territory in the northern and central parts of the state as part of PG&E’s trust- building and transparency initiatives. PG&E is also developing new tools to help analyze pipeline data so the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) can be calculated more efficiently and effectively. PG&E has licensed that technology. “We’re making it available to the transmission operators throughout the country as well,” Stavropoulos said. “It’s a really good application in which we are investing heavily in improving the technical training required.” He said this is part of PG&E’s efforts to provide better tools and technology to its workforce across the board. Soto said this was developed by PG&E specifically from its efforts to claw out of the ashes of San Bruno. What they have come up with is commercial and now patented. It is referred to simply as an MAOP Validation Calculator. In developing the device, PG&E has worked with Coler & Colantonio Inc. (C&C),

75 a privately held consulting and engineering firm, specializing in pipeline software and services among other things. The technology incorporates data into a Geospatial Information System (GIS), so that it can be made available to other potential pipeline operators. Data from the MAOP Validation Calculator is stored within C&C's Intrepid™ GIS. The software performs calculations to validate the MAOP for each pipeline component, contributing to a more reliable pipeline information system, according to PG&E’s experts working with the device. “Many operators are very interested in seeing how this geospatial technology has been beneficial to PG&E in providing answers to auditors through building and maintaining a traceable, verifiable and complete asset management system,” said Jeff Allen, a C&C vice president. “We’re trying to leverage technology from every corner of the industry,” said Soto, noting that another promising system involves the use of lasers in manned aerial patrolling of pipeline rights-of-way to detect leaks and third-party activity in the corridors. “Right now, the technology being used is all manned,” he said. “But there are efforts under way to develop drone-based aircraft that not only detect leaks, but also detect potential third-party activity.” Soto noted that PG&E as a member of the industry organization Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) is studying this potential advancement. PRCI hopes to have a breakthrough soon. Another focus post-San Bruno has been an unprecedented heavy concentration of expensive, time-consuming hydrostatic testing. Embraced now by the CPUC, hydrostatic testing has long been a staple in the industry, particularly for testing strings of pipe prior to putting them into service. But some industry experts always raise cautions about the limitations of the tool for pipeline operators. While not a panacea for every aspect of a pipeline’s safety characteristics, hydrostatic testing – filling a pipe segment with water and cranking up the pressure beyond its identified MAOP – can identify a number of pipe flaws, including: • Existing material flaws • Stress corrosion cracking and pipe mechanical properties • Corrosion cells that are active • Localized hard spots that could cause failure in the presence of hydrogen At the end of last year, PG&E had completed hydrostatic testing on 409 miles of its vast transmission system. Through the end of 2014, it intends to have validated 783 miles, replacing 185 miles of pipe; that’s part of the $4 billion PSEP. For most of the industry, this testing technique is used to address changes in the class locations of pipelines that may require changes and verification of MAOPs. But for PG&E, the tests have been a much larger undertaking, directly related to mandates the utility is under from the CPUC and federal regulators since San Bruno.

“Just the sheer numbers of miles to date is more than 400 miles of hydrostatic-tested pipe segments, all in heavily populated areas,” Soto said. “The shear logistics is unprecedented. Work space, water management and the blow downs, along with keeping all the customers in service – there all first of its kind.” In 2012, at the seaside college town of Santa Cruz, about 50 miles southwest of San Francisco, PG&E maintained gas service to 20,000 customers for a two-week period of segment hydrostatic testing. The utility’s solution was liquefied natural gas (LNG), something it has repeated in communities across its service territory in the past two years. PG&E maintains a fleet of LNG truck-tankers for these remote, field- fueling operations, providing up to 20,000 gallons daily of LNG in the Santa Cruz hydrostatic testing project. The giant combination utility has been using portable gas fueling systems – LNG and compressed natural gas (CNG) – since 1998, but it has really ramped up its capabilities in recent years with its massive effort to test and verify MAOPs. For the Santa Cruz pipe strength testing, eight 48-foot tankers filled with LNG were delivered from Yuba City, CA, in the north-central valley, about 150 miles away to a vacant lot in Santa Cruz County. Then the real work began – getting the liquefied gas from the tankers to customers, and PG&E has other mobile equipment to make that happen. It’s a multi-step process, a kind of “automated assembly line,” according to PG&E’s field technicians. Each tanker, filled with about 10,000 gallons of LNG, is like a large Thermos. The advantage of using LNG is that more of it can be transported because of its temperature (1 cubic foot of the liquid converts to 600 cubic feet of natural gas). The liquid is then pumped into a vaporizer, which converts it into a gas that is heated to 70 degrees. During this stage, the odorless LNG is injected with mercaptan to give the gaseous fuel its distinct odor. From there, a compressor boosts the pressure of the natural gas from 140 pounds per square inch (psi) to 275 psi. The gas is then discharged into a natural gas pipeline. At Santa Cruz, this operation lasted around the clock for two weeks. Twelve employees and contractors were dedicated to the mobile fueling site, constantly monitoring the temperature of the natural gas and the flow rate while checking for leaks. The team communicates with the hydro-test operators daily, and two refilled tanker-trucks returned daily. This sort of effort is being replicated daily throughout 70,000 square miles of service territory. It involves not only pipe-strength testing and replacement, but also the installation of what will be 220 automatic and remote control valves, and the intensive training of thousands of utility and contract field workers. Soto estimates up to 85 % of the work crews are contractors, because the bulk of the work is concentrated in a five-month period of June through October. More valves are being installed in seismically active areas. The work of outfitting the pipes with the new devices is one thing, but the real time- consuming process is developing the communications links between the valves

77 and the emerging new gas control center, Soto said. There is an electrical support system that is absolutely critical, he added. Overall, the more accelerated use of tests and installation of the valves are designed to lower the overall risk profile of the PG&E system, Soto said. “That is why so much of the work is focused on populated Class 3, 4 and HCA areas,” he said. “It is all aimed at reducing risk, and that is the new culture we are aiming for at PG&E. It is a culture that puts people first. We’re doing everything we can to lower the risk and enhance the integrity of the system.” (By Richard Nemec, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pge%E2%80%99s- pipeline-system-hell-and-back)

WHAT DO WE REALLY KNOW ABOUT PIPELINE PIGGING AND CLEANING?

Pigging technology today has been advancing exponentially, and what we mean by technology is not so much the hardware side but the application. This article will address the application side of pigging while discussing rules-of-thumb for liquid and dry cleaning of pipelines in concert with running mechanical cleaning pigs and the effectiveness of the respective results. P&GJwill publish Part 2 in a later issue. What is it that we really know or understand about pigging a pipeline? If we think that just running any type of mechanical pig through our pipeline at any speed and getting it out in one piece constitutes a clean or good run and that we are now ready for the MFL tool, then the answer, respectfully, is we do not know very much.

Picture 8. Cleaning a pipe

Pigging of any type requires planning and assistance from the pig manufacturers and/or qualified pipeline-cleaning service companies (look picture 8). The goal of pipeline cleaning is to minimize or eliminate sensor liftoff of the ILI tool. A side benefit is increased pipeline efficiency. That topic

78 will be discussed in Part 2. Technology today allows for a proven product from the pig manufacturing process to assist companies in achieving maximum results whether they are mechanically dry pigging or liquid cleaning using mechanical pigs. Mechanical pigs have come a long way from bails of rags wrapped with barbwire to today’s formulated polyurethanes. Polyurethanes There are many types of polyurethanes. However, this article will discuss only castable elastomers. The act of mixing and pouring together two liquids – a prepolymer and a curator – makes castable urethanes. There are basically two chemical structure types of polyurethane prepolymers. According to R.W. Fuest, the two chemical structures are 1. MDI (methylenebisdiphenyl diisocyanate) and 2.TDI (tolylenediisocyanate). Both types use a curative and a prepolymer that, when mixed together, cause a chemical reaction forming the castable urethane. Each manufacturer has its own ratio mixture, other additives, dyes, and processes that differentiate them in the market. Some advantages of polyurethane, says Fuest, include 1. non-brittle, 2. elastomeric memory and 3. abrasion resistant. Some disadvantages, says Fuest, include 1. breakdown in high temperature, 220–225 °F, 2. Moist hot environment (hydrolysis in the presents of moisture and elevated temperatures), 3.certain chemical environments dissolve urethane, (very strong acids and bases, aromatic solvents: i.e. toluene, ketones, methanol and esters) and 4. UV exposure greater than six months as a rule is not good (covering and storing inside prolongs life). A few differences between MDI and TDI are chemical makeup. In general, MDI urethane is a little more expensive but more durable. For example, it is more durable on longer cleaning runs, > 75-miles, than TDI. However, TDI has a better compression set than MDI and handles higher temperatures. Various applications will determine which type is better to use. Durometer Polyurethanes are mostly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test or Rockwell hardness test (see www.matweb.com, Material Property Data.). The Rockwell test is usually for harder elastomers such as nylons, polycarbonate, polystyrene and acetyl. Shore hardness uses the Shore A or Shore D scale as the preferred method of testing for rubbers/elastomers (polyurethanes). Durometer Shore test only indicates the indentation made by the indenter foot upon the urethane. Other properties such as strength or resistance to scratches, abrasion and/or wear are not indicated. Durometer is expressed by a number system. The higher the durometer number the harder the urethane. TDI urethane is good in the range from 50A to 90A, according to Fuest, with MDI in the 70A to 85A range. Combinations of each durometer can be incorporated in a pig design to maximize desired conditions and/or results. The rule-of-thumb is: the harder the durometer the better scraping capability, and the softer the durometer the better the sealing characteristics.

Pig Types Pig types and functions are as numerous as people’s political opinions. As a rule, most pigs of any type are a standard design with a length-to-diameter ratio of 1.5 times the OD of the pipe, i.e. a 24-inch pig is 36 inches in length. This is why the lowest ell bend of 1.5D is important. If your line has less than 1.5D ells then consideration may be required to replace with greater radius ells if you are trying to make the line piggable for ILI tools or to use specially designed tandem pigs. Pig types are of three basic designs: polly foam, unibody urethane and steel mandrel discs/cups. Polly Foam. These open-cell polyurethane foam types are usually made in the full OD of the pipeline. Polly pigs have the ability to negotiate short radius ells and bends, miter bends, tees, multi-dimensional piping and reduced port valves. The pigs come in various densities determined in pounds of urethane per cubic foot but most common are ranges from 2-lbs./cubic foot; 5-8 lbs./cubic foot; and 9-10 lbs./cubic foot. These densities are usually color coded: yellow for 2-lbs., red for 5 lbs., and scarlet or blue for 10 lbs., depending on the manufacturer. The polly open cell is the least aggressive of the pig design family. They are great for sealing and light abrasion removal and can reduce in diameter up to approximately 35 %. Length can be increased to allow maneuverability through large tees, some older Orbit valve designs and other type gate valves. Wire strip brushes, nose pull rope, transmitter cavity and jetting ports can be incorporated in each density and type of polly foam pigs. Assorted selections of various configurations (polly criss cross, polly criss cross wire brush, bi- directional, bullet shape and bare swab), of each density are as numerous as there are requirements, so check with your manufacturer’s representative and pipeline-cleaning service companies for help in designing to meet your requirements. Unibody. These are popular. They are single-body cast-polyurethane pigs designed to be more aggressive than pollys but more forgiving than the steel- body mandrel type. Uses include 1.) removing liquids from wet gas systems and liquid pipelines, 2.) controlling paraffin buildup in crude oil lines, 3.) separating refined products, 4. commissioning pipelines and 5. evacuating product. The unibody design can also maneuver in less than 1.5D radius ells and bends and is usually but not limited to a multi-disc cup configuration. The multi- disc shape, designed in a bullet concave nose type or bi-directional type, can have wire brushes attached along with other configurations and add-ons. The unibody cast polyurethane with hollow shaft can handle up to a 20 % reduction in pipe ID, according to Girard Industries. These pigs can be cast from various durometer strengths. Steel mandrel. This pig is the most aggressive type made. The configuration of the steel body allows for multiple designs for multiple purposes. Steel-body mandrel pigs are built around a steel-constructed mandrel.

Three basic designs are usually available: cleaning pigs, batch and gauging and conical cup. This article discusses only the cleaning pig type. Cleaning pigs can be made with all discs, a disc with scraping cups, a disc with conical cups, with any combination of all, and all types of wire brushes and scraper urethane blades. Any of the cast-polyurethane products can be made from various durometer material strengths. Polyurethane discs are cast and molded to the desired diameter of your pipeline. There are basically three types of discs – sealing, scraping and slotted. The sealing disc is usually thinner, ≤ 1-inch, and is designed for low to medium scraping characteristics but high on liquid sealing. The scraping disc is usually > 1-inch in thickness and commpared to the description of the functions of the sealing disc it functions just the opposite. Sometimes a combination of both types is required. Slotted discs or feathered type discs are generally used on multi-diameter pipelines. Special design may be required for each pipeline condition. Considerations of pipeline length and pipe wall roughness to be pigged will also determine the type required for each type. When all multi-type discs are used, the pig can also be used as bi-directional. Just like the discs, cups come in two basic types: scraper and conical. Scraper cups are as the name implies but the design allows for greater surface forces to be exerted on the pipe walls, especially in less than oval shape pipe while maintaining its ability to seal. These cups can reduce, on average, 15– 20 % of design diameter. Conical cups allow for maximum sealing with minimum scraping to remove solids. This type is normally seen on gauging plate pigs and multi diameter and out-of-round pipelines. Conical cups can reduce up to approximately 30–35 % and maintain adequate seal. Again, conical and scrapper cups can be made in various durometer. Getting Started ILI tool companies require that data be known before the ILI tool is run on all ells, bends, wall thicknesses, ovality and pipeline cleanliness. Generally, either the ILI companies or other caliper companies will offer a caliper pig to be run first to retrieve this data. The multi-channel tool gives multiple data points, welds, taps, valves, types of nineties, bends, direction of bends, wall thicknesses and other data - all in the o’clock position with pipeline linear footage location. The ILI companies have different tolerances for different tools and one will need to discuss required data for each. Once tolerances are known and approved by an ILI company, a date is scheduled to run their dummy tool, then the ILI tool. Most pipeline companies discover their pipeline is contaminated with solids and debris and needs cleaning during the installation of launcher/receiver and/or block valve replacement. Once the decision to clean a pipeline is made, you need to evaluate whether this line is to be cleaned online or offline. Online is defined as operating the pipeline under normal conditions while cleaning. Offline is done with the

81 pipeline out of service and depressurized. As a rule, offline cleaning can be twice as expensive as online and the cost is compounded by the loss of gas revenues. In general, the extra costs are due to several factors: slower pig runs entailing more man hours, more cleaning runs, the requirement for continuous nitrogen and air to propel the cleaning train, and the cost of the fuel needed to generate that propellant over the duration of cleaning. An exception would be if natural gas at low pressure were used to propel the pig-cleaning trains instead of nitrogen and compressed air. In either option, expect a cleaning program of a pipeline section less than 100 miles long to take four to six of actual cleaning runs. Of course, this depends on the cleanliness of the pipeline. Online cleaning allows the pipeline company to continue to operate and serve its customers with uninterrupted service. This procedure is quicker, safer and less costly than offline, as a rule. The general rule-of-thumb – velocity for any size diameter pipeline is greater than four feet/sec but less than 15 feet/sec. It is not that velocities greater than 15-feet/sec cannot be used, but experience and studies by pig manufacturers have shown that, at that elevated speed, hydroplaning of the pigs will occur in the presence of liquids, which causes greater blow-by, leaving greater volumes of liquid and entrained solids in the pipeline. This frustrates the objective, which is to remove the solids and minimize free liquids in the pipeline. Special procedures must be designed with your cleaning service company to counteract this concern. What Is Clean? First of all, there is NO industry cleanliness standard. Clean can mean internal conditions that minimize or eliminate ILI sensor liftoff. Therefore, to even the playing field among cleaning companies, the pipeline company must tell the cleaning service company bidders to propose a given amount of cleaning runs for all. The author’s experience has shown that three liquid-cleaning runs are the minimum. Usually, the third liquid-cleaning train removes the greatest amount of solids and extra sequential runs are for polishing. Fewer runs can be achieved, but the concern is always the probability of removing too much, too fast, resulting in the possible plugging of the pipeline and/or the receiving equipment used to separate the liquid/solids from the gas or liquid stream. The rule is to remove the pipeline contaminates a layer at a time by using a combination of the right liquid cleaner in a diluent and the right choice of pig type. Pipeline-cleaning companies, in conjunction with many customers, have set a standard of four cleaning runs with a final run resulting in a solids percent in the solution of 6 % by volume or less. Some pipeline companies say 10 %v or less and the pipeline is considered clean for smart pigging. However, 6 %v or less is the norm. Other factors, such as pig condition and residual of solids on pigs combined with the field test percent, assist in a combined pipeline company and cleaning service company’s agreed upon satisfactory cleaning performance. Measures are available to lessen the 1-mil volume or less generally left behind

82 after cleaning and should be discussed with the pipeline service company if further pigging is required to remove free liquids. But you say, “We only have clean-treated gas, therefore, our pipelines should be clean.” Consider this: if glycol dehydration is upstream of your system, it is safe to say you have free liquid triethylene glycol (TEG) in your pipeline not to mention various types of lubricants, scavengers, flow promoters, corrosion inhibitors, methanol, hard hats, wooden skids, pig bars, chill rings, welding rods, and electric grinders. Dr. John Smart III and this author have discussed the theory that liquids will travel short distances through the pipeline close to the point of introduction but TEG vapor will travel greater distances than originally thought. According to Don Ballard, the rule of thumb is that you lose one pound of liquid glycol per MMscf of gas treated. According to Huntsman Corp., triethylene glycol weighs ~9.36 pounds per gallon and is usually acidic when it leaves the glycol dehydrator. According to Manning and Wood, all glycols (EG, DEG, TEG, TTEG) in the presence of H2S, COS, CS2, RHS, CO2, O2 and water, in the gas stream, naturally become acidic. Once acidic, according to Kensell, the glycol starts digesting the dehydrator unit components, causing free iron loss absorbed in the glycol and stabilized foaming, then large amounts of glycol carryover into the pipeline. In the author’s experience (Roberts, 1984–2009), the iron carryover greatly accelerates the formation of long chain polymers (shoe polish-looking substances), and contributes to black powder fouling. Using mass balance calculations. H2S at 1 ppm (0.25 grains per 100 cubic feet is 4 ppm) in a continuous gas stream of 10 MMscf/d, if all converted to FeS, will produce more than 800 pounds of iron sulfide in a year. Thus, even pipeline quality gas has the potential to cause internal problems, according to Richard M Baldwin. Even a 1-mil inch (0.001 inches) film buildup of iron oxides can produce quantum amounts of solids, according to Dave Parnell. The gist of all this is - less free iron on the pipe walls will ensure greater accuracy from the ILI tool. Part 2 of this article will discuss cleaning a pipeline, liquid cleaning with surfactant base cleaners, other liquid cleaner types and pipeline efficiency. (By Randy L. Roberts, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/what-do-we-really- know-about-pipeline-pigging-and-cleaning)

GAS PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION RELIED HEAVILY ON HDD TO MINIMIZE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

The recently completed Line 108 Replacement Project, an 11 mile long natural gas pipeline for Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) in northern California, featured the use of horizontal directional drilling (HDD) for portions of the pipeline installation beneath two rivers and two extremely sensitive natural areas (look picture 9).

Without this innovative approach, as well as other measures designed to minimize environmental impacts, the project likely never would have come to fruition. Extensive growth throughout the Sacramento area necessitated the replacement of an existing 16 inch diameter gas transmission line that dated to the 1930s. PG&E’s Sacramento Local Gas Transmission System serves about 600,000 customers in some of the fastest growing counties in the state, including Sacramento County. PG&E anticipates this transmission system will serve approximately 22,330 new customers annually during the next several years. Most of them will be served by Line 108.

Picture 9. Pipe laying To take advantage of PG&E’s existing land rights, the alignment of the 24 inch diameter replacement line generally follows the existing pipeline. The pipeline connects the Thornton Meter Station, located just south of the Mokelumne River in San Joaquin County, to the Elk Grove Station, located just south of Elk Grove Boulevard in Sacramento County. Beginning at the Thornton Meter Station, the replacement pipeline crosses the Mokelumne and Cosumnes rivers and extends north for slightly more than three miles along the east side of the tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR). The pipeline then crosses under the UPRR line and Franklin Boulevard, before continuing north for roughly another three miles. At this point, Franklin Boulevard veers west, and the pipeline passes beneath it and continues north for nearly three miles along the west side of the UPRR line. At the community of Franklin, the pipeline turns west, passing under a short stretch of Bilby Road before turning north and continuing for roughly another mile under Franklin Boulevard. After the intersection of Franklin Boulevard and the UPRR line, the pipeline runs along the west side of the tracks for the final mile, where it ends at the Elk Grove Station. In addition to the replacement of Line 108, PG&E installed a pressure limiting station at the Elk Grove Station. At press time, the utility was in the process of removing a bridge that once supported the pipeline where it crossed the Cosumnes River. Removal of the bridge is the final element of the overall project.

Evaluating The Impacts Although most of the pipeline extends through agricultural areas, the alignment also crosses numerous environmentally sensitive areas, including the two rivers, two critical natural areas and a variety of other habitats. As a result, the Line 108 Replacement Project required extensive environmental analysis and careful planning to avoid or minimize environmental impacts. PBS&J prepared the Project Environmental Assessment for the Line 108 Replacement Project and assisted PG&E in complying with the requirements of the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), which requires that state and local agencies identify significant environmental impacts associated with their activities and take steps to avoid or mitigate those impacts, if feasible. In addition to consulting with the various agencies overseeing the project, PBS&J handled such tasks as special status plant surveys, avian surveys, habitat mapping, wetlands delineation and wetland permitting. Among the more fragile natural areas through which the pipeline passes are the Mokelumne and Cosumnes rivers, the Cosumnes River Preserve and the Stone Lakes National Wildlife Refuge (NWR). The pipeline crosses the two rivers and the Cosumnes River Preserve at its southern terminus, while the Stone Lakes NWR is located near the project’s northern end. Comprising parcels of land owned by several federal and state agencies and nonprofit organizations, the Cosumnes River Preserve is administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. The Stone Lakes NWR is administered by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Within the Cosumnes River Preserve, the pipeline crosses riparian forest, riparian scrub, grasslands and seasonal wetlands. Meanwhile, within the Stone Lakes NWR, the pipeline traverses annual grasslands, seasonal wetlands, drainage features and vernal pools. These pools are depressions that remain inundated during the rainy season and provide habitat to a unique assembly of plants and animals, such as the federally listed vernal pool fairy shrimp, that complete their life cycles before the pools dry out during the dry season. The vernal pool fairy shrimp is one of many sensitive species whose presence had to be accounted for during the design and construction of the project. Other species that are protected by either federal or state mandate and known to inhabit areas along or near the pipeline alignment include the giant garter snake, Swainson’s hawk, western pond turtle, valley elderberry longhorn beetle and burrowing owl, as well as 11 special status plants. Given the protected status of several landforms and species along the alignment, extensive evaluations of potential environmental impacts were required to secure the necessary permits and approvals from various resource agencies, including the California State Land Commission, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the California State Water Resources Control Board, the California Department of Fish & Game, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the California Office of Historic Preservation and the Sacramento Metropolitan Air Quality Management District.

Avoiding The Impacts Key issues addressed as part of the planning and permitting for the project included minimizing environmental impacts associated with the pipeline’s route and the temporary use areas in which pipe sections are connected before installation. During consultations with the various regulatory agencies, several mitigation measures were developed to avoid disturbing wetlands and other waters under the jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act that are located on or adjacent to the construction area. By far, the main technique used to avoid impacts to wetlands and other jurisdictional waters of the United States involved installing pipeline in sensitive areas by means of HDD. This technique was used to install pipeline beneath the two rivers, portions of the Cosumnes River Preserve and Stone Lakes NWR, and other sensitive areas. A bore of 2,600 feet was used to pass beneath the rivers and related riparian habitat, requiring a pull back area of the same length along agricultural land south of the Mokelumne River. Within the Cosumnes River Preserve, HDD was used to install 3,300 feet of pipe beneath freshwater marsh, annual grassland, seasonal wetlands, and riparian habitat. Elsewhere along the pipeline alignment, another 1,400 feet of pipe were installed by HDD underneath an unnamed tributary to Snodgrass Slough, while a 1,500 foot section of pipeline was placed by HDD beneath a dairy. The project’s longest pipeline section installed by means of HDD occurred within the Stone Lakes NWR. Here, 6,500 feet of pipe were installed in this manner to avoid disturbing vernal pools and seasonal wetlands. A pullback area of the same length extended to the north of the Elk Grove Station between an existing sound wall and the UPRR line. Pipe installed via HDD was bored a minimum of 60 feet underneath the bed and banks of the navigable waterways and roughly 25 feet below any other features. HDD activities beneath the rivers were scheduled to be conducted between June 1 and Nov. 30 to avoid impacts to protected fish species. Similarly, HDD work within the two natural areas was scheduled for summer to minimize impacts to wetlands and the giant garter snake. Meanwhile, other mitigation efforts were designed and implemented to address certain temporary and permanent impacts to various habitats. Such measures included conducting construction during the dry season, fencing off special status plants or wetland habitat near the construction zone, employing measures to control erosion, and training construction workers regarding the environmental measures to be employed on the project. Furthermore, a PBS&J biologist was present during construction to ensure compliance with the required conservation measures and restrictions. Construction Of course, other construction techniques in addition to HDD were used to install the pipeline. Where it passes through agricultural lands, the pipeline primarily was installed by means of trenching. Pneumatic pipe ramming, also

86 known as hammer boring, was used for shorter bores and when room for a HDD pipe string was limited because of sensitive habitat. Construction technique summary Overall, open trenching was used to install 69 % of the pipeline while HDD was used to install about 30 % (see table). The hammer-bore method was used to install the remaining 1 %. For the portion of the pipeline that was buried directly, 24 inch outer diameter API 5L steel pipe with 0.375 inch wall thickness (Grade X 60 DSAW) with 16 mils of fusion bonded epoxy was used. For the portion that was installed by means of HDD or hammer boring, 24 inch outer diameter API 5L steel pipe with 0.5 inch wall thickness (Grade X 60 DSAW) with 16 mils of fusion bonded epoxy plus 40 mils of abrasion resistant overcoating. Designed by PG&E and Trigon EPC, the pipeline was installed by Southwest Construction. Work began in June 2008 and was completed the following October. During construction, PBS&J provided environmental construction monitoring services, including biological, archeological and paleontological monitoring. PG&E constructed the pressure limiting station. In addition to the regulatory agencies involved with the permitting, the following organizations contributed to the development of the project: the County of Sacramento, the city of Elk Grove, and the conservation organization the Nature Conservancy. Final Element The last element of the Line 108 Replacement Project involves removing a suspension bridge constructed by PG&E in the 1930s to support the original pipeline where it crossed the Cosumnes River. PG&E, which owns the bridge, was asked by the Nature Conservancy, which owns part of the Cosumnes River Preserve, to remove the span to help prevent trespassers from reaching an island with sensitive habitat. The 630 foot long structure is supported by two piers and two anchor blocks, one of each of which is located on either side of the river. Along with the bridge, PG&E is removing the north anchor block and north pier to one foot below the natural grade and backfilling the area. Because the bridge originally had been painted with lead based paint, special measures must be taken during its demolition to prevent the introduction of contaminants into the environment. Work on the bridge removal began in June 2009 and was completed shortly thereafter. Three years were spent completing the environmental reviews and obtaining the various permits required for the project. Overall, the project team negotiated approvals on 19 local, state and federal permits and 98 land owner/purchase agreements. Given the number of environmental hurdles, this project succeeded in large part because of the cooperation of the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the California Department of Fish & Game, and the Nature Conservancy. Within PG&E, Michael Gunby, the principal land planner for the utility, led the efforts related to the environmental aspects of the project.

Pipeline construction required only three months. With more than 82,000 man hours of construction, the workers achieved triple zero safety performance. Thanks in part to the careful planning and preparations, construction of the $41 million pipeline was completed two months ahead of schedule and under budget. PG&E and its partners helped to ensure that the utility has the necessary infrastructure in place to serve the growing demand within the Sacramento metropolitan area while minimizing the project’s untoward environmental effects. (By Ron Walker, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/gas-pipeline-construction- relied-heavily-hdd-minimize-environmental-impacts)

ACHIEVING BETTER LIQUID MEASUREMENT ACCURACY

Custody transfer measurement in the oil and gas business has been described many ways. It has been called, “An accuracy in measurement that both the buyers and sellers can agree upon” and “The best that can be achieved to meet the contract conditions.” But I prefer to call it, “The search for the truth.” Ever since petroleum has been bought and sold, people have searched for better ways to measure oil and petroleum products on the fly with greater accuracy. One big advancement has been the pipe prover, which compares a known volume between two switches in a pipe to the meter reading (look picture 10). API requires an accuracy of the prover volume of 0.02 % when compared to a standard such as NIST traceable Seraphin Cans.

Picture 10. Pipeline

If we want to put 0.02 % accuracy into perspective, that is 6.45 teaspoons or a little more than two tablespoons of oil in a single 42 gallon barrel. That is very good measurement even at the worst case. We all strive to exceed the 0.02 % required by API. We know and understand the value increased accuracy has to our companies. Today, prover water draws are repeatable to 0.001 and 0.002 %

Accuracy of measurement is important when oil is selling at $100/bbl and profits are good, but it is even more important when oil is at $80/bbl and the margins are tight. One lost barrel becomes a much larger percentage of the profit. When we are trying to implement a new and better method, we are burdened many times by company and industry standards and the old adage, “This is how we have always done it.” But sometimes, when we are faced with a problem, it needs to be solved outside the conventions. I say, “Necessity must become the mother of invention.” This is what is happening with bi-directional pipe provers. By making the calibrated straight, repeatable detector switches, tipping the horizontal launchers, sizing the launchers properly and placing the pressure and temperature transmitters correctly, we are able to improve the bidirectional pipe prover. In some ways it is like the Alfred Hitchcock “Lamb to the Slaughter” TV episode of April 13, 1958. A wife kills her abusive chief of police husband with a frozen leg of lamb, then invites his detective friends for dinner and serves it to them. The famous line from the episode came from one of the detectives as they discussed the possible murder weapon at dinner. He said, “For all we know, it might be right under our very noses.” Better practices and methods can be like that, right under our very noses. Are pressure and temperature transmitters really needed on the inlet and outlet of a prover? For example, using the pressure transmitter’s published error span of ±0.15 % of span at 100 psi the possible error would be 0.3 psi on just one transmitter. It takes 25 feet of pipe at full flow to cause a pressure drop of 0.3 psi. Would it be advisable to use two transmitters on 8-inch pipe, if the distance of the pipe between the meter transmitters and prover transmitter is less than 25 feet? We used the following fairly typical flow conditions: Flowrate (Q) = 2,000 Barrels Per Hour Specific Gravity (S) = 0.88 Viscosity (γ) = 10cP Process temperature 700 F Ambient temperature 900 F The Velocity through an 8-inch ID line at the above conditions is 8.9 feet per second From a pressure transmitter manufacturer’s data sheet we have the following: Pressure transmitter data: ±0.15% of span Span: 100 psi 100 x 0.003 = 0.3 PSI worst-case error per Transmitter This from a pressure D-drop calculation: It would take 25 feet of pipe at full flow to cause a pressure drop of 0.3 psi. Query: Would it be advisable to use two transmitters if the distance of the pipe between them is less than 25 feet of 8-inch pipe?

On temperature, from the transmitter data we have a possible error of 0.02 % of span on the 8-inch pipe at full 2,000 barrels per hour flow. Then using a span of –500 F to 2000 F the worst case error is 0.1450 C or 0.260 F. As above, the worse-case would be 0.520 F if one transmitter reads high and the other low. However, in this case we will split the error as above on the PT and use an error for one temperature transmitters of 0.260 F. Temperature transmitter data: – 0.02 % of S-span – Normal Span: –500 F to 2000 F = 2500 F – Worst Case Error: 0.1450 C or 0.260 F There are, of course, other variables such as wind and radiant heat from the sun. But under the above conditions it would take over 200 feet of pipe to cause a temperature drop of 0.260 F. If the process was 600 F and the outside ambient temperature was 800. Would it be advisable to use two transmitters if the distance of the pipe between them is less than 200 feet? Minimize the radiant heat from the sun on pipe. The effect of radiant heat from the sun can be minimized with the use of a sun shade over the metering equipment. Or, as shown in the novel approach pictured, an aluminum cover is wrapped about 60 % around the pipe with swimming pool vacuum hose was used as the spacer. At this installation, vaporization of the propane in the line was eliminated ensuring good measurement at the meter downstream of about 500 feet of this pipe. Insulation works also, but insulation works both ways; it can reduce the effect of radiant heat, but it can also trap heat in the process if the process is not flowing. We tend to forget fluids are compressible in the piping between the meter and the prover. If the prover is a long distance from the meter, we need to take into account the compressibility of the fluid and the stretch of the metal in the pipe between the meter and prover due to the pressure. This includes the meter run and prover piping. In any distance, but especially in the longer distances, the fluid can compress as the prover sphere goes around an elbow or through a smaller flange opening, and then decompress in the straight pipe as the sphere reaches the detector. Changes in pressure of 1 or 2 psi are not uncommon. The effect is similar to what happens if air is trapped in the meter or prover piping while proving. This compression and decompression of the fluid can abort a prove. Correction for the effect of pressure on the steel in the prover: (Cpsp) Correction for the Pressure in the Steel of a prover including the piping: Cpsp = 1 + (Pp x D) / (E x t) Pp = Rounded average pressure in prover in PSIG. 1 D = Internal diameter of the prover pipe, in inches (outside diameter minus twice the wall thickness. Average ID 8 E= Modulus of elasticity (E = 30,000,000 for mild steel, E = 28,500,000 (for stainless steel) t = Wall thickness of the prover pipe in inches. 0.375 Length of pipe 60 feet = a volume of 157 gallons

(1 + ((1 x 8) divided by 30,000,000)) x 60 1.0000003 x 60 = 60.000016 or an increase in volume of 0.000016 gallon Correction for the effect of the pressure on the liquid in the prover: Correction for the Pressure on the Liquid in the Prover = 1 / [1-(Pp x F)] Pp = Rounded average pressure in the prover in psig F = Compressibility factor for hydrocarbons. (Actual F values should be determined for each meter installation. If actual values are unknown, refer to tables in API Chapter 11.2.) = 1 / [1-(1 x .0000045)] Length of pipe 60 feet =a volume of 157 gallons 1-0.0000045 = 0.9999955 x 157 gallons = 156.9992935 157 – 156.9992935 = 0.0007 gallon or .5376 teaspoon which is a good portion of the max 0.02 % or 2 tablespoons per barrel allowed. Different fluids have a greater or lesser compressibility, but it does have an effect on proving? The above case is also based on 100% stable crude. Who has that? Therefore the shorter the distance between the meter and the prover the better. API recommends the length of the pre-run of the prover to be one half the cycle time of the four-way valve, times the velocity of the sphere, times a safety factor of 1.25 feet. But, the sphere does not have the same velocity from the beginning to the end of the four-way cycle. The sphere comes to a complete stop when the four-way is open and remains in the open position as the valve changes direction, before it starts to seat. Therefore, there is an average velocity from stop to full flow in each direction. Plus during the time the four-way is full open the sphere does not move at all. Unfortunately, these flows and no flows are not published information from the four-way manufacturer. If this information was available, a lot of money could be saved on the pre-run pipe and the space the provers need on site. Detector Switches There are several manufacturers of sphere detector switches. All are very good. The API document Manual of Petroleum Standards Chapter 4-Proving Systems Section 2 – Displacement Provers Appendix A – Analysis of sphere position repeatability gives a mathematical explanation of sphere position repeatability. Naturally, the rounder the ball the more precise the detector contact will be. Detector switches are normally repeatable to within 0.002 inch. However, the repeatability of switch and the required volume are not the only things that affect the volume of the calibrated section. Reducing Pipe Contact By reducing the inflation on the sphere, the spheres will have less distortion. They will last longer and the prover does not have to be opened to replace or check the sphere as often. Unfortunately, the elbows in the U-shaped prover require more inflation to ensure the sphere seals against the rover piping as it passes through the elbows and flanges. The less the sphere has to be inflated, the less chance the sphere has to distort or wear as it moves through the pipe. And, of course, it causes less

91 pressure drop. It takes approximately 80 psi to inflate a 30-inch sphere to 3 % oversize. And 6 % over inflation it is almost 200 psi of pressure inside the sphere. If the same sphere is inflated to 1 %, only 30 psi is required. Less pressure in the sphere means less stress on the ball and less friction as the sphere passes through the prover pipe. Friction between the sphere and the pipe causes wear. One percent over size gives over a 4-inch-wide contact area on the pipe using a 30-inch sphere; this is more than enough contact area to ensure a good seal for straight smooth pipe. There are several very good prover ball sphere manufacturers. All make spheres suitable for provers in custody transfer service. To optimize the life and condition of the sphere as it comes in contact and trips the detector switch, it must be selected and sized properly. Different materials such as urethane and polyurethane with polyurethane are the most popular. The yellow prover ball with a hardness or durometer of 55 is well-suited for crude oil and many refined products such as LPG and LNG. The green sphere with a durometer of 65 is best suited for MTBE, benzene and solvents. The red prover ball with a durometer of 75 is best suited for chemicals such as toluene and propylene. The neoprene sphere is a softer general purpose sphere. But it does not have the wear capabilities of polyurethane. Spheres are also available impregnated with Teflon and other materials to give them less resistance to drag and make them move smoother when proving non lubricating fluids. Better Reliability Wear and tear on equipment is caused by the stress put on the equipment, less stress, less wear. Reducing the drag on the prover sphere as it moves through the prover reduces the wear on the ball and the coating inside the prover. That means longer ball life and longer prover barrel life requiring less maintenance and repair. Sphere Storage Prover spheres should be stored so they do not distort or get flat spots. Placing the sphere in a burlap bag and hanging it is a cool dry location is a good way to store the sphere. This prevents flat spots on the ball and damage that could occur if the sphere is stored on a warehouse shelf. The burlap distributes the weight of the sphere and keeps moisture away from the sphere. Spheres can also be placed in a bed of sand where the sand provides uniform support. Sphere Launching Chambers Building the launchers so the spheres are not damaged when they enter the launchers also reduces the number of times the prover needs to be opened to check or replace a damaged sphere. By placing different size spheres in the PVC test apparatus shown, the action of the ball could be observed. At velocities around the ball of over 5 feet per second, the spheres were carried rapidly into the discharge regardless of whether the pipe was placed vertical or horizontal. When the velocity was less than 5 feet per second, the sphere did not rise in the

92 vertical launcher and moved more slowly down the horizontal piping. If the discharge of the launcher was in the upward position, the spheres were not pulled into the discharge. The velocity of the fluid around the sphere is easy to calculate and shows that two pipe diameters larger than the prover piping does not work in all cases especially the larger sizes. Launching chambers can be either horizontal or vertical, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. A huge disadvantage of a horizontal launching chamber is the ramp in the launchers to keep the sphere close to the proper pipe so it will launch. If it is too close to the opening, the sphere will be lifted and fluid will pass under the sphere; if the ramp is too far back the sphere may not be close enough to the opening to launch. The horizontal launcher also has to be perfectly horizontal so no air is trapped on one end of the launcher. And the prover has to be completely drained for sphere removal and maintenance. By tipping the entire launching chamber 20, the angle of a typical ramp, these disadvantages are avoided. The launcher can be tipped where the launcher connects to the pre-run, or it can be tipped by rotating an elbows a the return bend, to any angle required. When the launcher is tipped, no ramp to launch the sphere is required and the ball launches easily because both the reducer and launcher are tipped and the ball always comes to rest seated in the reducer to the calibrated section. The vent for the blind flange side can be placed in the top of the blind where the flange opening contacts the flange. On the quick opening closure side some manufacturers will locate the vent of their closure at the top of the closure. Quick Opening Closures Each of the different quick opening closures has its plusses and minuses. In any case the closure should have a safety that prevents the closure from opening when there is pressure in the launching chamber. If a closure is tipped more than 50, there should be an equal angle at the closure connection to return the closure to a horizontal orientation. Tipping a launcher over 50 makes it difficult to remove and replace the closures because they are only designed for either vertical or horizontal applications. Installing reducers on the launchers where the piping from the four-way is attached to the launcher increases the pipe size into and out of the launchers and lowers the pressure drop caused by the bars or other protection placed in the launchers to keep the ball from being pulled into the four-way piping. Development Of The WFMS SCS Prover Finding good elbows to go in the calibrated section, especially in the larger sizes, has become difficult. To avoid this problem WMFS designed a prover with a straight calibrated section. On the first SCS Provers, we had no idea of how much the repeatability would improve or how it would lead to other improvements like no machined flanges, easier maintenance, less sphere wear,

93 or being able to easily tip the launchers. We only wanted to solve the fluid by passing the sphere in the elbows problem. There are no alignment flanges in the calibrated section. Alignment flanges are expensive and machining on the flange or installing pins reduces the integrity of the alignment flange and therefore the piping system. Flanges in the pre-run are aligned using shoulder bolts that are approximately the same diameter as the flange bolt holes. Not having to cut or drill a flange is a safety improvement. Elbows in the calibrated section cause a pressure and flow change as the ball moves through the elbow, and there can be loss of fluid if the elbow is not perfectly formed in the inside diameter. Because the ball does not have to go through elbows as it passes from switch to switch, less inflation of the ball is required making for better water draws and better proves with less pressure drop. On the SCS Prover there are no elbows in the calibrated section. On the SCS Prover, the calibrated section can be rolled out and inspected without another water draw because no flanges are broken in the calibrated section. Additionally, the return elbows at the end of the calibrated section can be removed. By removing the ends of the prover the calibrated section is not disturbed. This is a cost savings both in time and water draw cost. The SCS Prover is ideal for Coriolis and ultrasonic liquid meters with manufactured pulses. The flow before and in the calibrated section is not disrupted by the ball passing through elbows, welds or flange sets. And because the ball can be inflated less, it passes smoother, with less pressure drop, between the detectors. Since the flow through the calibrated section is smooth the pulses from conventional PD and turbines will be more evenly spaced during the spheres travel through the calibrated section giving better proves, especially when pulse interpolation is used. The sphere does not have to be over-inflated to compensate for irregularities in elbows and flanges; the higher the inflation of the sphere, the higher the drag on the pipe walls, increasing wear on the sphere and increasing pressure drop. Water draw repeatabilities of 0.005 % and better are common with the straight calibrated section prover. This of course also reduces overall uncertainty. Proving Coriolis And Ultrasonic Meters On Coriolis and ultrasonic meters, when the flow rate between the detector switches is constant, much better repeatability can be achieved. Removing the elbows from the calibrated section where the sphere must move through two different radiuses, or radii, with a skipping action, will improve the proving repeatability. Eliminating welds and flanges where the IDs can be slightly different also improves the repeatability. Custody transfer measurement is still relatively new, and there is still much room for improvements to the existing technology. But just because we have not done it like this before, is no reason for not looking to improve any technology. (By Daniel J. Rudroff, http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/achieving-better-liquid- measurement-accuracy)

Список используемой литературы

1. Голицынский Ю., Голицынская Н. Английский язык. Грамматика. Сборник упражнений/Ю. Голицынский, Н. Голицынская. – СПб.: Каро, 2010. – 576 с. 2. Dooley J., Evans V., Osipova M. New Round-up 4. English grammar practice / J. Dooley, V. Evans, M. Osipova. – Longman, 2010 – 209 p. 3. Dooley J., Evans V. New Round-up 5. English grammar practice / J. Dooley, V. Evans. – Lomgman, 2011. – 300 p. 4. McCarthy M., O’Dell F. English vocabulary in use: elementary / M. McCarthy, F. O’Dell. – Cambridge university press, 2010. – 272 p. 5. Redman S. English vocabulary in use: pre-intermediate and intermediate / S. Redman. – Cambridge university press, 2010. – 269 p. 6. Vince M. First certificate language practice / M. Vince. – Macmillan, 2009. – 352 p. 7. McCarthy M., O’Dell F. English vocabulary in use: upper-intermediate and advanced / M. McCarthy, F. O’Dell. – Cambridge university press, 2009. – 309 p. 8. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pipeline-security-new-technology- today%E2%80%99s-demanding-environment 9. http://www.circorenergy.com/pipeline-solutions/pipeline-products.php 10. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/%E2%80%98perfect- storm%E2%80%99-shines-light-more-infrastructure-new-england 11. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/2012-worldwide-pipeline- construction-report 12. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pipeline-integrity-it%E2%80%99s- not-just-hardware 13. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/pge%E2%80%99s-pipeline-system- hell-and-back 14. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/what-do-we-really-know-about- pipeline-pigging-and-cleaning 15. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/gas-pipeline-construction-relied- heavily-hdd-minimize-environmental-impacts 16. http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/achieving-better-liquid- measurement-accuracy

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