The Islamic Revolution in Syria from the Rebels’ Perspective Gabriel Larivière Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University, Montreal August 2020 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts © Gabriel Larivière, 2020 Contents Table of Contents i Abstract iii Résumé iv Acknowledgements v Transliteration vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Syrian Revolution and Memories of Hama ................. 1 1.2 The Ba‘th Regime and its Discontent ...................... 3 1.3 Syrian Islamic Movements and the Revolt ................... 8 1.4 The Need for Microhistories of Rebel Movements . 15 1.5 Doing History with Rebel Sources ........................ 19 2 Street Activism and Mosque Politics 25 2.1 A Childhood among the Socialists of Hama . 25 2.2 A Genealogy of Syrian Reformist Movements . 31 2.3 A Young Activist Competing with the Socialists . 37 2.4 The Great Strike of Hama ............................ 44 3 A Program for an Islamic State 53 3.1 The Exile in Saudi Arabia ............................ 53 3.2 Islam as a Comprehensive and Universal System . 57 3.3 The State as an Instrument of Islam ...................... 64 3.4 A Revolution Against Apostasy ......................... 68 3.5 Return to Syria and Constitutional Politics . 76 i G. Larivière Contents 4 An Islamic Revolution 82 4.1 The Creation of an Armed Movement ...................... 82 4.2 The Ritual of Torture and Assassination .................... 89 4.3 Massacres and The Generation of Death .................... 96 4.4 Illusions of Grandeur and the Art of Covert Revolts . 102 4.5 A Joint Command for Different Revolutions . 109 5 Epilogue: The Massacre 119 5.1 Hasty Uprising at a Desperate Time . 121 5.2 Prelude to a Massacre .............................. 126 5.3 The 1982 Hama Massacre ............................ 130 5.4 Conclusion ..................................... 139 Notes 145 Chapter 1. Introduction ............................. 145 Chapter 2. Street Activism and Mosque Politics . 154 Chapter 3. A Program for an Islamic State . 166 Chapter 4. An Islamic Revolution . 173 Chapter 5. Epilogue: The Massacre . 187 Primary Sources 191 Secondary Sources 199 ii Abstract This thesis is a history of the Islamic Revolution in Syria (1976–1982) from the point of view of the rebels. It examines the way the revolution unfolded through a reconstruction of the events as seen through the eyes of some of its leaders. It shows how the rebels’ political action was the product of ideologies rooted in specific religious traditions and a dynamic understanding of Syrian politics. The thesis also highlights the continuities and ruptures between competing visions of the revolution among rebels. Through an analysis of Arabic memoirs, religious treatises, letters, and manifestos, it examines how the activism of a hand- ful of individuals throughout the 1950–1960s became an armed revolt in the 1970s, coalescing around two separate organizations: the Fighting Vanguard and the Syrian Muslim Brother- hood. The first steps of this evolution are detailed by looking at the trajectory ofonethe main intellectuals of the revolt, Sa‘īd Ḥawwā. The thesis closely narrates Ḥawwā’s political activism and development as an intellectual in order to provide a deeper understanding of the historical and ideological background of the Islamic Revolution. It then offers a detailed account of the armed struggle against the Ba‘th regime by recounting the emergence of Marwān Ḥadīd’s group, which later became the Fighting Vanguard. The memoirs of Ayman al-Shurbajī, one of the few original members who survived the revolt, are used to uncover the complicated evolution of this understudied organization. The thesis shows that while the beginning of the rebels’ armed operations cannot be divorced from a context of increasing state repression, it was also the product of a unique culture of militancy developed by Ḥadīd and his followers. The mobilization of the Muslim Brotherhood is charted by a meticulous analysis of the writings of its leader at the time, ‘Adnān Sa‘d al-Dīn. The resulting narrative reveals a dynamic history of disagreements, competition, and fraught alliances between two fundamentally different organizations. It also exposes the crucial role of specific individuals who transcended the logic of their organizations to shape the revolt at key moments such as the massacre at the Aleppo Artillery School. Finally, the thesis reconstructs the events of the Hama Massacre in relation to the armed confrontations who took place in the context of the Islamic Revolution in Syria. iii Résumé La présente thèse retrace l’histoire de la Révolution islamique en Syrie (1976–1982) du point de vue des rebelles. Elle examine le déroulement de la révolution en reconstruisant les événe- ments tels que vécus par certains de ses dirigeants. Elle montre comment l’action politique des rebelles était le produit d’idéologies ancrées dans des traditions religieuses spécifiques et des conceptions dynamiques de la politique syrienne. Cette thèse souligne aussi les continuités et les ruptures entre des visions opposées de la révolution chez les rebelles. Par une analyse des mémoires, traités religieux, lettres, et manifestes écrits en arabe, elle examine comment l’activisme d’une poignée d’individus au cours des années 1950–1960 s’est transformé en révolte armée lors des années 1970, s’articulant autour de deux organisations différentes : l’Avant-garde combattante et les Frères musulmans syriens. Les premières étapes de cette évolution sont retracées à travers le parcours d’un des intellectuels principal de la révolte : Sa‘īd Ḥawwā. Cette thèse explique l’activisme politique de Ḥawwā et son développement en tant qu’intellectuel pour mieux comprendre les origines socio-politiques et idéologiques de la révolution. Elle offre par la suite un récit de la lutte armée contre le régime ba‘then racontant l’émergence du groupe de Marwān Ḥadīd, qui deviendra plus tard l’Avant-garde combattante. Les mémoires d’Ayman al-Shurbajī, un des seuls dirigeants de l’organisation ayant survécu la révolte, sont utilisés pour dévoiler l’évolution complexe de cette organisation clandestine. Cette thèse montre que le commencement des opérations armées ne peut être divorcé de la répression politique de l’état syrien, mais qu’il est aussi le fruit d’une culture de militantisme unique développée par Ḥadīd et ses disciples. La mobilisation des Frères musulmans est reconstruite à travers les mémoires de son dirigeant à l’époque, ‘Adnān Sa‘d al-Dīn. Le narratif qui en résulte est une histoire dynamique de désaccords, compétition, et difficiles alliances entre deux organisations fondamentalement différentes. Il démontre aussi le rôle crucial d’individus spécifiques qui ont transcendé la logique de leur organisation àdes moments déterminants de la révolte, tel le massacre de l’école d’artillerie d’Alep. Finalement, cette thèse reconstruit les événements du Massacre d’Hama en relation avec les affrontements armés de la Révolution islamique en Syrie. iv Acknowledgements As I read the pages of this thesis while making my final edits, I am struck by how muchof the inestimable support I can see in my words from the many people with whom I shared the past two years. This dissertation would not have been possible without them. Their support has shaped this intellectual project and is reflected in every chapter of this thesis. The financial support I received in the past two years has been crucial to theconductof research activities that were essential to this dissertation. The Institute of Islamic Studies of McGill University has provided me with financial support at various stages of this research, including through the Cedrick Goddard Prize. I want to specifically thank Professor Michelle Hartman and Professor Khalid Medani for making these resources accessible to graduate students like myself. I was also supported by the Graduate Mobility Award of McGill’s Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies Office. This award allowed me to attend an intensive Arabic programme at the Institut Français au Proche-Orient in Beirut. My summer at the Institut was a wonderful experience where I significantly improved my Arabic skills pertinent to this research, thanks to passionate teachers like Alice Kourani and Fadi Al-Sahu. McGill’s Institute of Islamic Studies has proven to be an incredible environment for graduate students to conduct research. I am indebted to the administrative staff for their support throughout my studies, particularly to Zeitun Manjothi and Katrin Dinkel, who were always happy to help me navigate and understand the inner-workings of the university’s administration. I also want to thank Freddie from the Facilities Management Office for making the Institute a welcoming space and for his great kindness. I am grateful to the staff at the Islamic Studies Library, especially Ghazaleh Ghanavizchia, Samah Kasha,and Charles Fletcher, who gave me access to sources critical to this thesis and who made the library a stimulating environment where important parts of this research were written. I benefitted throughout this thesis from the help and advice of many scholars workingon the modern history of Syria. I want to thank Naomì Dìaz Ramìrez and Raphaël Lefèvre for v G. Larivière Contents their encouragement and for directing me to relevant primary sources. I am also indebted to Line Khatib for a long conversion about my research topic and her thoughtful suggestions. Finally, Thomas Pierret made detailed comments in his review as external examiner which helped clarify some important points of this thesis. Several professors and students at the Institute of Islamic Studies have helped me in more ways than I can recount in formulating the ideas of this thesis and in acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary for this project. I am grateful to Professor Khalid Medani for helping me think about contemporary Syrian politics and Professor Rula Abisaab for providing me with the training required to understand the intricate details of treatises of Islamic law. I am forever indebted to Professor Shokry Gohar and Professor David Nancekivell for their patience, passion, and dedication in teaching me Arabic.