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The Water Scarcity-Conflict Nexus: the Case of Darfur

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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Stellenbosch University SUNScholar Repository The Water Scarcity-Conflict Nexus: The Case of Darfur by Robyn Smith Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Political Science) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Science at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Pieter Fourie March 2017 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis, I declare that the entirety of the work therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: March 2017 Copyright © 2017 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract The world is experiencing increasing water scarcity and with such scarcity comes a greater likelihood of violence. Worldwide countries have had to investigate scarcities and resultant challenges such as violence. Low-income countries which suffer from lack of good governance and possess an array of ethnic groupings within their borders are the most vulnerable to water scarcity-related violence. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the relationship between water scarcity and conflict through the case study of Darfur. Darfur highlights how low-income countries lack the means to address grievances which arise between different ethnic groups around issues with water sources. This thesis takes an important stance on water scarcity in that it does not agree that water scarcity alone is enough to cause major incidences of violence, it is rather the mixture of ethnic tensions, water scarcity and bad governance which is toxic and results in violence. This is often forgotten by fear-ridden media articles and politicians which believe the globe is doomed to dehydration and war. Water scarcity and conflict are complex phenomena and thus require comprehension of the theoretical principles which created them. Traditional International Relations theories are therefore analysed in order to provide insight into why scarcities are occurring and how they have indirectly contributed to scarcities. Liberalism and realism have ensured that the world views nature as something to be used and profited from. This has proven to be unstainable and notes an area where International Relations needs to improve. Newer environmentally-minded theories have emerged and have fought to alter the current world order where natural resources are pillaged and lives are at risk. Such theories would include Green Theories. Green Theories are multifaceted and normatively show an alternate outcome when applied to the Darfur crisis. The purpose of the theoretical component of this thesis is to highlight that newer more environmentally-minded theories are needed in International Relations, and currently demand further study. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Waterskaarste neem wêreldwyd toe, wat lei tot die potensiaal vir die toename van geweld. Geweld is een van die tendense verwant aan die wêreldwye toename in die skaarste-tendens. Lae-inkomste lande met swak regerings wat bestaan uit ‘n uiteenlopende verskeidenheid etniese groepe binne hul grense, staan die sterkste kans om onder hierdie waterskaarste- geweld deur te loop. Die doel van hierdie tesis is om die verhouding te ondersoek tussen waterskaarste en konflik deur gebruik te maak van die Darfur-gevallestudie. Darfur werp lig op die wyse waarop lae-inkomste lande nie oor die nodige middele beskik om hierdie griewe aan te spreek nie – griewe wat ontstaan tussen verskillende etniese groepe rondom kwessies verwant aan toegang tot en die beskikbaarheid van waterbronne. Hierdie tesis neem ‘n belangrike standpunt in oor waterskaarste deurdat dit nie akkoord gaan daarmee dat dit alleen waterskaarste is wat vir meeste van die grootste gevalle van geweld verantwoordelik is nie. Hierdie tesis neem standpunt in dat die geweld eerder toegeskryf kan word aan ‘n kombinasie van etniese spanning, waterskaarste asook swak regering – ‘n toksiese kombinasie wat in geweld ontaard. Hierdie kombinasie word meesal deur die vreesbevange media-artikels en politici agterweë gelaat – politici wat glo die wêreld is gedoem tot dehidrasie en oorlog. Waterskaarste en konflik is ingewikkelde verskynsels. Dit verg begrip van die teoretiese beginsels wat daartoe aanleiding gegee het. Tradisionele Internasionale Betrekkingsteorieë word vervolgens ontleed om insig te lewer oor die redes waarom skaarste plaasvind, en hoe dit indirek tot die skaarstes bydra. Liberalisme en realisme het meegebring daartoe dat die wêreldwye opvattings oor die natuur lei tot houdings van die natuur as bloot ‘n kommoditieit vir geldgewin. Hierdie wêreldbeskouing is duidelik nie meer volhoubaar nie, en bied ‘n leemte in die gebied van Internasionale Betrekkinge waar dit drasties kan verbeter. Nuwe omgewingsgesinde teorieë het nou ontwikkel wat die bestaande idees aanvat en is besig om die hedendaagse tendense te verander - tendense wat die natuurlike hulpbronne plunder en lewens in gevaar stel. Sulke teorieë sluit in Groen Teorieë. Groen Teorieë is veelsydig en dui normatief op ‘n alternatiewe uitkomste waar dit op die Darfur-krisis toegepas word. Die doel van die toeretiese gedeelte van hierdie tesis is om die kollig te werp op nuwe en meer omgewingsgerigte teorieë wat nodig is om Internasionale Betrekkinge op datum te bring, en wat tans dingende, verdere studie verg. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Pieter Fourie, for always putting me at ease about deadlines, for skilfully editing several pages worth of bad grammar and keeping me inspired throughout the year. I would also like to thank my parents for supporting me to write this thesis. Your encouragement got me through this year and I will always be grateful for that. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Declaration i Abstract ii Opsomming iii Acknowledgements iv List of Acronyms viii List of Figures x Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study The Conflict in Darfur 5 Research Problem 7 Research Questions 8 Objectives of Research 8 Theory 9 Research Design and Methodology 13 Structure of Thesis 15 Chapter 2: The Relationship between Water Scarcity and Conflict Introduction 16 The Relationship between Climate Change and Conflict 19 The Relationship between Water Scarcity and Conflict 22 Neo-Malthusians 25 Cornucopians 26 Political Ecology 28 The Liberal Argument 28 Types of Scarcity, Ecological Marginalisation and Resource Capture 29 Types of Conflict 32 Environmental Security 35 v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ‘Water Wars’ and the Water Discourse in Africa 37 Cooperation and the Reshaping of State Sovereignty 39 Conclusion 43 Chapter 3: The Green Theory Perspective and Securitization Stance Introduction 46 The Emergence of Environmental Awareness 47 Survivalist Perspective 48 The Promethean Perspective 49 Green Theory and the Shades of Green 50 Ecologism and Green Theory 54 The Natural Question 54 Deep Ecology and Biocentrism 56 Eco-anarchism and Eco-authoritarianism 59 The Greening of International Relations 60 Securitization Theory and the Environment 62 The Discursive Nature of Security 64 The Philosophical and Sociological Model and Green Theory 65 High Politics and Green Theory 68 The Pitfalls of Securitizing the Environment 70 The Pros of Securitizing the Environment 72 Conclusion 73 Chapter 4: The Conflict in Darfur and its Links to Water Scarcity Introduction 76 Sudan’s Political Background 77 Background to the Conflict in Darfur 79 vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Causes of the Conflict 81 The Environment and Ethnicity 81 The Janjaweed 89 The Politics and Internal Conflicts in the Insurgent Groups 92 The Insurgent Groups 92 The Sudanese Government 94 The Darfur Crisis and the International Community 96 Environmental Securitization and Green Theories in Darfur 99 Types of Conflict and the Darfur Crisis 103 Conclusion 107 Chapter 5: Conclusion Introduction 110 Summary of Thesis 111 Research Problem and Research Questions Answered 115 Research Gaps and Concluding Remarks 116 Bibliography 118 vii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za List of Acronyms AL Arab League AU African Union CS Copenhagen School DDT Dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane DLF Darfur Liberation Front ENCOP Environment and Conflicts Project EPA Environmental Protection Authority G8 The Group of Eight GDP Gross Domestic Profit IDP Internally Displaced Persons IMF International Monetary Fund IGAD Regional Intergovernmental Authority on Development IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IO International Organisations IR International Relations JEM Justice and Equality Movement MNC Multinational Corporation NIF Islamic Front SLA Sudan Liberation Army SLM Sudanese Liberation Movement SPLM/A Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army TNC Transnational Corporation UCDP Uppsala Conflict Data Programme UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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