SKEPTICAL INnillDER^ Vol. 17, No. 4 1993 / $6.25

THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE An Esoteric Closet?

False Memory Syndrome The Eyewitness: Imperfect Interface v The Science Textbook Problem Pathological Science The 'Star Hustler'

Published by the Committee ^v—^ J tor the Scientific Investigation \_p4 Claims of the paranormal THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization. Editor Kendrick Frazier. Editorial Board James E. Alcock, Barry Beyerstein, Susan J. Blackmore, Martin Gardner, Ray Hyman, Philip J. Klass, Paul Kurtz, Joe Nickell, Lee Nisbet. Consulting Editors Robert A. Baker, William Sims Bainbridge, John R. Cole, Kenneth L. Feder, C. E. M. Hansel, E. C. Krupp, David F. Marks, Andrew Neher, James E. Oberg, Robert Sheaffer, Steven N. Shore. Managing Editor Doris Hawley Doyle. Contributing Editor Lys Ann Shore. Business Manager Mary Rose Hays. Assistant Business Manager Sandra Lesniak. Chief Data Officer Richard Seymour. Computer Assistant Michael Cione. Production Paul E. Loynes. Art Linda Hays. Audio Technician Vance Vigrass. Librarian Jonathan Jiras. Staff Elizabeth Begley, Ron Nicholson, Alfreda Pidgeon, Ranjit Sandhu, Sharon Sikora, Glen Winford. Cartoonist Rob Pudim.

The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy. State University of New York at Buffalo. Barry Karr, Executive Director and Public Relations Director. Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director. Fellows of the Committee James E. Alcock,* psychologist, York Univ., Toronto; Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Kentucky; Stephen Barrett, M.D., psychiatrist, author, consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Southern California; Susan Blackmore,* psychologist, Univ. of the West of England, Bristol; Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France; Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor of English, Univ. of Utah; Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor, State Univ. of New York; Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University; John R. Cole, anthropologist, Inst, for the Study of Human Issues; F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif.; L. Sprague de Camp, author, engineer; Cornelis de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands; Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K.: Paul Edwards, philosopher, Editor, Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K.; Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer. Foothill College, Los Altos Hills, Calif.; Kendrick Frazier,* science writer, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER; Yves Galifret, Exec. Secretary, l'Union Rationaliste; Martin Gardner,* author, critic; Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, California Inst, of Technology; Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Toronto; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.; C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales; Al Hibbs, scientist. Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human understanding and cognitive science, Indiana Univ.; Ray Hyman,* psycholo­ gist, Univ. of Oregon; Leon Jaroff, sciences editor, Time; Lawrence Jerome, science writer, engineer; Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition, Scientific American; Philip J. Klass,* science writer, engineer; Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Fredonia; Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Observatory; Paul Kurtz,* chairman, CSICOP; Lawrence Kusche, science writer; Paul MacCready, scientist/ engineer, AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif.; David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, England; David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Research Center; Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley; H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president, Bangalore Science Forum, India; Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist, Cornell Univ. Joe Nickell,* author, technical writing instructor, Univ. of Kentucky; Lee Nisbet,* philosopher, Medaille College; James E. Oberg, science writer; Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Health Sciences Univ.; John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ.; Mark Plummer, lawyer, Australia; W. V. Quine, philosopher. Harvard Univ.; Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Chicago; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell Univ.; Wallace Sampson, M.D., clinical professor of medicine, Stanford Univ.; Evry Schatzman, President, French Physics Association; Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive director. National Center for Science Education; Thomas A. Sebeok, anthropologist, linguist, Indiana Univ.; Robert Sheaffer, science writer; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, N.S.W., Australia; Robert Steiner, magician, author, El Cerrito, Calif.; Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Angeles, Calif.; Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, Northwestern Univ.; Marvin Zelen, statisti­ cian. Harvard Univ. Lin Zixin, former editor Science and Technology Daily (China). (Affiliations given for identification only.) 'Member, CSICOP Executive Council

Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto Dr., N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111. Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be addressed to: THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six weeks advance notice. Subscribers to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX: (716)-636-1733. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the views and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is indexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Copyright ©1993 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, 3965 Rensch Road, Buffalo, NY 14228. All rights reserved. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms International. Subscription Rates: Individuals, libraries, and institutions, $25.00 a year; back issues, $6.25 each. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published quarterly, Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Printed in Canada. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and additional mailing offices. Send changes of address to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. {} SKEPTICAL

INQUIRER Vol. 17.No.4,Summer 1993

i- ••'•-•• •:••• ^-: - -^:. ' - - - ^ "••*•••-•••• 1 Journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

ARTICLES The Right Hemisphere: An Esoteric Closet? Fernando D. Saravi 380 Improving Science Teaching: The Textbook Problem Kevin Padian 388 The Eyewitness: Imperfect Interface Between Stimuli and Story James R. Reich. Jr. 394 Pathological Science: An Update Alan Cromer 400 Jack Horkheimer, "Star Hustler" An Interview by Gabriel Seabrook 408 FROM THE EDITOR Our Wide and Fertile Field Kendrick Frazier 347

FROM THE CHAIRMAN Exploring the Television Wasteland Paul Kurtz 350

NEWS AND COMMENT 355 Court Awards CSICOP Sanctions / CSICOP Challenges 'Fire in the Sky' / Defects in John's Experiments / Geoarchaeologist Says Atlantis Was Troy / Hungarian Teenagers Win Randi Prize / AAAS Meeting / Stamps Celebrate Science and Pseudoscience / Werewolf Escapes in Mobile / Where's the Rapture?

NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER The False Memory Syndrome Martin Gardner 370

PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS Quatrain X. Satanic Cults, and STS-48's Crystals Robert Sheaffer 376 BOOK REVIEWS Daniel Seligman, A Question of Intelligence: The IQ Debate In America Lee Loevinger 416 James Harvey Young, American Health Quackery Terence Hines 418 Jeffrey Burton Russell. Inventing the Hat Earth Monty Vierra 420 Ivan L Zabilka, Scientific Malpractice: The Creation/ Evolution Debate Robert A Baker 422 NEW BOOKS 427

ARTICLES OF NOTE 429

FOLLOW-UP Samoan Hoax. Margaret Mead, and Cultural Relatvity John R. Cole. Theodore Schwartz Frank Lee Earley, and Martin Gardner 435

FORUM The Well-Run Universe—Fact or Fancy? Ralph Estling 441

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 444

ON THE COVER: Illustration by Bruce Adams. HELP US DEFEND SKEPTICISM AGAINST HARASSING SUITS CSICOP LEGAL DEFENSE FOUNDATION

n recent issues of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER we have outlined the I difficulties that the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal is experiencing because of harassing lawsuits filed against skeptics. We feel confident that these suits will eventually be dismissed. Still, we suspect that the lawsuits were brought for reasons other than the redress of alleged grievances. For what do these suits mean? They mean that the pro- paranormalists think they have finally found a way to strike below the belt of scientists and skeptics. For years they have been unable to prove their claims of miraculous abilities. They've grown tired of hearing our challenges. Now they have turned to intimidation by lawsuit in an effort to silence their only persistent critics. It doesn't necessarily matter if the plaintiff wins or loses the suit. Their purpose is to waste their opponents' resources and to intimidate and silence them—in effect, depriving individuals or organizations of their First Amendment rights. We are by no means a wealthy organization, but we are not prepared to surrender our rights. We have vowed to fight back. To do so, we need your support. CSICOP has established the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation. Its funds will be used to help pay the costs of existing lawsuits and any that may arise in the future, and to countersue when appropriate. Don't allow the claim-mongers to destroy CSICOP (and the values of science and reason it steadfastly represents) through unjust and frivolous legal proceedings. Support the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation today. It's the best way to blunt this frightening new weapon of the apostles of nonsense.

Yes, I want to help defend the rights of skeptics. Enclosed is my tax-deductible contribution of $

Please make check payable to the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation Charge my • Visa • MasterCard • Check enclosed Exp Sig Credit-card contributors may call toll-free: 1-800-634-1610

Name Address. City State Zip . Mail to: CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226 From the Editor

Our Wide and Fertile Field

bservant readers may have We have always been involved in noted that CSICOP's state­ promoting an understanding of the O ment of mission, published values and diverse methods of science on the back cover, has been expanded. and the use of science and critical This is how it now reads: thinking as ways to gain a more accurate, realistic understanding of The Committee for the Scientific the natural world and of ourselves. Investigation of Claims of the (We humans, with our wonderfully Paranormal encourages the critical complex minds, are of course a part investigation of paranormal and of the natural world.) We have always fringe-science claims from a respon­ valued science education, along with sible, scientific point of view and a broad liberal education. For several disseminates factual information years now we have been publishing about the results of such inquiries to the scientific community and the a continuing series of articles about public. It also promotes science and science education. Recent examples scientific inquiry, critical thinking, are those by two educators in our science education, and the use of Winter issue suggesting more hands- reason in examining important on science education, Vice President issues. Al Gore's article on education for science in our Spring issue, and the The second sentence is new, having article in this issue by a biologist, about been added in 1992. the troubling quality of secondary- Does this mean CSICOP and the school science texts. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER have suddenly The final phrase in our statement expanded their objectives? Not really. refers to the use of reason (all the tools The expanded statement is more an of scientific and rational analysis) to attempt to reflect the reality of what examine "important issues." This our actual interests have long been. does—to a degree—represent some­ We have been gradually expanding our thing new. For some years we have focus for years. All organizations, cast our editorial net far wider than certainly all publications, are organic, the world of "the paranormal." The dynamic entities, and any formal term "fringe-science" is one attempt attempt to define their objectives can to describe this wider subject. "Pseu- at best do so only imperfectly. The doscience" might be another. All are paragraph above is our (current) best imperfect descriptions, each with its effort. own biases and drawbacks.

Summer 1993 347 Yet the tools of science and critical tifically informed analysis. We're analysis can be applied, if done care­ trying to provide that. fully, judiciously, and with some All these subjects are essentially humility, to many of the complex nonparanormal, yet some of the science-related issues that face us all— arguments and rationalizations in­ certainly those for which testable voked to support them seem haunt- scientific claims are made. The ingly similar to those heard from SKEPTICAL INQUIRER'S focus remains proponents of such classical "para­ mostly along science's fringe. But this normal" fields as extrasensory percep­ troublesome area—where good tion and astrology. All these areas and science and bad science, real science many more can profit from additional and bogus science, and everything in open-minded skeptical inquiry. between, coexist in uncomfortable This new arena is large, but don't disharmony—is a broad and fuzzy look for us to go much beyond areas one. Clear demarcations, black and where scientific claims are being made. white extremes, may be discernible, The issues we address must have some but often the dominant colors are scientific content—or pretend to it— shades of gray and the spectrum of or benefit from an understanding of responsible disagreement may be dis­ human psychology. Many readers tressingly wide. want us to critique religion as such or We are finding ourselves editorially skewer some ideology they disfavor. exploring this region more and more That's not our interest and it's not our lately. I have a list on my wall of 35 intention. subjects we have examined in our Also don't look for us to take pages in just the past two to three up too many scientific controversies years that don't fit any classic descrip­ clearly within the borders of science. tion of the "paranormal." All scientific ideas have to battle for Some examples: polygraph tests, initial acceptance, and the road toward abuses of hypnosis, the anti-Satanism any scientific consensus is exceedingly movement, claims of ritualistic cult long and difficult, as it should be. abuse, subliminal advertising and These battles are fought in traditional tapes, backmasking, graphology, crea- scientific forums, which are well tionism, alternative medical treat­ established for them (general journals ments, mass illness hysterias, literary like Science and Nature, specialized deconstructionism regarding science, journals by the thousands, meetings, multicultural pseudoscience, hi-fi conferences, referee reports, grant pseudoscience, night terrors and sleep evaluations, review panels, and all the paralysis, the disease theory of alco­ other apparatus of modern science). holism, self-help books, cold fusion We may occasionally dip into these and pathological science, probability areas when we think we have some­ paradoxes, and innumeracy. The arti­ thing useful to add. (Recent CSICOP cles in our Spring issue on Facilitated conferences have especially done this.) Communication and in this issue on We do want occasionally to give the brain-hemisphere misconceptions and flavor of these disputes, for they show false-memory syndrome are three how every field of science is contin­ more. ually stimulated by novel ideas, claims, Many involve important issues that and evidence, which are then sub­ make mainstream news, cause prob­ jected to rigorous debate and scrutiny. lems, raise disturbing questions, affect Some recent examples of such our lives. All merit serious, scien­ articles are "Safe Science with SETI"

348 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 in our Spring 1993 issue, our look at whether you are a scholar, participant, the new catastrophism back in 1990, or interested observer. We will con­ and articles on biological cycles, tinue to provide a forum for debate quantum mechanics, the Gaia hy­ and discussion of all issues raised in pothesis, and the Big Bang. our pages. (One reader recently So you can see that even though commented that our letters to the our view remains fairly focused, we editor section was the best he'd ever have a very wide and fertile field in seen.) We will try to give a flavor of which to roam. We intend to continue the excitement and vigor of scientific to provide lively, readable, provoca­ discovery and debate. And we intend tive, scientifically informed analyses to continue to have fun doing all of issues important to you. We will this, and hope you too will enjoy the continue to provide scientifically quest. evaluated factual information you can use in making your own judgments, —Kendrick Frazier

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

TUFT'S ONE DO>tX>KNC*V BCPL&KJA-TION THAT OR JUST THAT. Believe it? HOW DO CAN\M3TE T ^OUDOKA»T ANYTHING. jU5rB6Gfi4S3 . WAVE. \ IT EXPLAINS IT I DON' DOCUMENTATION IT TRUE HOW DO I KNOW I KNOW? I DOUBTDouer few. tfUDauen" IDOLU3TT 7 THAT

SKEPTICS FROM HELL.

Summer 1993 349 From the Chairman

Exploring the Television Wasteland PAUL KURTZ

t is a truism that the mass media out the United States. are replacing the schools as the CSICOP has been approached I major source of information and several times to provide guests for the education for the American public. "Shirley" show, and we have done so, Regrettably, "entertainment value" is although often with apprehension the chief criterion for television since the program is invariably stacked programming. As the networks vie for against scientists and skeptics, which ratings, advertising revenue, and makes it difficult for the scientific profit, sensationalism overwhelms outlook to be fairly presented. We reflective considerations. have debated whether we should even This is especially demonstrated by take part in such charades. When we the sorry state of television talk- do, it is because we feel that some shows. Although these programs dissenting voice is better than none. provide a forum for differing ideas and After declining several invitations personalities, they often lead to over the past year, I finally consented misinformation, untruths, and distor­ to appear on a "Shirley" program, one tion. This is the case not only in the that was taped in Toronto on March United States, which is considered by 11, 1993, for a later broadcast. The many to be the bastion of vulgar topic was "Prophetic Dreams." pandering, but in other countries as In my view, there is no reliable well. evidence that dreams can foretell the A striking example of this is the future. Efforts to test precognition in daytime television talk-show called the laboratory have not provided us "Shirley," hosted by Shirley Solomon with a replicable experiment. The and aired on the CTV network in evidence we have for prophetic Canada. It competes with American dreams is anecdotal and so highly shows like "Oprah," "Sally Jessy subjective that it is difficult to corrob­ Raphael," "Donahue," and "Geraldo" orate. Many people nevertheless for viewers, and it now enjoys the report that there have been remarka­ highest ratings of any TV talk show ble congruences between their dreams in Canada. So popular has it become— and later events. These often involved discussing everything from sado­ dramatic personal crises, such as the masochistic sex orgies and breast death of a loved one. One can ask if implants for women to paranormal such experiences can be explained as miracles—that ABC has been nego­ simple coincidence, or perhaps some tiating to network "Shirley" through­ function as self-fulfilling prophecies,

350 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 inducing us to realize our dreams. was in a coffin with a rubber glove They need not be considered para­ on his hand. Boyce's dream came true. normal. She also dreamed that her daughter, When the producers invited me to who had been living with her father, appear, they said there would be three Boyce's ex-husband, had been mur­ guests who would recount remarkable dered. She saw her daughter's body, precognitive dreams and that I would clad in a pink blouse, drowned in the be given the opportunity to present bathtub. She said that she was so my interpretation. They also told me frightened by this dream that she that another "expert" besides myself persuaded her former husband to would appear, one who had done allow the daughter to live with her. "research on dreams" and would give She has burned the pink blouse and us the benefit of her work. I was makes sure that her daughter is never assured beforehand by the producers alone, day or night, so that the dream that Shirley herself was "somewhat cannot be fulfilled. "I saw my daughter skeptical." floating face-up in the bathtub. Some­ The show opened with about two one had drowned her. My daughter hundred people in the audience. can't be home by herself, and she can't Shirley began by asking how many wear anything pink. I am terrified that people believed that dreams could the dream will come true." foretell the future. An affirmative Shirley questioned Boyce and was shout went up from virtually every­ very sympathetic to her predicament. one in the audience. There was almost no dissent. Shirley called her guests to the The second testimony was given by stage one by one. The first guest, Gail Rita Dudak (now Rita Dwyer) about Boyce, had responded to a newspaper a dream alleged to have been experi­ ad placed by CTV for people who had enced in 1959 by Ed Butler. This had "prophetic dreams." She had been "prophetic dream" has been included booked on the show at the last minute in the book Dreams (Time-Life Mys­ and was flown up from Long Island teries of the Unknown series, in chapter only two hours before showtime. 4, "Psychic Dreams," pp. 130-131). Boyce said that she dreamed of future The dream occurred when Butler was events that invariably came true. 25 years old and employed by a New She dreamed that her 14-year-old Jersey company that worked with son had been shot in the head and that rocket engines and fuels. In his dream two uniformed men, one in white and he was seated in his laboratory when one in brown, came to her home to an explosion rocked the building. As tell her that her son had been killed. he rushed out of the room, he found Two weeks later her brother (who was Rita Dudak, a co-worker, engulfed in in the army) was murdered, and two flames. He dreamed that he grabbed men, "exactly as dreamed," had come her by her leg, dragged her out of the to notify her of his death. "For three blazing laboratory and dowsed the months I took off from work," she flames. Butler had this dream several said. "I was really upset because I times over a period of months, and hadn't warned my brother beforehand on April 23, 1959, the incident that I saw his murder." occurred "exactly as he had dreamt it." She then dreamed that another Only because he knew she would be brother had died: she saw him com­ saved did he muster the courage to pletely nude in the hospital, where he pull her free. Dudak, who believes in had had cardiac arrest; and later he prophetic dreams and is now president

Summer 1993 351 of the "Association for Dream to be like a son. In regard to the third Research," gave details of the event. dream, I said that it had not come true Butler was brought into the show by yet and that I thought she was remote satellite on a TV screen, behaving hysterically. When Shirley "authenticating" the story. lashed out, saying that I was being The third example of prophetic sexist in accusing Boyce of being dreams was described by Paul Csete hysterical, I replied that hysteria can and occurred in 1977. He said that he be experienced by men as well as was "into the supernatural" and women. I suggested that Boyce might believed that dreams could fore­ need psychiatric counseling, because shadow the future. He also said that if, on the basis of a dream, she is if you don't like the dream, you can keeping her daughter confined, then change the future by dreaming a she is confusing the dream world with different scenario. In the dream he the real world. Again the audience recounted, he was driving on a high­ booed my observation. But what they way behind a slow-moving truck, with did not hear was Boyce's telling me poles sticking out of the rear. He just prior to the show that many of decided to pass the truck and so sped her friends thought she was "crazy" up the left lane, when suddenly a and that she was indeed undergoing white station wagon with "five or psychiatric counseling. seven" people in it was coming toward Shirley interjected, "Ah! But the him. As he was about to slam into it, second dream was a true match!" To he woke up in a fright. which I replied, "How do we know? Many years later he was driving in We have only Gail's say-so that the Mexico, and amazingly found himself dream was exactly like what occurred behind a similar truck and was plan­ and she may have altered the dream ning to pass it. As he he was about after the fact." I said that the entire to do so, the person in the passenger incident was in the eye of the beholder seat beside him, who had been dozing, and that we should be skeptical of exclaimed, "Don't you dare!" and so uncorroborated reports of psychic he stayed put. At that very moment experiences. Again the audience he suddenly saw a white station booed. wagon with "five or seven" passengers In regard to the Ed Butler/Rita approaching, and it passed him on his Dudak incident, which was not left—exactly as in the dream. He thus reported publicly until 1988, 29 years avoided a possibly fatal collision. after the fact, I said that, first, Butler After more than half the show had worked in a dangerous lab and, elapsed, I was brought onto the stage second, since Dudak was his only to analyze these dreams. I pointed out female coworker, the fact that he that what we had been given was dreamt about her being at his labor­ anecdotal information and that there atory was not a mystery. Moreover, was no way to verify the stories. I felt his memory of the dream may well this was a fairly commonsense obser­ have been colored by later experience. vation and was surprised when the Butler said he had never had a pro­ audience immediately jeered at me. phetic dream. "What is the base-line In regard to Gail Boyce, I said that of probability?" I asked. "How many the first dream was not a "hit," dreams have people had that did not because she had dreamt that her son come true? Why select the one hit out was killed, not her brother. Her reply of the hundreds, or probably thou­ was that she considered her brother sands of dreams that were misses?"

352 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Coincidence seems to be the most identified himself as an astrologer and plausible explanation. a psychic, said that "dreams foretell In regard to the third dreamer, Paul the future." He advised people to pay Csete, I again pointed out Paul be­ close attention to their dreams. By lieved his dreams were prophetic, but saying a prayer before going to bed, neither in his dream nor in real life he said, one can learn to have dreams did he collide with the "white station that will come true. wagon." Is he also reinterpreting the I then asked in dismay, "Doesn't dream after the fact. Paul reported anyone appreciate the methods of that his dreams were "subjectively science, of the natural and social true" for him. sciences. Doesn't anyone want to use I was brought in to represent an critical intelligence and apply objective independent scientific and skeptical standards to judge these claims?" viewpoint. Another guest, Gayle Again I was jeered. And one woman Gackenbach, a Ph.D. and "an exper­ said it was I who was irrational, rather imental psychologist," said that dream than everyone else. analysis is useful, since dreams tell It was clear that the deck was people about themselves. She said stacked against the skeptical view­ that, although she was skeptical of point—five guests and the moderator, anecdotal information, she believed plus 198 out of 200 members of the "that dream telepathy has been scien­ audience, made it clear that they tifically verified" in the laboratory. I thought that dreams could foretell the asked if she thought there was evi­ future and that they could remake the dence that dreams were prophetic. future by having a different (revised) She said she couldn't say. But she dream or by taking steps to avoid a maintained that she sympathized with dream's fulfillment. What kind of view Gail. I asked her if she thought that of reality does this entail? If dreams Boyce should keep her daughter are precognitive, and if you can change confined on the basis of the dream. the future, then what are they pre­ Gackenbach replied that if she dreamt cognitive of? No one in the audience that her own daughter had been worried about such niceties. murdered she likewise would have After the show I sought out one behaved protectively. I expressed my of the producers who had invited me. surprise and said that a person should I said that I deplored the lack of distinguish between the dream world balance, the failure to have the and reality and that she was not scientific and skeptical viewpoint thinking rationally. Again the better represented. I asked whether audience jeered. I responded that I was they did not have some obligation to in the unenviable position of striking present at least an alternative view­ a dissident note among the nigh- point to the public, to which she unanimous choir of believers. Shirley replied, "Dr. Kurtz that's why we then asked the audience, "How many brought you on." people are skeptical?" Only 2 out of Henry Gordon, a Toronto news­ the 200 responded affirmatively— paper columnist and a professional though one young man immediately magician, had been invited to appear got up to say that he had been a skeptic on an earlier "Shirley" show, "Hyp­ before the program, but "after listen­ notic Regressions and Past Lives," but ing to Kurtz's criticism" is now a at the last minute was disinvited. believer! When he asked Mary Hawkins, the One member of the audience, who researcher he dealt with, what had

Summer 1993 353 happened, she said: "The other guests And week after week he fed his knew you are a vigorous opponent of audience a steady diet of paranormal anything to do with psychic phenom­ claims. ena. They were disturbed that you I should point out that my personal were going to be on the show, and experience on the "Shirley" show they said, 'Well, we can't be on the came during the same week that Bill show if he's on it.' " And so a skeptic Moyers presented the five-part "Heal­ is persona non grata on most shows, ing and the Mind" series on PBS, with and very rarely is more than one almost no skepticism about the claim invited. that mental concentration can heal Les Kottler, producer of the "Shir­ illnesses; "The Incredible Discovery of ley" show and Shirley's husband, said: Noah's Ark" appeared on the CBS "I'd bend over backwards on every network, maintaining that Noah's subject we do to be balanced. Audi­ creationist stories in the Old Testa­ ences tend to sway a show. . . . We ment were true, with nary a dissent; have a house that seats approximately and Paramount Pictures launched Fire 200 people. We try to book 100 in favor in the Sky, a movie based on the alleged and 100 on the other side of the issue." "true story" of Travis Walton's UFO Surely this was not the case for the abduction. In a free society, people can show in which I appeared, where the produce whatever they want. But do audience nearly unanimously believed not producers and editors have some in precognitive dreams. responsibility to public education, or What I encountered on the "Shir­ should entertainment values be ley" show was not atypical. Increas­ allowed to undermine all scientific ingly, talk shows have been dominated literacy and knowledge? How can we by the lowest common denominator. impart the need for some scientific I remember appearing on the "Merv objectivity and critical rationality? Griffin" show many years ago, with Is there a remedy for the continued physicist Bernard Leikind as the co- purveyance of the paranormal with­ guest, to present in eight minutes out scientific dissent? That is the some criticisms of astrology, psychic question that I pose to our readers and phenomena, and firewalking. During to other members of the scientific the intermission, Merv said to me, "I community who share CSICOP's don't believe in any of this bullshit, concern about the vast media waste­ but that's what the public wants." land. •

The Uneasiness About Thinking

There is an uneasiness about thinking, about intellectual endeavour . . . that permeates the society, and that is clearly extremely dangerous. ... I think it is an essential aspect of the national health and well- being to have not just professional scientists who are happy and healthy but to have a broad population of citizens who are comfortable with science and ask tough questions and make informed decisions.

—Carl Sagan, at the national meeting of the American Astronomical Society, Phoenix, January 5, 1993.

354 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 News and Comment

Court Awards CS1COP In a declaration filed with the court in Geller's lawsuit, CSICOP Executive Sanctions in Geller Suit Director Barry Karr stated, "I believe that CSICOP was made a defendant in this lawsuit solely for the purpose federal court has imposed of harassment and intimidation and in $106,433.97 in sanctions the hope that the lawsuit would A. against self-proclaimed psychic dissuade CSICOP from encouraging Uri Geller for his prosecution of a libel and providing a forum for . . . the suit against the Committee for the critical discussion and analysis of para­ Scientific Investigation of Claims of normal claims, particularly those the Paranormal (CSICOP). asserted by Geller." In an order issued by Judge Stanley As was observed at the time of the S. Harris on March 16, the United earlier ruling, Judge Harris's imposi­ States District Court for the District tion of sanctions against Geller was of Columbia granted CSICOP's made pursuant to a federal court rule request that the court impose the that mandates the award of sanctions sanctions, which represent the fees if litigation is "interposed for any and costs incurred by CSICOP in improper purpose, such as to harass defending the lawsuit through June or cause unnecessary delay or needless 30, 1992. The court also authorized increase in the cost of litigation," or CSICOP to request reimbursement of if papers filed with the court are not additional fees and costs incurred in "to the best of the signer's knowledge, defense of the litigation. information and belief formed after Geller initiated the $15-million reasonable inquiry . . . well grounded lawsuit in May 1991 against CSICOP in fact . . . and warranted by existing and James Randi, alleging that Geller law or a good-faith argument for the was defamed by Randi in statements extension, modification, or reversal of made to the International Herald existing law." Tribune. Last June, Judge Harris dis­ Following notification of Judge missed the suit against CSICOP and Harris's order, CSICOP Chairman granted CSICOP's request for sanc­ Paul Kurtz commented that this type tions (51, Fall 1992), but postponed a of libel suit, even if ultimately unsuc­ ruling on the amount of the sanctions cessful, threatens to chill debate on until a later time. Geller then filed a scientific issues. "If such obstacles are motion with the court, asking for a placed, unchecked, in the way of reconsideration of its opinion. scientific research, and if one cannot In its recent order, the district court question extraordinary claims, then a rejected Geller's motion for recon­ serious blow will be dealt to freedom sideration and imposed the sanctions. of expression and scientific inquiry. The amount was to be paid within 30 . . . We view this case as a serious days, Judge Harris said. challenge to our First Amendment

Summer 1993 355 rights, and we are thankful that Judge the Scientific Investigation of Claims Harris chose to vindicate those of the Paranormal (CSICOP) chal­ rights." In addition, Kurtz observed, lenged Paramount's claim that the film the judge's decision to impose sanc­ is based on a "true story." In a tions against Geller "sends a stern statement, CSICOP Chairman Paul warning to those who would utilize Kurtz commented that "the film is libel suits as a weapon to harass: such largely fiction and ought to be labeled conduct can carry a heavy price." as such. The public is being deceived As of this writing, Geller has not by Paramount's promoting the film as a true story." paid the court-imposed sanctions, prompting CSICOP to file motions fire in the Sky is based on the claim asking the court to take actions it of Travis Walton, of Snowflake, deems necessary to enforce the order. Arizona, that in late 1975 he was Geller has also filed a new motion "zapped" and abducted by a UFO and asking the court to reconsider its held hostage for five days. earlier reconsideration. CSICOP will Philip J. Klass, the chairman of oppose this motion. • CSlCOP's UFO Subcommittee, who spent many months investigating the alleged incident shortly after it was reported, uncovered extensive evi­ CSICOP Challenges dence to indicate the incident was 'Fire in the Sky' Film most likely a hoax. This evidence and a details of Klass's rigorous investiga­ tion were reported in his book UFOs: en days before the Paramount The Public Deceived (Prometheus Pictures film Fire in the Sky opened Books, 1983). T on March 12, the Committee for Klass learned that shortly before Walton's alleged abduction he had told his mother that if he was ever abducted by a UFO she should not worry because he would be all right. Later, when Travis's mother was informed that her young son had allegedly been abducted by a UFO, she took the news calmly and re­ sponded, "Well, that's the way these things happen," accord­ ing to a law-enforcement officer who was present. During the several days that Travis was "missing" his older brother, Duane, was asked if he was concerned for Travis's well-being. Duane replied that Travis was "having the experi­ ence of a lifetime. . . . All I can say is that I wish I was with him."

356 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Shortly after Travis reappeared, he was given a "lie detector" test, admin­ Princeton Experiments in istered by Jack McCarthy, then one Remote Viewing Found of the most experienced and respected polygraph examiners in Arizona. Plagued with Defects After a lengthy test involving Wal­ ton's claim of UFO-abduction, McCarthy reported: "Gross decep­ or the past decade, the experi­ tion." Further, McCarthy reported ments of Robert Jahn and his that Travis was holding his breath to F colleagues at the Princeton Engi­ try to "beat the machine." neering Anomalies Research (PEAR) Kurtz said: "The public is being program have intrigued all those inundated by Hollywood films and interested in parapsychology. Jahn, a television programs claiming that former dean of engineering at Prince­ thousands of Americans are being ton, had decided to devote consider­ abducted by aliens. These programs able time and resources to a lengthy offer no credible scientific evidence or series of experiments, hoping to critical dissent. They seem to be overcome critical objections that have motivated solely by profits, and no plagued previous such efforts. Many matter how outrageous a claim there of these experiments involve attempts is always somebody willing to turn it to "psychically" influence random- into a 'true' movie." number generators; others involve "None of the cases," stated Klass, attempts to "remote-view" a distant "stand up under scrutiny. They can scene. be given natural, prosaic explanations In the remote-viewing work, a without postulating extraterrestrial percipient (receiver) attempts to visitation and kidnapping. But, of describe an unknown geographical course, Hollywood wouldn't be able to location where an agent (sender) is, turn that into a movie." has been, or will be at a specific time. "Many in the media release irre­ PEAR didn't actively seek the lime­ sponsible and sensationalistic reports light, but finally in 1986 and 1987 Jahn of abductions. There is a critical need and colleague Brenda Dunne pub­ for balanced reporting and labeling," lished positive results about the said Kurtz. remote-viewing experiments in three The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER invited peer-refereed journals. The group's Paramount to comment on CSICOP's most recent report, "Precognitive criticisms, but received no response. Remote Perception III," by B. J. Dunne, AP science reporter Lee Siegel, how­ Y. H. Dobyns, and S. J. Intner, pub­ ever, quoted Tracy Torme, the film's lished as Technical Note 83003 in screenwriter and co-producer: "There 1989, includes results of 336 formal is no substantial hard evidence beyond remote-viewing trials and is appar­ polygraphs to show what happened. ently the single largest database of So while I believe he [Walton] is being remote viewing that has been truthful in relating what he remem­ reported in some detail. In one mode bers, I will not say and cannot say what (211 trials) the agent was free to happened to him." choose the target; in the other mode Siegel's article, which focused on (125 trials) the target site was ran­ CSICOP's criticisms and quoted Klass domly selected from a pool of potential in some detail, was published in targets. newspapers nationwide. • While some embraced the PEAR

Summer 1993 357 remote-viewing work, most parapsy- Dunne et al. technical report contains chologists maintained their distance a number of invalid statistical argu­ from it. Skeptical scholars cited many ments. For example, their analysis deficiencies, but little formal critical didn't take into consideration that examination of the remote-viewing targets were selected without replace­ experimental program was published. ment, which has important conse­ That situation has now changed. quences for statistical analysis. They Three investigators, George P. also say Dunne et al. failed to include Hansen, Jessica Utts, and Betty Mark- certain elements in their baseline wick, have published a devastating distribution, thus artifactually en­ critique of the PEAR remote-viewing hancing significance levels. experiments in the Journal of Para­ Hansen, Utts, and Markwick con­ psychology (vol. 56, June 1992, issued clude their paper with this remarkably in February 1993). blunt assessment: They identify a variety of meth­ The PEAR remote-viewing exper­ odological and statistical problems iments depart from commonly with the work. They discovered accepted criteria for formal research specific problems in randomization, in science. In fact, they are undoubt­ statistical baselines, application of edly some of the poorest quality ESP statistical models, agent coding of experiments published in many descriptor lists, feedback to percip­ years. The defects provide plausible ients, sensory cues, and precautions alternative explanations. There do against cheating. "The research not appear to be any methods avail­ departs from criteria usually expected able for proper statistical evaluation of these experiments because of the in formal scientific experimentation," way in which they were conducted. say Hansen, Utts, and Markwick. What were some of the objections? A 32-page response from the PEAR Randomization for one. Hansen et al. group to the Hansen et al. critique found, for example, that in the 211 follows in the same issue of the trials in the "volitional" mode, "there journal. It contends that most of the was no random selection of the target isssues raised by Hansen et al. had whatsoever." Neither was there ade­ long been acknowledged and ade­ quate shielding of the agent from the quately addressed in their experimen­ percipient. Without such shielding, tal designs and analyses. "The re­ they say, "it is virtually impossible to mainder of their concerns, including detect even simple trickery." They randomization of target and reference point out that they have no reason score distributions, trial-by-trial feed­ to believe that cheating took place. But back, stacking, and cheating, are either they also note, as Dunne herself had, misapplied, fundamentally incorrect, that just one particular subject, Oper­ or have trivial impact. . . . None of ator 10, accounted for 244, or more the stated complaints compromises than 70 percent, of all the formal trials. the PEAR experimental protocols or "Because the procedures allow decep­ analytical methods, which remain tion by either percipient or agent rigorous and effective methodologies acting alone, the contribution of that from remote perception research." subject should be considered." If that Hansen told the SKEPTICAL subject's trials are removed from the INQUIRER a formal reply to the PEAR set, the results are no longer response is being prepared for significant. publication. The authors also say the 1989 —Kendrick Frazier

358 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 which 3,200 years ago was buried Legend Deciphered? under meters of rubble on the out­ Atlantis Was Troy, skirts of the Mycenaean fortress in Tiryns. Subsequent research by Ger­ Says Geoarchaeologist man scientists has since proved that this catastrophe was triggered by an earthquake. The downfall of the ince its description by the ancient Mycenaean culture ran parallel to the Greek philosopher Plato (427- collapse of numerous states of the S 347 B.C.) some two thousand eastern Mediterranean in the late years ago, people have been fascinated Bronze Age—or to quote Zangger: by the legend of Atlantis and specu­ "What happened here was a collapse lation as to the location of this of a system." Within only 100 years submerged island has been diverse. many cultural and technical achieve­ The geoarchaeologist Eberhard ments of the Bronze Age were lost: Zangger, of the German Archaeolog­ the centralized political power, the ical Institute in Athens, Greece, has administrative structure, and the art now proposed a scientifically based of writing—a phenomenon mentioned theory that Plato merely availed specifically by Plato. The collapse in himself of a historical Egyptian both Argolis and the states of the account of the famous ancient city of Mediterranean became established in Troy, situated on the west coast of oral tradition and later in Solon's Asia Minor, which he used as a basis account of Atlantis. Zangger inter­ for his description of Atlantis and the prets Plato's Atlantis as referring to legend. a huge disaster that took place around As Zangger states in his book Atlantis—Deciphering a Legend (Droe- mer Knaur, Munich, 1992), the Atlan­ tis report emerged in the sixth century B.C. during a conversation between the Greek statesman Solon (640-560 B.C.) and a priest from Sais, then the capital city of Egypt. Plato recapitulated the legend of his ancestor Solon in 360 B.C. in the writings Timaeus and Critias—preserving it for later gener­ ations, who generally regarded the account as fiction. In his report, the Egyptian priest mistook the Greek region of Attica for the Argolis plains on the Peloponnese. The reader learns that a Greek civilization—the culture of the late Bronze Age—was des­ troyed by the simultaneous occur­ rence of earthquakes and tidal waves. In his research into early Greek culture and its natural environment, Zangger discovered traces of a huge landslide and a flood catastrophe after drilling in the area around Tiryns,

Summer 1993 359 1200 B.C., when most of the Myce­ maintains that there is much evidence naean palaces were destroyed by to corroborate this, and the Trojan landslides, earthquakes, and fires. plains abound in old canals and inex­ Solon's source and interlocutor, the plicable banks of sand. In Zangger's Egyptian priest from Sais, interwove view, these sand deposits, which had this catastrophe scenario with the already been noticed by the discoverer legend of Atlantis. According to of Troy, Heinrich Schliemann, are Zangger, the description of the land­ none other than the excavation rubble scape around Atlantis resembles the from artificial dikes or trenches. area around Troy, which lies at the Furthermore, almost every topo­ mouth of the Dardanelles in the graphical map of the Trojan Plains has Mediterranean. recorded a 9-km-long watercourse The priest further reported that running in the direction of the Acrop­ Atlantis was an island lying in the olis of Troy. Atlantic Ocean at the Pillars of Hercules—two characteristics that —Gottlieb Ochsle seemingly refute the identity of Troy as Atlantis. Zangger explains this From the German Research Service contradiction by pointing out that in Special Science Reports, vol. 8, no. 8, ancient Eygpt the state of Greece to 1992. the north was a conglomerate of islands and that the countries in and around the Aegean Sea were called "The Islands." Similarly, the Pillars of Hercules were none other than the James Randi Prize Dardanelles in Solon's time. Even in Awarded in Hungary late Roman antiquity the Straits of I Gibraltar and the Dardanelles were both referred to as the Pillars of uring his visit in January 1992 Hercules. Furthermore, in contrast to to Budapest, Hungary, James the Dardanelles, Gibraltar lay beyond Randi was asked to address the reach of the ships of the eastern D the winners of a science essay com­ Mediterranean countries during Sol­ petition for high-school students on's time. Even the designation sponsored by the popular science "Atlantic Ocean" was misleading, as journal Termeszet Vilaga ("The World this name emerged only 100 years of Nature"). Touched by the eagerness after Solon's Egyptian sojourn and and fresh enthusiasm of the young­ was only subsequently included by sters, Randi founded a prize of U.S.- Plato in his account of Atlantis. The $300 for the best investigation of name Atlantis alone shows where it paranormal phenomena by students once had lain—for the Greek word using scientific methods, irrespective Atlantis means "daughter of Atlas." of its conclusion. And by a strange coincidence Atlantis Applications were invited and the is the progenitor of the Trojan royal best contribution was selected by a lineage. committee consisting of scientists as Plato remarked that Atlantis was well as members of the journal's surrounded by water rings and that editorial board. the people of Atlantis had dug a canal The winners of the 1993 James around the city, stretching from the Randi Prize are Gabor Takacs and sea to the outer water-ring. Zangger Robert Dallos of Szekesfehervar,

360 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Hungary. The boys, both 17-year-old from exactly the same position before juniors at St. Stephen Agricultural and after the circle was made. The TV Technicum—a high school specializ­ show was a tremendous success, since ing in agriculture—decided to repeat in front of millions of viewers the the performance of English farmers invited "UFO experts" were shown to preparing a crop circle, which they have been completely wrong. read about in the Hungarian daily After the disclosure, the owner of Reform. the field, Aranykalasz Co., sued the During the night of June 8, 1992, youngsters for Fts. 630,000 (approx­ they prepared a crop circle near imately U.S. $8,000) in damages. The Szekesfehervar, in the vicinity of a Hungarian Skeptics immediately drive-in movie, using a rope and a offered moral as well as financial help stick. Since the length of the rope just to the young "skeptics." A few months happened to be 18 meters, the diame­ later the court ruled that the kids are ter of the circle was necessarily 36 responsible only for the damage meters, a number that "experts" caused in a circle of 36 meters diame­ attributed special significance to. ter, amounting to about Fts. 6,000 (U.S. Contrary to expectations, it took the $76.00). The rest of the damage was boys about three hours of hard work caused by the media. to prepare the circle, since they didn't The "crop circle kids"—as they are want to make any noise or distur­ now called in Hungary—were bance. Since the crop was still green, awarded the first James Randi Prize it could be bent without breaking and on February 7, 1993. loss of seeds. While they made special efforts to cover the tracks they had —Gyula Bencze made, heavy rains following the event further obliterated any sign of fabri­ Gyula Bencze is a physicist with the cation. The youngsters then sat back Central Research Institute for Physics, in to wait until the "discovery" was Hungary. made. The crop circle was discovered on June 26, 1992, by Laszlo Otvos, a helicopter pilot of the Aerocartias air rescue service, who reported his AAAS: discovery to his superiors as well as the press. After the press release of Wild Archaeology, the finding the usual pandemonium broke out. "Experts" from all over the Antievolutionism, and country investigated the site and the the Objectivity Crisis circle, and by drawing numerous conclusions they declared it to have been created by UFOs. Thousands of n addition to all the science, this people visited the site waiting to see year's meeting of the American UFOs landing and at the same time I Association for the Advancement caused considerable damage to the of Science (AAAS), in Boston, had crop. much of specific interest to our The hoax was disclosed in a popular readers. TV show hosted by Sandor Frideri- • CSICOP Fellow Eugenie C. Scott kusz on September 3. The kids proved (National Center for Science Educa­ their case by showing photos taken tion) hosted a half-day symposium on

Summer 1993 361 "The New Antievolutionism." She This 29-minute radio documentary warned that there is still "surprising featured on-scene reporting from strength" to the creationist move­ Robert Jahn's Princeton Anomalies ment. One of the creationists' latest Research Laboratory, with a good tactics is not to use the word "crea- evaluative perspective provided by tionism." They call it instead "Intel­ Chip Denman, a University of Mary­ ligent Design Theory" or "Abrupt land statistician, about both Jahn's Appearance Theory." The content, experiments and dowsing claims. she said, is the same. • Historian Gerald L. Geison • CSICOP Fellow Stephen Jay (Princeton) reported in a lecture, Gould (Harvard) lectured about writ­ "Louis Pasteur: Lab Notebooks and ing about science for the intelligent Scientific Fraud," three cases in which public in an afternoon session devoted Pasteur violated ethical principles to "Biological Writing in the Public widely acknowledged and shared at Domain." The session gave particular the time, including by Pasteur himself. attention to Gould's own writings, In one case, Geison discovered that with comparisons to the great Pasteur deliberately deceived the nineteenth-century scientist/writer scientific community about the nature T. H. Huxley. Gould lamented the rise of a vaccine he administered, in order in this century's age of specialization to mislead a rival who was using a of a dichotomy between writing for similar vaccine. In another case, the scientific domain and writing for however, Geison pointed to mitigat­ the public and said he is trying to keep ing circumstances; Pasteur adminis­ alive the "honorable, humanistic sense tered an untested vaccine, but did of writing for a general, educated so to save a boy's life from rabies. public." Here, "he acted boldly and with • Stephen Williams (Harvard), humane courage. Do we really wish author of Fantastic Archaeology, gave that he had acted otherwise?" asked a talk about the wild side of archaeol­ Geison. ogy, including the Kensington Rune- • In a session on "The Objectivity stone (which he noted was "quickly Crisis," anthropologist Marvin Harris debunked"), Mound Builders, Vikings (University of Florida) refuted the on the Charles River in Massachu­ contentions of the postmodernism setts, and other dubious claims about movement in the social sciences, pre-Columbian European settlements which claims that ways of know­ in North America, including those by ing are equally arbitrary, power modern transatlanteans like Cyrus dependent, and subjective. Said Gordon and Barry Fell. These undoc­ Harris: "We need more science, not umented transatlantean interpreta­ less." tions "rob Native Americans of their • Finally, in a session devoted to heritage," Williams said. He faulted meta-analysis, psychologist Daryl archaeologists for not doing a good job Bern (Cornell) reviewed in detail 28 of telling "the real story of North sets of ganzfeld ESP experiments of American archaeology." the late parapsychologist Charles • Radio reporter Larry Massett Honorton. He concluded that, in his received a AAAS-Westinghouse view, they provide the best evidence Science Journalism Award for his yet for the existence of extrasensory "Pseudoscience: On the Edge of perception. Reason," a Soundprint program from Baltimore, broadcast May 27, 1992. —K.F.

362 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Pseudoscience . . . and Real Science on Stamps

|aldives, a tiny Indian Ocean republic (population 226,000), Mi s the latest country to issue postage stamps celebrating fringe- science topics. In the late 1970s, Grenada issued a set of stamps depict­ ing UFOs, and recently Sierra Leone issued a stamp depicting "The 'Face' on Mars" (SI, Fall 1991). Now Mal­ dives has issued a set of 16 stamps on "Mysteries of the Universe." Included are UFOs, crop circles, Yeti, the Loch Ness Monster, crystal skulls, and Atlantis. Each comes with its own souvenir sheet, but don't get too Maldives's "Mysteries' excited—each sheet costs $5 even real science far outnumber these though it contains only one stamp! occasional lapses into pseudoscience. Fortunately, stamps celebrating There is a fine tradition of stamps

Copernicus Theodore 1471-1*71 vnnKarm&n i

Real science on stamps: Rom Copernicus and von Kormon to the International Geophysical Year. "The Sciences." and Newton's theories.

Summer 1993 363 honoring science and scientists. A current U.S. 29-cent commemorative, Werewolf in Mobile: for example, honors aerospace scien­ Tracking a Hairy Story tist Theodore von Karman, first winner of the U.S. National Medal of Science. Going back to the late 1950s, s a longtime student of the a 3-cent stamp celebrated the Inter­ tabloids, I'm used to seeing national Geophysical Year, an i reports of vampires in Vene­ unprecedented worldwide research A zuela, space aliens in Borneo, and Elvis program. In 1963, on the hundredth in Kalamazoo. So it was a rich surprise anniversary of the U.S. National one day earlier this year when I picked Academy of Sciences, a 5-cent stamp up the Weekly World News (dated commemorated all "The Sciences." February 2, 1993) and discovered The U.S. has issued stamps honoring there was a werewolf downtown, Copernicus (1973), Einstein twice (in right here in Mobile, Alabama, prowl­ 1966 and 1979), Joseph Priestley ing the State Docks. (1983), and Nobel laureate American physicist Robert Millikan (1982, a 37- The report was written by Tim cent stamp). In 1983 a four-panel set Skelly, identified as a "Special corres­ honored four pioneers of electrical pondent in Mobile, Ala." A small photo engineering, including the genius of Skelly appeared with the article. theorist Charles Steinmetz. A 1976 The story was titled "Werewolf 13-cent stamp honored "Chemistry." Battles Cops in Alabama," and the main facts were given in the opening Stamps about space exploration are paragraphs: numerous worldwide, of course, and a few specifically honor space science, MOBILE, Ala.—A howling, snarling such as the "Understanding the Sun" werewolf escaped from a foreign and "Comprehending the Universe" freighter, savagely bit seven cops stamps in the eight-stamp U.S. 1981 and turned a police cruiser over "Space Achievement" set. And a 1991 before he was captured in a dark­ booklet of ten different 29-cent ened alley near the docks. stamps features each of the nine Heavily armed police are now planets and the moon. guarding the wolfman around the clock at an undisclosed location in Notable scientific phenomena have Mobile County until he can be also been featured. Chile and Zambia placed back aboard the ship he were among the nations featuring escaped from. Halley's Comet on stamps in 1986. On rare occasions, stamps have Much of this information came from even honored major scientific theor­ "a police spokesman," who was quoted ies. In 1992, on the 350th anniversary at length. of Sir Isaac Newton's birth, Great The most impressive evidence was Britain issued stamps beautifully photographic. There were four illustrating two of Newton's major pictures: contributions to science—his explana­ tion of the "Motions of Bodies in • A profile of the creature's head, Ellipses" and his "Opticks Treatise" on which took up most of one page the refraction and reflection of light. of the two-page story. (He looks We'd be pleased to hear of other like Lon Chaney, Jr., in the such examples. Wolfman movies.) At the top of —Kendrick Frazier the picture is an identification

364 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 WEREWOLF BATTLES I: Issues MS ALABAMA Sit i Howling beast bites 7 officers-ondf urns BEHINHfliryD BARS: s over patrol tar • ,apture "fX,d after | : vicious att«i before he's finally captured!

number: Mobile P.D. #702419 Then he gave me the facts. -92." • A photo of Laura Schindler, a 58- The police department couldn't year-old housewife, who stood find any "police spokesman" who five feet from the werewolf told the story to the Weekly when he jumped off the ship. She World News. is quoted as saying, "I never saw They couldn't identify a foreign anything so frightening." freighter that had lost a deck­ Schindler had come to the State hand. Docks to pick up her husband, The "undisclosed location in a merchant seaman. Mobile County" where the wolf- • A picture of an overturned car, man was being held remained with four wheels pointing in the undisclosed. Nobody in the air and with a spare tire stored department knew anything under the trunk. about it. • A photo of a man with his entire The police had had no success in head bandaged. Only his mouth locating Laura Schindler. They is showing, and there are little could find no reference to her slit spaces for his eyes. By the merchant-seaman husband. picture is a caption, "Ripped to The identification number on the Shreds." werewolf photo is not a sequence used by the Mobile Police The article fascinated me, and I was Department. in a good position to check it out. Tom The police department had had Jennings, who serves as Public Infor­ no reports of an overturned mation Officer for the Mobile Police vehicle, nor does it have a police Department, is a former student of cruiser that carries a spare tire mine. So I phoned him to get the under the car. official version. Tom said, "We've had There had been no injury reports a lot of calls about that crazy story." relating to such an incident.

Summer 1993 365 BELIEVE IT.

You can make a lasting impact on the future of skepticism —

when you provide for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in your will. CSICOP and the SKEPTICAL We would be happy to work with INQUIRER changed the terms of dis­ you and your attorney in the cussion in fields ranging from pseu- development of a will or estate plan doscience and the paranormal to that meets your wishes. A variety of science and educational policy. You arrangements are possible, in­ can take an enduring step to preserve cluding gifts of a fixed amount or a its vitality when you provide for the percentage of your estate; living SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in your will. trusts or gift annuities, which pro­ Your bequest to CSICOP, Inc., will vide you with a lifetime income; or help to provide for the future of a contingent bequest that provides skepticism as it helps to keep the for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER only if SKEPTICAL INQUIRER financially your primary beneficiaries do not secure. Depending on your tax situa­ survive you. tion, a charitable bequest to CSICOP may have little impact on the net size For more information, contact of your estate—or may even result in Paul Kurtz, Chairman of CSICOP. a greater amount being available to All inquiries will be held in the strict­ your beneficiaries. est confidence.

P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226-0703 716-636-1425 certainly no report of a police officer "ripped to shreds." D Where's the Rapture?

Jennings was emphatic on the last two points. He said: "Around here, if n case you missed it, Wednesday, an officer gets cut on the hand, there's October 28,1992, was the Rapture, a lot of paperwork that has to be filled I the day faithful Christians dead or out. If police property is destroyed, it's alive ascend to heaven. The Rapture just the same. These are liability kicks off the last days: the appearance areas." He repeated that there were of the Antichrist, Armageddon, and no reports relating to a werewolf the Second Coming. incident. The article, he said, was a Lee Jang Rim, leader of the Dami "total fabrication." Mission Church in Seoul, South Jennings suggested I call Nancy Korea, spread the prophecy. Followers Wilstach, a reporter for the Bir­ quit their jobs and sold or destroyed mingham News. He said she had more their property in anticipation, even as information about the story. Rim was arrested for allegedly bilking Indeed she did. Wilstach had inter­ hundreds of thousands of dollars from viewed Eddie Clontz, editor of the church members. The hysteria created Weekly World News. She found him a near crisis in South Korea. pleasant and cooperative. He told her Members of Korean churches in they got the werewolf report from South Korea, Hawaii, Los Angeles, Tim Skelly and that he considers and New York held marathon prayer Skelly a reliable source. He said, vigils. Four suicides in the Seoul "Usually his stuff is right on the church led some Los Angeles repor­ money." ters to think another Jonestown was According to Clontz, tabloids call at hand, but nothing happened. There these articles "harmless." They know was no Rapture, and everyone went that a werewolf story (or a vampire home. or space-alien story) won't offend On November 3, the Los Angeles anybody and won't bring a lawsuit. So Times reported that the Dami Mission the Weekly World News didn't try to Church was disbanded with the verify the Mobile incident. They just approval of Rim, still in jail, and that got the report and published it. Clontz an apology had been issued. On said, "We put it out there and let our December 5, the Associated Press readers decide." carried the news that Rim had been He added, "Maybe it didn't sentenced to two years imprisonment happen." for having shorn his flock of $4.4 Wilstach asked Clontz how she million, much of it invested in bonds could get in touch with Tim Skelly. that matured after December 28. He told her it might be difficult, that Meanwhile, Jack Van Impe, of Jack Skelly is now doing research in Van Impe Ministries out of Troy, Caracas, Venezuela. Clontz said. "He's Michigan, has been prophesying that covering our vampire beat." the Rapture will occur in October, per­ haps as early as this year. Stay tuned. —Daniel McDonald —Erik Vaughn Daniel McDonald is a professor in the Department of English, University of Erik Vaughn writes from Huntington South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688. Beach, California.

Summer 1993 367 "Crank science books far outsell most books by reputable scientists.»

wrote the words above way back in 1981, in my book Science: Good, Bad and Bogus. I think they are still true. The book is a collection of essays, many of them culled from the pages of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. There I dealt with ESP, biorhythms, psychics, and dozens of other fringe-science phenomena. That was then. This is now. Hardly anyone takes biorhythms, ancient astronauts, or the Bermuda Triangle seriously anymore. I expect that this is at least partly because the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and its parent, CSICOP, have been doing their work. Psychics? We have lots more to do there. But we need to work from a position of strength. That's where the Center for Inquiry comes in. The Center, in Amherst, New York (a suburb of Buffalo, 60 miles from Rochester, 80 miles from Toronto, an hour by air from New York City, five hours from California), will be able to dedicate these fea-

Martin Gardner, co-chairman of CSICOP's "Price of Reason" Campaign tures to the skeptical movement: 1. The world's largest skeptics' library

2. Our own seminar, meeting, and conference rooms

3. Our own video and audio production center The new facility will provide 25,000 square feet of space, a tenth of a mile from the Amherst Campus of the State University of New York at Buffalo, the largest campus of the country's largest state university system. Price: $3.96 million in donated capital. I am proud to be co-chairman of this effort with Steve Allen. We have both given to it. But we can't accomplish our goals without your participation, too. Please use the postpaid response card in this issue, and let us know how you would like to help out.

; (jv^d*-4^ Notes of a Fringe-Watcher

MARTIN GARDNER

1 The False Memory Syndrome

n March 1992, a group of distin­ Then in the latter 1980s a bizarre guished psychologists and psychi­ therapeutic fad began to emerge in the I atrists, including CSICOP's Ray United States. Hundreds of poorly Hyman, banded together to form the trained therapists, calling themselves False Memory Syndrome (FMS) Foun­ "traumatists," began to practice the dation. The organization is headquar­ very techniques Freud had discarded. tered in Philadelphia under the All over the land they are putting direction of educator Pamela Freyd. Its patients under hypnosis and subtly purpose: to combat a fast-growing prodding them into recalling child­ epidemic of dubious therapy that is hood sexual traumas, memories of ripping thousands of families apart, which presumably have been totally scarring patients for life, and breaking obliterated for decades. Decades the hearts of innocent parents and Delayed Disclosure, or DDD, it has other relatives. It is, in fact, the been called. Eighty percent of the mental-health crisis of the 1990s. patients who are claimed to experience The tragic story begins with Freud. DDD are women from 25 to 45 years Early in his career, when he made old. Sixty percent of their parents are extensive use of hypnotism, Freud college graduates, 25 percent with was amazed by the number of mes­ advanced degrees. More than 80 merized women who dredged up percent of their parents are married childhood memories of being raped by to their first spouse. their fathers. It was years before he Here is a typical scenario. A woman became convinced that most of these in her thirties seeks therapy for women were fantasizing. Other ana­ symptoms ranging from mild depres­ lysts and psychiatrists agreed. For sion, anxiety, headaches, or the inabil­ more than half a century the extent ity to lose weight, to more severe of incestuous child abuse was minim­ symptoms like anorexia. Her thera­ ized. Not until about 1980 did the pist, having succumbed to the latest pendulum start to swing the other mental-health fad, decides almost at way as more solid evidence of child once that the symptoms are caused by sexual abuse began to surface. There repressed memories of childhood is now no longer any doubt that such abuse. Profoundly shocked by this incest is much more prevalent than suggestion, the woman vigorously the older Freud or the general public denies that such a thing could be realized. possible. The stronger her denial, the

370 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 more the therapist believes she is ten. Indeed, it festers as a lifelong repressing painful memories. source of shame and anger. Studies The patient may be hypnotized, or show that among children who wit­ given sodium amytal, or placed into nessed the murder of a parent, not a relaxed, trancelike state. Convinced a single one repressed the terrible that a childhood trauma is at the root memory. Not only do victims of child of the patient's ills, the therapist incest not repress such painful memo­ repeatedly urges the woman to try to ries (to repress a memory means to remember the trauma. If she is highly completely forget the experience suggestible and eager to please the without any conscious effort to do so); therapist, she begins to respond to they try unsuccessfully to forget leading questions and to less obvious them. That traumas experienced as a signs of the therapist's expectations. child can be totally forgotten for After months, or even years, decades is the great mental-health images begin to form in the patient's myth of our time—a myth that is not mind. Shadowy figures threaten her only devastating innocent families but sexually. Under continual urging, doing enormous damage to these memories grow more vivid. She psychiatry. begins to recognize the molester as In the past, when juries found a her father, or grandfather, or uncle. parent guilty of child incest, there has The more detailed the visions, the been corroborating evidence: photos, more convinced both she and the diaries, letters, testimony by others, therapist become that the terrible a history of sexual misconduct, or truth is finally being brought to even open admission of guilt. Juries consciousness. To better-trained psy­ today are increasingly more often chiatrists, these details indicate just judging a parent guilty without any the opposite. Childhood memories are confirming evidence other than the notoriously vague. Recalling minute therapy-induced memories of the details is a strong sign of fantasizing. "victim." As the false memories become Patients as well as their families can more convincing, the patient's anger be scarred for life. They are led to toward a once-loved relative grows. believe that bringing suppressed The therapist urges her to vent this memories to light will banish their rage, to confront the perpetrator, even symptoms. On the contrary, the to sue for psychic damage. Stunned symptoms usually get worse because by their daughter's accusations, the of traumatic breaks with loved ones. parents vigorously deny everything. Moreover, this treatment can also Of course they will deny it, says the cause a patient to refuse needed therapist, perhaps even suppress their therapy from psychiatrists who have own memories of what happened. The not fallen prey to the FMS epidemic. family is devastated. A loving daugh­ Pamela Freyd has likened the traum- ter has inexplicably been transformed atists to surgeons doing brain surgery into a bitter enemy. She may join an with a knife and fork. Others see the "incest survivor" group, where her epidemic as similar in many ways to beliefs are reinforced by hearing the great witch-hunts of the past, similar tales. She may wear a sweat­ when disturbed women were made to shirt saying, "I survived." believe they were in Satan's grip. The No one doubts that childhood Devil has been replaced by the evil sexual assaults occur, but in almost parent. every case the event is never forgot­ FMS takes many forms other than

Summer 1993 371 parental sexual abuse. Thousands of several hundred accused parents victims are being induced by traum- revealed that in almost every case atists to recall childhood participation their daughters had been strongly in satanic cults that murder babies, eat influenced by Courage to Heal. (See box their flesh, and practice even more for some of the book's more out­ revolting rituals. Although there is rageous passages.) widespread fascination with the From the growing literature of occult, and an amusing upsurge in the FMS cases I cite a few typical horrors. number of persons who fancy them­ A 28-year-old woman accuses her selves benevolent witches or warlocks, father of molesting her when she was police have yet to uncover any com­ six months old. "I recall my father put pelling evidence that satanic cults his penis near my face and rubbed it exist. Yet under hypnosis and soporific on my face and mouth." There is not drugs, memories of witnessing such the slightest evidence that a child of rituals can become as vivid as memo­ six months can acquire lasting memo­ ries of sexual abuse. ries of any event. Thousands of other patients, Betsy Petersen, in Dancing with highly suggestible while half asleep, Daddy (Bantam, 1991) tells of being are now "remembering" how they convinced by her therapist that she were abducted, and sometimes sexu­ had been raped by her father when ally abused, by aliens in spaceships she was three. "I don't know if I made from faraway planets. Every year or it up or not," she told the therapist. so victims of this form of FMS "It feels like a story," he replied, (assuming they are not charlatans) will "because when something like that write persuasive books about their happens, everyone acts like it didn't." adventures with extraterrestrials. The In 1986 Patti Barton sued her books will be heavily advertised and father for sexually abusing her when promoted on talk shows, and millions she was seven to fifteen months old. of dollars will flow into the pockets She did not remember this until her of the authors and the books' uncaring thirty-second therapy session. She publishers. Still another popular form recalls trying to tell her mother what of FMS, sparked by the New Age happened by saying, "Ma, ma, ma, obsession with reincarnation, is the ma!" and "Da, da, da, da!" recovering of memories of past lives. Geraldo Rivera, in 1991, had three Pop-psychology books touting the trauma survivors on his "Geraldo" myth that memories of childhood television show. One woman insisted molestations can be suppressed for she had murdered 40 children while decades are becoming as plentiful as she was in a satanic cult but had totally books about reincarnation, satanic forgotten about it until her memories cults, and flying saucers. Far and away were aroused in therapy. Well-known the worst offender is a best-seller entertainers have boosted the FMS titled Courage to Heal (Harper & Row, epidemic by openly discussing their 1988), by Ellen Bass and Laura Davis. traumas on similar sensational talk Although neither author has had any shows. Roseanne Barr recently training in psychiatry, the book has learned for the first time, while in become a bible for women convinced therapy, that she had been repeatedly they are incest survivors. Davis thinks molested by her parents, starting she herself is a survivor, having when she was three months old! Her recalled under therapy being attacked story made the cover of People mag­ by her grandfather. A survey of azine. Barr's parents and sisters deny

372 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Passages from Courage to Heal, the "Bible" of Incest Survivors

"You may think you don't have abuser, you must reconcile that memories, but often as you begin love with the fact that he abused to talk about what you do you. . . . You may have to grieve remember, there emerges a con­ over the fact that you don't have stellation of feelings, reactions an extended family for your and recollections that add up to children, that you'll never receive substantial information. To say, 'I an inheritance, that you don't was abused/ you don't need the have family roots." kind of recall that would stand up in a court of law. Often the "If your memories of the abuse knowledge that you were abused are still fuzzy, it is important to starts with a tiny feeling, an realize that you may be grilled for intuition. . . . Assume your feel­ details. ... Of course such ings are valid. ... If you think demands for proof are unrea­ you were abused and your life sonable. You are not responsible shows the symptoms, then you for proving that you were were." abused."

"If you don't remember your "If you're willing to get angry and abuse you are not alone. Many the anger just doesn't seem to women don't have memories, and come, there are many ways to get some never get memories. This in touch with it. A little like doesn't mean they weren't priming the pump, you can do abused." things that will get your anger started. Then once you get the "If you maintained the fantasy hang of it, it'll begin to flow on that your childhood was 'happy/ its own." then you have to grieve for the childhood you thought you had. "You may dream of murder or . . . You must give up the idea castration. It can be pleasurable to that your parents had your best fantasize such scenes in vivid interest at heart. ... If you have detail. . . . Let yourself imagine any loving feelings toward your it to your heart's content." it and have threatened legal action. A years of the time the abuse was former Miss America, Marilyn Van remembered! In 1990 the first convic­ Derbur, has been in the news pro­ tion based on "repressed memory" claiming her decades-delayed recollec­ occurred. George Franklin was given tion of abuse by her father, now a life sentence for murdering an 8- deceased. year-old in 1969 almost entirely on the It is an alarming trend that a dozen basis of his daughter's memory, states have revised their statute-of- allegedly repressed for 20 years, of limitations laws and now permit legal having witnessed his murdering her action against parents within three friend. A year later a Pennsylvania

Summer 1993 373 man was convicted of murder on the respected police officer in Olympia, basis of a man's detailed account of Washington, who was accused by his what he had seen when he was five, two adult daughters of sexually but had totally forgotten for 16 years. abusing them as children. Ingram's Although therapists usually deny family are devout Pentecostals who asking leading questions, tapes of their believe that Satan can wipe out all sessions often prove otherwise. If no memories of such crimes. Ingram memories surface they will prod a remembered nothing, but after five patient to make up a story. After many months of intensive questioning, he repetitions and elaborations of the came to believe himself guilty. Psy­ invented scenario, the patient starts chologist Richard Ofshe, writing on to believe the story is true. One "Inadvertent Hypnosis During Inter­ therapist, who claims to have treated rogation" (International Journal of 1,500 incest victims, explained her Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, approach. She would say to a patient: 11:125-155, 1992), tells how he fab­ "You know, in my experience, a lot ricated an imaginary incident of of people who are struggling with Ingram's sexual abuse of a son and many of the same problems you are daughter. After repeated suggestions have often had some kind of really that he try to "see" this happening, painful things happen to them as Ingram produced a written confession! kids—maybe they were beaten or Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist, molested. And I wonder if anything tells of his vivid memory of an like that ever happened to you?" attempted kidnapping when he was Another traumatist says: "You sound two. The thief had been foiled by to me like the sort of person who must Piaget's nurse, who bravely fought off have been sexually abused. Tell me the man. When Piaget was in his teens what that bastard did to you." the nurse confessed that she made up The FMS epidemic would not be the story to win admiration, even so bad if such therapists were frauds scratching herself to prove there had interested only in money, but the sad been a struggle. Piaget had heard the truth is that they are sincere. So were story so often that it seeped into his the doctors who once tried to cure consciousness as a detailed memory. patients by bleeding, and the church­ Paul McHugh, a psychiatrist at men who "cured" witches by torture, Johns Hopkins University, in "Psychi­ hanging, and burning. atric Misadventures" (American Scho­ Better-trained, older psychiatrists lar, Fall 1992), writes about a woman do not believe that childhood memo­ who under therapy came to believe ries of traumas can be repressed for she had been sexually assaulted by an any length of time, except in rare cases uncle. She recalled the exact date. Her of actual brain damage. Nor is there disbelieving mother discovered that at any evidence that hypnosis improves that time her brother was in military memory. It may increase certitude, service in Korea. Did this alter the but not accuracy. And there is abund­ woman's belief? Not much. "I see, ant evidence that totally false memo­ Mother," she said. "Yes. Well let me ries are easily aroused in the mind of think. If your dates are right, I suppose a suggestible patient. it must have been Dad." A two-part article by Lawrence Although the incest-recall industry Wright, "Remembering Satan" (New is likely to grow in coming years, as Yorker, May 17 and 24,1993), tells the it spreads around the world, there are tragic story of Paul Ingram, a some hopeful signs. Here and there

374 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 women are beginning to discover how Foundation responded to criticism cruelly they have been deceived and that somehow its efforts are a back­ are suing therapists for inducing false lash against feminism. Their reply: Is memories that caused them and their it not "harmful to feminism to portray parents great suffering. They are women as having minds closed to known as "recanters" or "retractors." scientific information and as being Another welcome trend is that satisfied with sloppy, inaccurate distinguished psychologists and psy­ statistics? Could it be viewed as a chiatrists are now writing papers profound insult to women to give about the FMS epidemic. I particularly them slogans rather than accurate recommend the book Confabulations information about how memory (Social Issues Research Series, Boca works?" Raton, Fla., 1992) by Eleanor Gold­ The point is not to deny that stein, and the following three arti­ hideous sexual abuse of children cles: "Beware the Incest-Survivor occurs, but that, when it does, it is Machine," by psychologist Carol not forgotten and only "remembered" Tavris, in the New York Times Book decades later under hypnosis. Some­ Review (January 3,1993); "The Reality thing is radically amiss when therapist of Repressed Memories," by Elizabeth E. Sue Blume, in her book Secret Loftus (psychologist, University of Survivors, can maintain: "Incest is Washington), scheduled for publica­ easily the greatest underlying reason tion in American Psychologist, and why women seek therapy. ... It is "Making Monsters," by Richard Of she my experience that fewer than half and Ethan Watters, in Society (March of the women who experience this 1993). Most of this column is based trauma later remember or identify it on material in those articles. Copies as abuse. Therefore it is not unrea­ can be obtained, along with other sonable that more than half of all women literature, from the FMS Foundation, are survivors of childhood sexual 3401 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA trauma." 19104. The phone number is 215-387- As Carol Tavris, author of Mismea- 1865, Fax: 215-387-1917. sure of Women, comments in her article The FMS Foundation is a nonprofit cited above: "Not one of these asser­ organization whose purpose is to seek tions is supported by empirical reasons for the FMS epidemic, to work evidence." for the prevention of new cases, and to aid victims. By the end of 1992, only This marks the beginning of Martin ten months after its founding, more Gardner's second decade as a regular than two thousand distressed parents SKEPTICAL INQUIRER columnist. His had contacted the Foundation for first column, "Lessons of a Landmark PK advice on how to cope with sudden Hoax," appeared in our Summer 1983 attacks by angry daughters who had issue. Many of his columns have been accused them of horrible crimes. reprinted (often with postscripts)-in his I trust that no one reading this books The New Age (Prometheus, 1988, column will get the impression that 1991) and On the Wild Side (Prome­ either I or members of the FMS theus, 1992). Some appear in the SI Foundation are not fully aware that anthologies Science Confronts the many women are indeed sexually Paranormal (Prometheus, 1986) and abused as children and that their The Hundredth Monkey and Other abusers should be punished. In its Paradigms of the Paranormal (Pro­ newsletter of January 8, 1993, the metheus, 1991).

Summer 1993 375 Psychic Vibrations

Quatrain X, Satanic Cults, and STS-48's Crystals

ROBERT SHEAFFER

write these words with trepidation, actually discover a code, a numerical knowing that they could be among and grammatical code, which actually I my last. According to Nostradamus is quite tricky to begin with, but once experts Peter Lorie and V. J. Jewitt, you get the hang of it it's quite simple, the massively destructive California which decodes the quatrains and earthquake all the seers have been makes them much more fascinating warning about will occur at 7:05 P.M. than they are in fact on the face of on May 8, 1993. If they are correct, it." So the authors have found a clever by the time you read this, 111 probably way to actually improve upon the be dead. Lorie stated on the Fox TV prophecies of Nostradamus, making program "Sightings," aired on January them more interesting and up to date. 8, that on May 8 "there will be one of the largest earthquakes ever to hit California," lasting 11 minutes and resulting in "a major disaster on the How can it be that, during a time when American continent." churches report declining attendance, Lorie and Jewitt's book, Nostrada­ the membership of supposed satanic mus, the End of the Millennium, cults seems to be positively booming? Prophecies: 1992to2001, explains how Ms. magazine published in its January Nostradamus's Quatrain X, verse 74, 1993 issue an article purporting to be foretells that in 1992-93 "the corona­ "a first-person account of cult ritual tion of King Charles and the Olympic abuse." The pseudonymous author games will be followed by a great claims not only to have been repeat­ earthquake triggered off by a shifting edly abused during her childhood by of the sea." But, you may object, this her family's multigenerational satanic quatrain says nothing about any King cult, but to have witnessed the ritual Charles, or the Olympics, or the San slaughter of her infant sister, who was Andreas Fault. And you are correct: then cannibalized by the otherwise it contains a murky and ominous ordinary middle-class people in the prediction about how the year of "the cult. She claims her uncle explained: seventh number" around the "millen­ "Babies deserve to die. Satan wants nial age" will see some kind of slaugh­ their blood, especially girl babies, ter and the dead rising from their because they taste so good." She says tombs. However, Lorie explains that only female infants were sacrificed. "what we did in our book was to When her mother's pregnancy was

376 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 seven months along, the cult some­ how "decided she was carrying a girl child." (This was before modern medical techniques were available for determining the sex of a fetus.) How do members of cults like these avoid being charged with murder? It is said that the cult's doctor induces early labor in the mother; hence neither the baby's birth nor its death is recorded. Apparently no notice is taken by the outside world of thousands of women who are seven months pregnant, then suddenly pregnant no more. "If we want to stop ritual abuse," the author concludes, "the first step must be to believe that these brutal crimes occur." To doubt these "survivor" stories causes the women to be "revictimized because people cannot face the truth." Meanwhile, the Cleveland Plain Dealer reported on January 28 that a woman was awarded a $10-million default judgment against her father and other men who she claims ritually as 43 people are being slowly poisoned abused her as a child. According to the with the pesticide diazanon, although Plain Dealer, Jamie Ann Sitko claims no real evidence of this has been pre­ that she "vividly recalled incidents sented. Los Angeles County's chief which involved men, including her toxicologist, Paul J. Papanek, said, "I father, standing in a circle around a can't believe I'm sitting here listening fire with hoods, cat's blood, live cats, to this." While diazanon is quite dead cats, candles, chants and threats effective when sprinkled directly on of violence, to force her compliance." anthills, to attempt to poison people The source of satanic-cult informa­ by pumping minute traces into their tion most strongly recommended by offices must rank as one of the least the author of the Ms. article is the effective murder plots yet devised. Los Angeles County Commission for Apparently the satanic cults, which Women's Ritual Abuse Task Force, allegedly commit thousands of which at the time the article appeared murders yearly without being appre­ was making headlines of its own. The hended, are nonetheless so inept as Los Angeles Times reported last to be unable to choose an effective December 1 that Task Force members poison to do away with 43 of their were again repeating their "longstand­ most dangerous critics. ing claim that satanists are poisoning them and other satanic abuse survi­ vors—and their therapists—by expos­ ing them to a toxic pesticide pumped When on June 5, 1992, the syndicated into their offices, homes, and cars." "infotainment" TV show "Hard Copy" Task force members claim that as many ran a short segment of NASA video

Summer 1993 377 showing a few specks of light go explained that the flash seen in the floating by, nobody could have sequence was simply the brief firing imagined the fuss it would eventually of a jet from the shuttle's Reaction cause. A UFO buff, who originally Control System, operating under taped the video from the NASA Select computer control. A few moments cable channel during the September later, the thrust of the firing reaches 1991 mission of the space shuttle the closest ice particle, knocking it Discovery, STS-48, sent it to the "Hard from its previous path. Ecker refused Copy" show. During shuttle missions, to accept this explanation, insisting while the crew is asleep, NASA often that the objects are large and quite leaves the cameras in the cargo bay far away and that NASA must be pointing at the earth, with the video covering up some kind of dramatic being rebroadcast to the public in real event. time. It has been known since the At present, many UFOlogists con­ earliest space missions that spacecraft tinue to insist that this is the case. in orbit are typically surrounded by Recently Richard Hoagland, one of the swarms of ice particles and other small principal promoters of the "Face on pieces of debris that not infrequently Mars," produced an analysis insisting will float in front of the cameras. But that the video clip must have captured what makes the STS-48 video seem a super-secret test of a Star Wars remarkable is a bright flash at the missile defense. He claims that the corner of the screen, and one of the object that changes direction first floating objects soon goes scurrying appears from beyond the horizon, away in a dramatic reversal of its 1,713 miles away, moving at incredible original path. Don Ecker, editor of velocity. The flash, he insists, must UFO Magazine, told "Hard Copy" that be due to an "electromagnetic pulse the object appeared to make a right- effect" induced in the camera. Oberg, angle turn to avoid getting shot at. however, counters that the ice particle NASA officials said that all of the was no more than a few feet away objects were ice crystals drifting in and simply drifted into sunlight from front of the camera, but UFOlogists the orbiter's shadow. Many UFO objected that drifting ice crystals can't believers refused to accept this and suddenly change direction. insist that Oberg must be part of a The video was shown again on NASA "cover-up" and "disinforma­ CNN's "Larry King Live" three weeks tion" campaign. The STS-48 "space later, with CSICOP Fellow James E. UFO" seems to have entered the Oberg debating Ecker. Oberg folklore of UFOlogy. a

The Vigorous Debate of Science

Science . . . looks skeptically at all claims to knowledge, old and new. It teaches not blind obedience to those in authority but vigorous debate, and in many respects that's the secret of its success.

—Carl Sagan, at the national meeting of the American Astronomical Society, Phoenix, January 5,1993.

378 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 A CSICOP SEMINAR The Skeptic's Toolbox II University of Oregon at Eugene Thursday-Monday, August 19-23 The workshop will begin with dinner and an introduction on Thursday night, August 19, and will adjourn at noon on Monday. Our goal is to sharpen the ability of skeptics to deal with various situations. Some of the topics to be covered by the five lecturers are:

Model Cases: Critical Investigations Ideomotor Actions: Clever Hans, and How to Adapt Them to Dowsing, the Ouija Board, etc Related Claims Graphology: The Use of Cults: New Insights and Techniques Handwriting Analysis to for Resisting Mind Control and Predict Personality Traits Manipulation The Oregon Vortex (video The Munchausen Syndrome: footage), the Bermuda How to Detect False Claims Triangle, Crop Circles, and of Illness Other Physical Phenomena Ray Hyman, the workshop coordinator, is a professor of psychology at the University of Oregon and a member of the CSICOP Executive Council. He has written extensively on the critical evaluation of paranormal claims. With a background in professional magic, he specializes in the psychology of human error and deception. Barry Beyerstein, professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, B.C., and a member of the CSICOP Executive Council, specializes in how the brain determines behavior. He has researched how apparently psychic experiences can be due to malfunctions in the brain. Loren Pankratz, a clinical psychologist with the Veterans Administration in Portland, Oregon, is the world's foremost authority on the Munchausen Syndrome, which refers to patients who repeatedly and successfully fake serious illnesses. He has studied quackery in all its guises, and is a magician who writes on the psychology of conjuring. Bob Fellows, who has a degree from Harvard in theological studies, is a professional mentalist and illusionist. He is an educational consultant to die International Cult Education Program. Jerry Andrus, magician, inventor, and iconoclast, has lectured at Harvard, MIT, die University of Oregon, and elsewhere on how people reach the wrong conclusions for the "right" reasons. He has created many optical illusions and is a consultant to major science museums. For registration information, contact: Barry Karr, CSICOP, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703, or call him at 716-636-1425. The Right Hemisphere: An Esoteric Closet?

FERNANDO D. SARAV1

t is generally agreed that the highest level of neural processing and the main anatomical I substrate of higher nervous functions reside in the cerebral hemispheres, particularly in their external layer, i.e., the cerebral cortex. The cortex of the human brain, responsible for 40 percent of the weight of the organ (Barr 1973: 201), has an average surface area of 2.5 square feet, and its nerve cells, or neurons, number The right brain is about 14 billion (Carpenter 1979: 280). mystical and The right and left brain hemispheres (halves) are anatomically and functionally intercon­ under-used, right? nected by some 800 million fibers, most of them Think again! belonging to the corpus callosum. These fibers reciprocally connect homologous areas of the hemispheres, thus providing a two-way path for the integrated function of the normal brain (Trevarthen 1990). One of the favorite themes of pseudoscien- tific lore is that most of us employ just a tiny fraction of the intrinsically unlimited potential of our brains (Beyerstein 1987-88). A common subtheme is related to the function of the hemispheres. The left half of the brain is de­ picted as analytical, scientifically biased, and rational. The right hemisphere, on the other hand, is thought of as creative, intuitive, mys­ tical, and, to use a pet word of New Agers, holistic. We are told that if we just learn to use this magical side of our brain, our mental power would be multiplied. For example, a New Age magazine says:

Deprecated by scientists that regard it as the useless part of our brain, during the last decade the right hemisphere has shown itself to be more important than [formerly] believed. In

380 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 it reside creativity, originality and Thus, at the turn of the century artistic skills. Now mechanisms are clinical evidence showed that the left studied and exercises are pro­ half of the brain normally surpassed grammed to stimulate the right the right one as far as speech and hand brain, which in most human beings control were concerned. Since lan­ is sleeping. . . . guage comprehension and production Until now, our left brain has not was deemed paramount for thought been taught to show respect for the right brain. But in the last ten years processes, for a time it was believed . . . the right brain, which retrieves that the contribution of the right the cosmic wisdom of mysticism, hemisphere to these processes was has won for itself an immense marginal. This gave place to the intellectual respect, because it is misleading labeling of the right half [now] believed that all the new, the as the minor hemisphere, and of the innovative, the original, is gener­ left one as the major, or dominant, ated there. (Hormaechea 1990: 66, hemisphere. 68).

In this article I review available Dominance Revisited evidence showing that this "mystical As neuroscience advanced, the classi­ right-brain underuse" idea is just cal view of dominance had to be another pseudoscientific myth by reviewed in the light of new data which from the brick of facts a huge obtained by researchers, among them shrine of fallacies is built. That Norman Geschwind, Michael Gazzan- building is founded on outdated iga, and Roger Sperry. The latter was concepts and on a biased interpreta­ the head of a research team at Caltech, tion of evidence. whose work during the sixties greatly enlarged our understanding of hemis­ Cerebral Dominance: pheric function. Sperry's work was A Classical View acknowledged with several awards, including a Nobel Prize in Physiology During the last century, first Broca and Medicine (see Sperry 1982). and then Wernicke correctly located When Sperry began his studies of those brain cortical areas related to human patients, he already had con­ speech understanding and production. siderable experience in hemispheric Their studies were based on a syste­ specialization in animals. However, matic comparison of the handicaps for obvious reasons, data derived from resulting from localized brain lesions. research in animals could give but little Both scientists indicated with remark­ insight into such functions as abstract able accuracy which cortical areas reasoning, speech, and emotions. were typically affected in several Although patients with unilateral speech disorders. In over 95 percent brain lesions had provided interesting of cases, the lesion was located in the data, the conclusions derived from this left hemisphere (Geschwind 1980; source were necessarily tentative. Hecaen 1977; Luria 1980). Sperry and his collaborators had a It was also recognized that about golden opportunity for studying 90 percent of individuals use prefer­ several patients in which the hemis­ entially the right hand for unimanual pheric commisures had to be severed tasks. As the motor pathways are as a last resource for controlling mainly crossed, the right hand is intractable epileptic seizures. The controlled by the left hemisphere. operation suppressed all direct con-

Summer 1993 381 newer techniques allowed researchers to essentially confirm the initial results, in normal volunteers. I will not discuss here the exper­ imental techniques that the interested reader will easily find in the referen­ ces. Instead, I will review the results and their relevance for our under­ standing of brain functions. I will also draw on observations made in patients with unilateral brain lesions, because this is still an important source of knowledge. The harmonious picture that emerges from these studies has nothing to do with the claims of neuropsychoquackery.

Dominance or Difference?

A most important conclusion derived from the study of commisurotomized, or "split brain," patients is that there are no firm bases for regarding the left hemisphere as dominant for every higher function. Normally both halves work in an integrated, coordinated way. Each half masters certain func­ tions and controls those functions better than the other. This fact is best described by the term laterality than by the former word, dominance. Thus today it is confusing to speak of "dominance," except with reference to speech and handedness (Ruch 1979:217f.). Experimental and clinical evidence strongly suggests that the left hemis­ phere excels in tasks related to verbal language, arithmetic reasoning, sequential (time-linked) processing, nections between the hemispheres. and analytical abilities at large. On the Then investigators developed ingen­ other hand, the right hemisphere does ious techniques for the selective study better than the left in geometrical of either half of the bisected brain; tasks, face recognition, nonverbal and thus, right and left performance could paraverbal communication, among be assessed separately in the same others. The lateralization of functions patient. Although there were doubts is schematically depicted in the table. about whether results obtained from As this paper deals primarily with epileptic patients could be extrapo­ right hemispheric function, this will lated to the normal human brain, be discussed at some length.

382 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Functions Laleralized to the Right Hemisphere Spatial perception. The right hemis­ phere performs better than the left one in most geometrical and spatial perception tests, e.g., estimating the size of a circumference from its arc, filling complex matrices from a partial view, making bi- and tri-dimensional correlations like pointing out how a bi-dimensionally developed body would look in space. Also, it has to do with the body scheme, as patients with right-sided lesions may suffer disorders like neglect or even denial of the left side of their bodies, and also deficits in tasks requiring a well- developed spatial sense (Damasio and Tranel 1991). Face recognition. Some patients with right cortical lesions show prosopagno­ sia, an inability to recognize faces, even those of close relatives or their own faces (Damasio, Tranel, and Damasio 1990). To recognize a face among others is a very complex, right lateralized function. Usually we can recognize thousands of faces, even from different viewpoints. Patients with prosopagnosia must resort to clues like eyeglasses, hair style, mous­ tache, or voice for recognition. In face recognition, certainly "a picture is worth a thousand words." Using the analytical cognitive style of the left hemisphere, it is an impossible task to describe a face in detail, so as to make it unequivocally recognizable.

Orientation in space. Finding the way home, going to our work, or locating Affective aspects I speech. Against a place from a map are right lateralized what was formerly believed, the functions. Patients with right-sided normal right hemisphere has an ability lesions must often employ alternative, for the comprehension of written and less efficient strategies to arrive at a spoken language. For example, it can desired place, such as counting the identify single words and even recog­ blocks, reading the streets' names and nize by touch a word in relief, through numbers, and remembering a verbal the left hand. A more important role description of the building that is for the right half of the brain in human being looked for. communication, however, is the per-

Summer 1993 383 ception of the affective components tion" is an extremely complex one, and of spoken language (Ross 1984). Lack its study began at a relatively recent of perception of these components of date. However, there is evidence language makes it impossible to pointing to a role of the right hem­ discern between an assertion and an isphere in the cortical control of irony, or between anger and joy. attention to external stimuli. This is Everyday experience shows that the suggested both by clinical observa­ way words are spoken is often more tions in patients with right-sided important than the words themselves. lesions and by physiological studies An uncommon result of right-sided that show a functional activation of lesions is aprosody, an inability to give right cortical areas during attention affectively appropriate intonation to tasks (Posner and Petersen 1990). On speech. It seems that aprosodic the other hand, the left hemisphere patients do not lack affectivity (indeed, may be relatively inattentive to exter­ they may report very strong emo­ nal stimuli but important for intro­ tions); however, they cannot express spection (Bear 1983). If introspection their feelings verbally, and their is one of the key features of mystical monotonous speech may be mistaken experiences, it could be speculated that for a flat affectivity. the left hemisphere, rather than the Nonverbal communication. The per­ right one, should play a dominant role ception and interpretation of the lan­ with regard to inner states. guage of gestures also appears to be Musical perception. The study of a right lateralized function (Bear 1983; lateralization of this complex function Ross 1984). The right hemisphere is has yielded conflicting results. How­ also important for the production of ever, it seems that certain aspects of this kind of nonverbal language. musical perception are indeed lateral­ Affectivity. Consistent with its role ized to the right; for example, har­ in the interpretation and production monic perception as tested by the of affective components of verbal and detection of complex relationships nonverbal communication, the right among simultaneous musical sounds hemisphere has also been implicated (Tramo and Bharucha 1991). in the neurology of emotion at the cortical level (Bear 1983). The selective Complementarity and Creativity anesthesia of either hemisphere through the Wada test (which Recent research has brought a clearer involves the injection of a short acting comprehension of brain function and anesthetic through the carotid artery), hemispheric specialization. Each half as well as other studies, suggests that of the brain is the functional comple­ the right half of the brain has to do ment of the other. Thus, the hemis­ with feelings of grief and fear. In pheres do not seem to behave as contrast, the left hemisphere seems to master and slave, but as partners, each be emotionally neuter, or euphoric. It of which subserves certain functions has long been observed that patients better than the other. with right cortical lesions may show Of course laterality should not a denial of their illness, or anosognosia, be overemphasized, since each which may be in part the result of a hemisphere has limited abilities for blunted emotional response (Bear functions in which the other side 1983). normally excels. For example, it has Control of selective attention. The already been noted that the normal neurological function called "atten­ right hemisphere has a degree of

384 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 TABLE 1: Functional Complementarity Between the Cerebral Hemispheres (schematic; see text)

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere Temporal Spatial Verbal memory Memory for shapes Analytic Perception of wholes* Arithmetic Geometric Sequential motor coordination Schemata, body image Spoken and written Face recognition language Prosody and nonverbal communication Cognitive, neutral Affective, emotional Introspective Environmentally oriented Reflexive Impulsive

' 1 deliberately avoid the adjective "holistic" because of Its connotations, as described In the following definition: "based on the principle that a whole thing is more than just a collection of parts added together" (Longman 1987:501). speech comprehension, and it may be tion, hypnotic susceptibility, the added that the left hemisphere could roots of the counterculture, altered have a role in spatial perception states of consciousness—and what (Mehta and Newcombe 1991). Prob­ not—all reside predominantly in the ably the full potential of each half for right hemisphere. The extent to which extrapolations of this kind functions normally contralateral^ may eventually prove to be more controlled may only be expressed fact or fancy will require many years when the other side of the brain is to determine. Meantime it is impor­ damaged. tant to remember that the two In any event, it is clear that the hemispheres in the normal intact brain discovery of anatomical asymmetries tend regularly to function closely (not to be discussed here; see, e.g., together as a unit. . . . (Sperry Bradshaw 1978) and functional differ­ 1984:668; italics added) ences between both hemispheres has elicited much speculation. Some of One elusive higher function most these are reasonable, educated cherished by psychics and mind guesses, whereas others are fancies quacks, invariably ascribed to the having no support whatsoever from right hemisphere, is creativity. This available evidence. In 1984 Sperry word, coined in the last century wrote: (Garfield 1989), depicts a particular ability to create new things or to give One must caution . . . that the new and ingenious answers to known experimentally observed polarity in questions, both in the artistic realm— right-left cognitive styles is an idea in general with which it is very easy to which the word was initially to run wild. You can read today that applied—and in sciences, or indeed in things such as intuition, the seat of any field of human endeavor. Since the subconsciousness, creativity, characterizing and measuring creativ­ parapsychic sensitivity, the mind of ity is a difficult task, it is hardly the Orient, ethnocultural disposi­ surprising that it is not easy to know

Summer 1993 385 whether it is lateralized to either Psychics, gurus, and New Agers hemisphere. have transformed the right hemis­ Since both brain halves usually phere into an "esoteric closet" in which work together to ensure an inte­ to retrieve every conceivable mystical, grated, harmonious function, it could parapsychic, or mysterious function. be expected that different aspects of The best available evidence does not creativity would depend preferentially support their claims, with a single but on one or the other hemisphere. For important exception. Until recently, example, creativity in the field of educational techniques were aimed to literature or mathematics may rely on develop mainly those skills typical of the left hemisphere, while plastic or left cognitive style, i.e., verbal lan­ musical creativity may depend on the guage and analysis. Advances in the right one. However, currently this knowledge of brain functions have assumption is no more than an edu­ allowed the emergence of new edu­ cated guess. Moreover, it is difficult cational trends with a more balanced to assess whether a unilateral brain approach, purporting the harmonic lesion may blunt creativity. Thus a development of learning abilities study by H. Gardner (quoted by Zaidel (Bogen 1982). Of course these efforts 1984) showed that a number of should and can stem from our present painters underwent a change in style, scientific understanding of brain but not a reduction in creativity, after function, without the unwanted right-sided lesions. "help" of psychics and charlatans. Indeed, Dahlia Zaidel's own studies suggest that the right hemisphere Conclusions deals best with stereotyped, conventional familiar stimuli, while the left half The brain normally works as an seems to be mainly responsible for integrated unit; although each hem­ processing novel, unexpected, and isphere specializes in certain func­ uncommon stimuli and drawing new tions, the hemispheres have a fluid strategies to deal with them. Zaidel communication and usually work cautions: together; both cooperate even in basic perceptual functions, not to mention Since the right [hemisphere] is more complex ones. For example, mute, assessment of functional while seeing a known face, the right specialization is difficult. Hence, it hemisphere is responsible for its is viewed as a somewhat mysterious recognition, while it is probably the and an elusive part of the brain. Unfortunately, as with many scien­ left one that provides the name tifically uncharted domains, the attached to that face. Moreover, each unknown invites numerous specu­ hemisphere may provide different lations. One such popular specula­ associations to the same perception; tion, not based on hard scientific e.g., when viewing a pair of open facts, is that creativity lies princi­ scissors, the right hemisphere may pally in the domain of the right associate them with a fork and a spoon hemisphere functions. . . . crossed (matching by appearance), The most parsimonious conclu­ while the left may link them with a sion is that both hemispheres are sewing basket, thus matching by involved in creativity, although it is function (Trevarthen 1990). tantalizing to consider that the creative impulse is generated by the In any case, the nexus provided by left hemisphere after all. (Zaidel the hundreds of millions of nerve 1984: 339) fibers that interconnect both brain

386 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 halves guarantees an integrated job. Garfield, E. 1989. Creativity and science, Therefore, the viewpoint widely held Parts 1 & 2. Current Contents, October today by neuroscientists is that "the 23 and November 6. Geschwind, N. 1980. Some special functions hemispheres are naturally different of the human brain. In Medical Physiology, but equally important partners in 14th ed., 647-665, ed. by V. B. Mount- generation of human communication, castle. St. Louis: Mosby. thinking and creativity" (Trevarthen Hecaen, H. 1977. Afasias y aprazias. Spanish transl., Buenos Aires: Paidos. 1990: 76). Hormaechea, T. 1990. Los misterios del In conclusion, it is a complete hemisferio derecho. Ano Cero 2: 66-69 fallacy to state that we do not use our (September). right hemisphere. On the contrary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, when dressing ourselves, recognizing new ed. 1987. Harlow: Longman. Luria, A. R. 1980. Higher Cortical functions faces, going home, indentifying an in Man, 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books. object by touch, correlating bi- and tri­ Mehta, Z., and F. Newcombe. 1991. A role dimensional patterns, and communi­ for the left hemisphere in spatial process­ cating with others, all of us are ing. Cortex, 27: 153-167. Posner, M. I., and S. E. Peterson. 1990. The continually using this important part attention system of the human brain. of our single brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13: 25-42. Ross, E. D. 1984. Right hemisphere's role in language, affective behavior and Acknowledgments emotion. Trends in Neurosciences, 7: 342- 346. Dr. Richard Branham, Jr., reviewed Ruch, T. C. 1979. The association areas: The the English of an earlier draft of this homotypical cortex. In Physiology and Biophysics, 20th ed., vol. 1, 589-626, ed. paper. by T. C. Ruch and H. D. Patton. Phila­ delphia: Saunders. Sperry, R. 1982. Some effects of disconnect­ References ing the cerebral hemispheres (Nobel Lecture). Bioscience Reports, 2: 265-276. Barr, M. L. 1973. El sistema nervioso humano. . 1984. Consciousness, personal iden­ Spanish transl., Mexico: Harla. tity and the divided brain. Neuropsychol- Bear, D. M. 19983. Hemispheric specializa­ ogia, 6: 661-673. tion- and the neurology of emotion. Tramo, M. J., and J. J. Bharucha. 1991. Archives of Neurology, 40: 195-202. Musical priming by the right hemisphere Beyerstein, B. 1987-88. The brain and post-callosotomy. Neuropsychologia, 29: consciousness: Implications for psi phen­ 313-325. omena. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 12:163-173. Trevarthen, C. 1990. Integrative functions Bogen, J. E. 1982. Algunas implicaciones of the cerebral commisures. In Handbook educativas de la especializacion of Neuropsychology, vol. 4, 49-83, ed. by hemisferica. In El cerebro humano, 123- F. Boiler and J. Grafman, Amsterdam: 141, ed. by M. C. Wittrock. Spanish Elsevier. transl., Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. Zaidel, D. W. 1984. Les fonctions de Bradshaw, J. L. 1978. Human cerebral l'hemisphere droit. La Recherche, 15: 332- assymmetry. Trends in Neurosciences, 1: 340. 113-116. Capenter, M. B. 1979. Fundamentals of Neuroanatomy. Baltimore: Williams & Fernando Saravi, M.D., is a professor Wilkins. Damasio, A. R., and D. Tranel. 1991. of biophysics at the Medical School of the Disorders of higher brain function. In Universidad National de Cuyo, Mendoza, Comprehensive Neurology, 638-659, ed. by Argentina. He is a consultant member R. N. Rosenberg. New York: Raven Press. of the Centro Argentino para la Inves­ Damasio, A. R., D. Tranel, and H. Damasio. tigation y Refutation de la Pseudociencia 1990. Face agnosia and the neural sub­ strates of memory. Annual Review of (CAIRP), an Argentine skeptics' Neuroscience, 13: 89-110. organization.

Summer 1993 387 Improving Science Teaching: The Textbook Problem

KEVIN PADIAN

n their article "Improving Science Teaching in the United States" (SI, Winter 1993), I E. A. Marek and Wayne Rowe certainly have their hearts in the right place when they praise the values of hands-on, constructive laboratory science experience over the traditional read-the- chapter-and-answer-the-questions-at-the-end syndrome. Unfortunately, there are good reasons to suspect that the "learning cycle" Hands-on experience they encourage so strongly can have, education will do at best, only limited success and that, moreover, little good unless to concentrate on this panacea is to miss a much bigger piece of the problem. the textbook The reason most teachers use the antiquated, industry improves didactic method is that they are poorly prepared both in teaching and (more important) in its science science. A great number of teachers were literacy. pushed into teaching science: first, by growing student populations and, second, by shrinking ones that provided less demand for classes in Latin, German, Art, and so on. Younger teachers were let go, and senior ones were given the option of retiring or learning a new field—on the job. And, although there are notable exceptions, a majority of elementary-school teachers have poor to nonexistent backgrounds in science; developing a good science program in the face of all other demands on their time and resources cannot be their first concern. Because so many teachers themselves have never had coursework or experience in science, it is optimistic to think that they can transmit science effectively to students. Marek and Rowe begin by setting up the didactic, read-the-

388 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 chapter teacher as an all too real straw to Marek and Rowe's article is that man. The aphorisms that extol the it won't matter how hands-on any effectiveness of doing over telling as new instructional program is if it turns a teaching strategy are generally valid. out to be like the present crop. But Marek and Rowe do not say how I am not a specialist in science to ensure that hands-on activities will education; but I have taught science not be mindless, irrelevant, time- from sixth grade through graduate wasting, and expensive. Without this students, and I was one of the writers assurance, "hands-on" becomes only and editors of the new California the latest in a series of pedagogical Science Framework K-12. I served last fads, destined for doom within a year on the panel that adopted science decade. materials for grades K-8 in California The key element here is the quality and am a director of the National of educational materials, and I will Center for Science Education. In these argue that improving them is the capacities during the past ten years I fastest, cheapest, and most effective have had the opportunity to review way to improve learning standards for a great number of science materials science in the United States. Why? and to do a lot of rewarding work with Because most teachers learn their teachers, publishers, and state offi­ science from the books in their class­ cials. I have been glad to see consid­ rooms. (I do not include those with erable improvement in the quality of strong college backgrounds in science, prose for students and in assistance but those are mostly high-school and for teachers whose specialty is not some junior-high science teachers.) science. But the content is just as We could improve science education terrible as it ever was, mostly because in three ways: we could send all the people who write these books teachers back to school for two years; don't know the field and don't seek we could give every teacher in the the advice of those who do. country extensive in-service training; How else would you explain a or we could require educational mate­ sentence like "Many scientists believe rials to meet higher standards and be that large scaly animals called dino­ written by people who actually know saurs lived on the earth millions of something about the field. Of the years ago?" (Right: the first three three options, the first two are words function as a disclaimer for the impractical and prohibitively expen­ last four, which offend Christian sive. The third is necessary. fundamentalists.) Many textbook My characterization of the problem writers can't tell heat from temper­ appears to slam the competence of an ature, force from energy, or reptiles entire industry. But as Harriet Tyson- from amphibians. They have no Bernstein (1988) points out, the fault concept of the history of the universe, lies with a system driven by the the earth, or its life, and they think marketplace and fueled by the need that there are three "kinds" of rocks. to turn out copy-cat versions of the (These should not be taught as "kinds pablum that is not only expected but of rocks," but as processes that mandated by a host of Byzantine and account for the formation and change often conflicting local and state reg­ of rocks.) In virtually every lesson on ulations and tastes. Her book is an fossils from kindergarten to high excellent overview of the situation; school, students make an arts-and- here, I want to comment on the com­ crafts "mold" of something in plaster petence issue. The relevance of this or jello, instead of learning or doing

Summer 1993 389 something useful or interesting. some serious faults and suggested Textbook writers create new points changes. The publishers sent their in geologic time ("near the end of the thanks and a check, and the sugges­ Devonian at the End of the Pernian" tions were ignored. The scientist's [sic]). They divide organisms into name turned up on the masthead— "simple" and "complex," and into and, we sometimes found, on the "cold-blooded" and "warm-blooded." masthead of other books by the same One life-science text even says (three publisher that the scientist had not times!) that a fish has scales so it won't even seen. leak. Where did these people go to Make no mistake that the putative school, and in which century? authors of textbooks are responsible These are simple errors, but we are for the final product. The published not talking about simple problems version is a committee effort by in- here. Space does not permit explica­ house writers, as discovered more tion of how out of touch typical than once by William J. Bennetta, pub­ textbook writers are with the over­ lisher of The Textbook Letter (P.O. Box arching ideas of science and how the 51, Sausalito, CA 94966), which is well work in its various fields is done. This worth perusal. is the real problem: the people devel­ The point is that we can hardly oping these books are clueless. Look expect new, activity-centered curric­ at the masthead of a typical science ula to be any more effective than the textbook. How many names are of real old ones have been, especially if they scientists, familiar with the field? are developed by the same people— Generally, none or a couple at most. although they may be more fun for Today I received a major publisher's students and more user-friendly to 7th-grade life-science book written by some teachers. But all this activity seven authors, only one of whom comes at a price, and the price is time, holds a college post. There are five space, effort, and money. A larger "contributing writers"; three are price is the loss of opportunity to professional writers, two are "science transmit better material in a shorter instructors." Thirty-six "content time. When students spend two class reviewers" are listed; none are scien­ periods making plaster casts of sea- tists, all are "science instructors." This shells, what have they learned? Most is not to say that these people are not fossils are not molds and casts, and knowledgeable, but they are writers they don't form that way anyhow. and science educators, not scientists. And "molds and casts" certainly have Theoretically, they could know science limited relevance to any ideas, con­ very well. But if they do, why are the cepts, or issues in historical geology. books as bad as they are? And, given Activity-centered learning is a fine this, why don't they ask for help from idea, but such programs require real scientists? careful scrutiny. Marek and Rowe My colleagues and I once ran an point out that using activities merely informal check on a few names of to demonstrate an obvious point, known scientists that we recognized "cookbook-fashion," is not an effective from mastheads. When we talked with use of hands-on time. Open-ended these people, the typical story went inquiry is preferable, but not all like this: A publisher contacted the concepts lend themselves well to it, scientist and asked for a review of a and it requires teachers who can chapter or two. The manuscript was knowingly and sensitively guide stu­ sent, and the scientist pointed out dents in their inquiry processes while

390 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 A Quick True-False Test The following statements are garnered from junior-high life-science, earth-science, and general-science texts. These books have been adopted by many states and districts in the past decade. Correct answers and comments by the author, Kevin Padian, are on page 392. Directions Mark each statement "true" or "false." If the statement is mis­ leading, mark it false.

1. The plural of the taxonomic rank "genus" is "genuses." 2. The retina can be defined as part of a mammal's eye. 3. During fermentation, energy is released as sugar and is changed to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. 4. Biologists classify organisms by their similar structure, behavior, food needs, and chemical make-up. 5. Gregor Mendel coined the word "genetics." 6. An oak tree is more complex than a fern. 7. Uniformitarianism, the law of uniform change, means that the processes that changed the earth in the past still exist today. 8. Amphibians are animals that live part of their lives on land and part in the water. __ 9. One of Darwin's contributions to science is that he recognized that a species can change by the passing of genes for helpful traits. 10. Darwin tried to show that different forms of life once lived on Earth. 11. When the hemoglobin molecules of humans and chimpanzees are compared, a similarity is found. 12. The forelimbs of a pig and sheep are homologous structures, but those of a giraffe are not homologous to those of the pig and sheep. ensuring that some real concepts are not mean it can't be as much fun or being transmitted. I must admit as rewarding to learn; it simply means considerable disappointment in these that no monolithic formula of the efforts submitted to the California "scientific method" will be able to science panel for adoption in 1992. accommodate it. Another challenge is that about For example, some "hands-on" half of science (astronomy, geology, programs teach concepts of predation meteorology, oceanography, and and cryptic coloration to students by much of biology) is not experimental, having them strew green and yellow but historical. Designing experiments buttons on a lawn and see which color and activities for these fields is harder is better represented when students to do effectively. Much of the knowl­ have one minute to collect as many edge is not experimental, but experi­ buttons as they can. This is fun, but ential. It comes from reading, watch­ obvious, and scarcely merits the time ing, observing, and thinking. This does to do it, except that students may

Summer 1993 391 Test Answers and Notes

All of the statements are false. All are taken from approved, adopted textbooks reviewed by hundreds of teachers and educators. Simple factual errors are easy to correct; but many of these statements show deeper fundamental misunderstandings of science, and an all-too-obvious willingness to shove anything in front of children. Your tax dollars at work, folks!

1. The plural of "genus" is "genera." 2. All vertebrates have retinas, not just mammals. 3. This is a direct quotation. Does it make any sense to you? 4. Organisms are classified by their relationships to other organisms. 5. William Bateson coined this term, which was unknown in Mendel's time. 6. This statement proceeds from a warped perception of complexity, which is essentially undefinable in biological terms. The original premise was that complex organisms evolved from simpler ones. Somehow another notion has got mixed up in here. 7. "Methodological uniformitarianism," which scientists accept as a working premise, holds that the laws of the universe have not changed. Rates and processes, though, fall under "substantive uniformitarianism," a different matter, and one not taken for granted as an operating principle. There is no "law of uniform change." Almost nothing changes uniformly. 8. So do marine iguanas, stoneflies, beavers, walruses, walking catfish ... but not all or even most amphibians do. 9. Darwin didn't know anything about genes, nor did anyone else of his time. 10. He didn't need to show this; it was already perfectly well understood. 11. They are identical. Why don't the books want to say this? 12. This one is truly baffling. The pig and sheep are barnyard animals, whereas the giraffe is not, perhaps; but this has nothing to with homology. The forelimbs of all three are homologous because they are descended from a common ancestor. —Kevin Padian internalize cryptic coloration (if volve written or group activities and they're not having too much fun). But problem-solving, and so on. The does it increase the students' knowl­ benefit here would be that students edge of nature? Perhaps it would be would engage in far more than one more rewarding to watch a nature activity with a single point and they show in which actual animals had been would probably learn about more than filmed. The teacher, of course, would just cryptic coloration. need to stop the video frequently, ask Marek and Rowe stress the "logical questions, stimulate discussion, in­ system" of constructivist science

392 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 generally embodied in the "science tion of plants and animals on earth, processes" (observing, measuring, and even to the existence of oceans recording, inferring, controlling var­ and atmospheres. They have no idea iables, and so on) that have become that evolution explains not only the the bread and butter of science edu­ relationships of living and fossil cation. But these processes, as impor­ organisms but also why the structures tant as they are to working with of organisms are built as they are and science, are only tools and must not how their functions have changed be mistaken for ideas. The "whole real over time. And they do not under­ guts" of science, to paraphrase C. H. stand the relationships among these Waddington, is the theories, the overarching theories and the fields overarching ideas that unite facts and that they innervate. And that is concepts and set the program for real because science is not taught this way investigation. Until the people who in the United States of America. If it write instructional materials and were, we would have a scientifically educate teachers learn to center on the literate citizenry, and we would have theories of science, rather than those classrooms of students filled not only of pedagogy, we can probably expect with the anticipation of activity or the little improvement in science anticipation of discovery but with the education. anticipation of understanding. The last point is especially impor­ tant to CSICOP, because there are an References alarming number of people in this A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Edu­ country who cannot distinguish cational Reform. Washington, D.C.: U.S. science from astrology, religious Government Printing Office, 1983. belief, crystal healing, or occultism. Science for All Americans. Washington, D.C.: This is not because they have not had American Association for the Advance­ ment of Science, 1989. enough hands-on activities dropping Science Framework for California Public objects of different densities off Schools, K-12. Sacramento, Calif.: Cali­ tabletops or making plaster casts of fornia Department of Education, 1990. seashells. It is because they have no Tyson-Bernstein, Harriet. 1988. A Conspi­ sense of the construction of science. racy of Good Intentions: America's Textbook Fiasco. Washington, D. C: Council for They do not realize how energy is Basic Education. conserved and transformed and what this means to physical phenomena. Kevin Padian is an associate professor in They do not know why tectonics the Department of Integrative Biology and explains nearly all geological phenom­ curator in the Museum of Paleontology, ena, from mountain-building, earth­ University of California, Berkeley quakes, and volcanoes to the distribu­ 94720.

Summer 1993 393 The Eyewitness Imperfect Interface Between Stimuli and Story

JAMES R. REICH, JR.

ie eyewitness is a link between an event that has taken place and the reporting of Tthat event. In a real sense the memory of an individual is put to the test when a detailed account of what took place is desired. Eyewit­ nesses provide the support needed in our current legal system. Without their testimony many cases could not proceed and due process would become meaningless. Eyewitnesses' accounts are also the thread with which the The eyewitness is fabric of a seemingly paranormal or other anom­ present at the alous event is woven by the people who investi­ gate or disseminate such claims. It is important, scene, but the then, to have some understanding of how story he or she memory works and what might affect the recall of that memory after it has been recorded. relates isn't The study of how people recall events was necessarily an initiated at the turn of this century by the Harvard psychologist Hugo Munsterberg (1863- accurate 1916). In his work he found that people tend description of to remember events as slightly different from how they actually happened. One of his what has experiments, conducted during a scientific occurred. In fact meeting, involved an incident in which a clown it is often a from a passing carnival rushed into the room followed by a man with a revolver. There was mosaic of both an argument followed by a skirmish and several reality and fiction. shots, after which both individuals left. The stunned audience was asked by the group leader, the only one there who had prior knowledge of the experiment, to write down all they could remember about what had just happened. Analysis of the information gathered showed that only one individual out of the forty present was able to recall the event with any accuracy.

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More than half of those present could The answers of those who were asked manage no better than a 60-percent "How high was the office building" recollection. averaged a height of 26 stories, while Recent research includes work on those who were asked "How low was leading questions. Richard J. Harris the office building" averaged only 13 (1973) asked questions using quantit­ stories—exactly one-half that of the ative adjective or adverb pairs, such first group. as "old/new" and "tall/short." The Other researchers have continued subjects in his study were divided into probing the leading-question two groups. Each group was in­ phenomenon. Elizabeth Loftus asked structed to make as accurate a guess individuals questions about their as possible in answer to a series of headaches and the products they used questions. For instance, one group to treat them. The first set of ques­ was asked the question: "How tall was tions asked were (1) "In terms of the the basketball player?" while the total number of products, how many second group was asked "How short other products have you tried? One? was the basketball player?" Harris Two? Three?" or (2) "In terms of the found that the group that was asked total number of products, how many "how tall" estimated the height at other products have you tried? One? about 79 inches, while those who were Five? Ten?" The responses to question asked "how short" estimated the 1 averaged 3.3 different products, height at 69 inches. A full 10-inches— while the responses to question 2 practically one foot—difference! averaged 5.2 different products. The second key question asked was (1) "Do Using the same pattern in a differ­ you get headaches frequently, and, if ent question, subjects were asked so, how often?" or (2) "Do you get about the height of an office building.

Summer 1993 395 headaches occasionally, and, if so, how showed that 55 percent of those who often?" The "frequently" group were first asked the "stop sign" reported an average of 2.2 headaches question answered that they did see a week, while the responses of the the stop sign, while only 35 percent "occasionally" group averaged 0.7 of those answering the "turned right" headaches a week. question answered in the affirmative. Loftus (1974) investigated the Loftus developed two hypotheses possible effects that leading questions to explain this effect. First, when may have on memory. The key to her subjects are asked the initial "stop research centered around an initial sign" question, this reinforces their presupposition. For example, the memory of the stop sign and they question "How fast was the car going respond at a later time with this when it ran the stop sign?" presup­ reinforced representation. Loftus's poses that there was a stop sign. In second explanation, called the con­ reality, the stop sign may or may not struction hypothesis, suggests that have been there. If it was there, Loftus subjects use the presupposition in the suggests, then answering the question initial "stop sign" question to recon­ may strengthen or enhance the expe­ struct in their memories the existence rience by making more available of the stop sign. The importance of certain key memory representations the construction hypothesis is that corresponding to the stop sign. On the any type of information can subse­ other hand, if the stop sign was not quently be introduced into a person's there, Loftus speculated, then it may memory using questions containing be treated as new information that presuppositions, whether the presup­ could surface at a later time, when the positions are true or false. stop sign could be remembered as Loftus's second experiment was set actually having been there. up to determine whether the con­ Several experiments were con­ struction hypothesis could be sup­ ducted to see if this actually is the case. ported. In this experiment subjects In the first experiment two groups viewed a 3-minute videotape excerpt viewed a film of an auto accident, after showing a disruption in a classroom which they were to answer a ten-item by eight demonstrators. After the questionnaire. The film showed a car video was shown, a questionnaire that, after failing to stop at a stop sign, with 20 questions was distributed. made a right turn. In order to avoid The subjects were divided into two an accident the driver of a car in the groups. Nineteen of the questions oncoming traffic hit the brakes, were similar. The one key question causing a five-car bumper-to-bumper that differed was either (1) "Was the collision. A diagram was provided leader of the 4 demonstrators who labeling the car that ran the stop sign entered the classroom a male?" or (2) as car A and the cars involved in the "Was the leader of the 12 demonstra­ collision as B through F. Two key tors who entered the classroom a questions were asked. For one group male?" After a week the subjects were the first question was "How fast was asked a new set of 20 questions with car A going when it ran the stop sign?" the key question for all being "How The first question for the other group many demonstrators did you see was "How fast was car A going when entering the classroom?" Those who it turned right?" the second question, had answered the question counting asked of both groups, was "Did you the number of demonstrators as 12 see a stop sign for car A?" The results thought they remembered an average

396 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 of 8.85 in the video, while the group across a field, chances are we will let who had answered the question our minds wander a bit. Soon we find referring to 4 demonstrators recalled that we have covered a lot of ground. an average of 6.40. This experiment Immediately we wonder how we got demonstrated that false numerical where we are. Since we haven't data can have an effect on an indi­ focused our attention on the walk, vidual's memory. Loftus next wanted nothing is remembered. The same to find out if the same results could kind of thing can happen when we are be seen when the false presupposition reading. How many times have you concerned something that didn't exist. read a paragraph only to discover you In this experiment subjects viewed have no idea what you have read? In a short videotape of an automobile order to acquire a particular memory accident and then answered ten ques­ we must concentrate on what it is we tions based on the accident. The want to store. Once our attention is subjects were divided into two groups. focused, the mind transforms the One group was asked the key question information into some form or repre­ "How fast was the white sports car sentation that can be stored in the going when it passed the barn while brain. This newly acquired informa­ traveling along the country road?" and tion is not carved in granite by any the other group had the question means. It is subject to future alter­ "How fast was the white sports car ations by a mixing of the actual event going while traveling along the coun­ with subsequent or even prior infor­ try road?" In fact, there was no barn mation. This illustrates the second in the video. One week later the component of the acquisition process, subjects returned and answered ten the acquisition of additional informa­ questions about the accident, the key tion. It is at this step where leading question for everyone being "Did you questions enter into the picture and see a barn?" Of those subjects earlier are able to distort the true represen­ exposed to the false presupposition tation stored in memory. that there was a barn 17.3 percent The retrieval process will come into responded that they had seen a barn. play at any time after the initial Only 2.7 percent of those who did not experience. Each time the event is have the presupposition in the original brought into conscious thought there question responded that they had seen is a possibility of altering the original a barn. memory. The farther removed from To explain this, Loftus described a the event, the greater the chance of theory of memory for complex visual an imperfect or distorted recollection. experiences. In this theory there are Recently, researchers have added two main processes. The first deals to the understanding of why leading with the acquisition of data, and the questions affect those who encounter second delves into the retrieval of that them. Smith and Ellsworth (1987) data. The acquisition can further be indicate that the uncertainty sur­ divided into two components. The rounding the memory of an event is first is the acquisition of the original an important antecedent for the effec­ experience. Clearly not everything tiveness of being misled. A clear mem­ that happens to us can be stored in ory is less susceptible to being fooled our memory. The mind separates by leading questions. Memories of what is and is not to be stored by the tangential details are more prone to amount of attention we give a par­ alteration when leading questions are ticular object. If we go for a walk used than are more important details.

Summer 1993 397 Smith and Ellsworth also found ness. Although it was found in one that subjects accept leading questions study (Kassin 1985) that accurate more readily from those they think responses were made somewhat more are more knowledgeable about the quickly than inaccurate responses, event or situation than they them­ confident responses were made much selves are. For example, if a person more quickly than unsure replies. In witnesses some type of crime and the other words, the less time it takes to crime is severe enough, say an armed reply, the greater the amount of robbery, he or she will experience a confidence that can be attributed to lot of stress. Stress usually lessens the the witness. But is this a valid assump­ witnesses' ability to perceive the event tion? Further experiments (Smith, (Clifford and Scott 1978; Loftus 1980). Kassin, and Ellsworth 1989) have Later, when the police are trying to shown that there is little to suggest find out what has happened, they may that confidence is a good predictor of ask questions that a witness feels he accuracy, and relying on such a should know the answers to even if correlation may actually be mis­ he doesn't: "About what time was it leading. when the robbery took place?" "What For serious investigations into type of clothing was the perpetrator seemingly paranormal or other anom­ wearing?" "Was he tall? Short? Fat? alous events, it would appear that the Thin?" investigator should follow a few If the witness is at all hesitant, the simple guidelines. First, he or she officer may probe with more specific should determine how many other questions, and the witness may be investigators have already had contact intimidated to answer using the clues with the individual in question. If the that the officer is unintentionally number is high, there is a good chance giving. that the original memory of the event Officer: "Did it happen in the has evolved into something a little morning?" different. This would only be natural Witness: "I'm not sure, but I believe and should actually be expected in so—yes, it did take place in the most cases. The second guideline is morning." that investigators should interact Officer: "Was he wearing a red with witnesses in such a way that longsleeved shirt?" they are not intimidating. Theyfj Witness: "Yes, it was longsleeved. should not be guilty of "tampering I don't remember the color." with the evidence," the "evidence" And so on. being the memory of the reporting When one is interviewing a witness individual. Lastly, the investigator to an event, it is best to present oneself should not be influenced by the as being as much in the dark about apparent speed or lack of speed with it as the witness. which the individual replies to a Another area of investigation question. A quick reply does not concerning eyewitness testimony is necessarily assure that it is an accurate the apparent relationship between the or truthful answer, nor does a hesitant accuracy of a witness's testimony and response mean it is an inaccurate his or her overall confidence. Studies answer. It's up to the investigator to have indicated that nearly 40 percent use good judgment when conducting of defense attorneys agree that there an interview. This may result in is a positive correlation between the shedding new light on many para­ accuracy and confidence of the wit­ normal claims.

398 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 References We Forget. Reading, Mass.: Addison- Wesley. Clifford, Brian R., and Jane Scott. 1978. Smith, Vicky L., Saul M. Kassin, and Phoebe Individual and situational factors in C. Ellsworth. 1989. Eyewitness accuracy eyewitness testimony. Journal of Applied vs. confidence: Within versus between Psychology, 63(3): 352-359. subjects correlations. Journal of Applied Harris, R. J. 1973, Answering questions Psychology, 74(2): 356-359. containing marked and unmarked adjec­ Smith, Vicky L., and Phoebe C. Ellsworth. tives and adverbs. Journal of Experimental 1987. The social psychology of eyewit­ Psychology, 88:216-222. ness accuracy: Misleading questions and Kassin, Saul M. 1985. Eyewitness identifi­ communicator expertise. Journal of App­ cation: Retrospective self-awareness and lied Psychology, 72(2): 294-300. the accuracy-confidence correlation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, James R. Reich, Jr., is with the Office 49(4): 878-893. of the Medical Examiner, Cook County, Loftus, Elizabeth F. 1975. Leading questions Illinois, and is interested in the psychology and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, No. 7:560-572. of reports of anomalous phenomena. . 1980. Memory: Surprising New In­ Address: 7823 Westwood Dr., Elmwood sights into How We Remember and Why Park, IL 60635.

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

PSYCHICS PLAYING POKER.

Summer 1993 399 Pathological Science: An Update

ALAN CROMER

ie Nobel chemist Irving Langmuir (1881- 1957) used to give a cautionary talk on Tpathological science, and photocopies of a transcription of his December 13, 1953, collo­ quium circulated for years before being pub­ lished in 1989 (Langmuir 1989). In this memorable talk, Langmuir told a number of stories of pathological science and listed the features they have in common. Here I would From N-rays to like to retell two of these stories and add one of my\Own. These case studies clearly show cold fusion, features common to all pathological science and scientists have how such pathology can arise even among competent scientists. With this background, the been seeing recent case of cold fusion is seen as a textbook things that aren't example of pathological science. there. One of Langmuir's stories goes back to 1903. Wilhelm Roentgen's discovery of X-rays in 1895 was a major event in science and initiated a burst of new research. While most scientists were content to learn as much as possible about this mysterious new emanation, others wanted the glory of discovering emanations of their own. So perhaps it wasn't surprising that in 1903, Prosper Rene Blondlot, a distinguished member of the French Academy of Sciences, announced the discovery of N-rays which he had produced by heating a wire inside an iron tube. These rays didn't pass through the iron, but did pass through an aluminum window in the iron. They were detected by looking at a very faintly illuminated screen in an otherwise dark room. If the N-rays were there, the screen became more visible; of course a great deal of skill was needed for this because the screen was just on the edge of visibility. Under these conditions, he discovered that many different

400 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 things give off N-rays, including wavy lines, a rectangle, and a star. people. Then he discovered negative Usually a deck was used that had five N-rays, which decreased the visibility cards of each kind, 25 in all. The deck of the screen. He published many would be shuffled and cut, and the papers on the subject, and so did many subject would call the cards in the others, confirming a multitude of order they were picked from the top unusual properties for these rays. of the deck. Since there are five Among them was the fact that they different cards, there is a one-in-five could be broken up into a spectrum by passing them through a large aluminum prism. In 1904, the Amer­ ican physicist R. W. Wood visited Blondlot and found him measuring, to a tenth of a millimeter, the position of the N-rays as they came through an aluminum prism. "How is that possible," Wood asked, "when the original beam is coming from a slit two millimeters wide?" "That's one of the fascinating things about the N-rays," Blondlot replied. "They don't follow the ordi­ nary laws of science." So Wood, the room being very dark, removed the aluminum prism that was bending the N-rays onto Blondlot's screen and put it in his pocket. Blondlot, unaware of this, continued getting the same results. Wood published a report of this incident, in Nature, which put an end to N-rays. Nobel laureate Irving Langmuir. who often warned of pathological science (photo In 1934, Langmuir himself visited courtesy of GE Research and Development the parapsychologist J. B. Rhine at Center). Duke University and pointed out that Rhine's work had all the characteristic chance of a correct call. Results are symptoms of pathological science. usually reported as the number of Rhine thought it would be great if correct calls out of 25. If there is no Langmuir published this. "I'd have extrasensory perception, the average more graduates," he told Langmuir. of many scores would be 5, although "We ought to have more graduate individual variations of plus or minus students. This thing is so important 3 aren't unlikely. that we should have more people Langmuir spent the whole day with realize its importance. This should be Rhine, who was in a philosophical one of the biggest departments in the mood. "People don't like these exper­ university." iments," he said. "They don't like me. Rhine had begun his studies in Sometimes, to spite me, they made extrasensory perception at Duke their scores purposely low [less than University in 1930. Most of these 5]. ... I took [these low results) and were done with cards showing one of sealed them in envelopes and I put a the five ESP symbols: a circle, a cross, code number on the outside, and I

Summer 1993 401 didn't trust anybody to know that Figure 1, the CERN dip has only a few code. Nobody." points in it, each with a probable error Langmuir thought this interesting. that is one-quarter the size of the dip. "You said that you had published a Still, the probability of this being a summary of all your data and that the statistical fluctuation is less than 0.1 average was 7. Now you are saying percent. Immediately, theorists you have additional data that, if added started churning out papers to explain to your published data, would bring the greatest anomaly since parity the average to 5. Will you do this?" violation.

"Of course not," he said. "That The position in energy of the A2 would be dishonest. The low scores dip had been so well determined by are just as significant as the high ones, the CERN equipment that the exper­ aren't they? They proved that there imental group from the Northeastern is something there just as much, and University Physics Department therefore it wouldn't be fair [to planned to use it to check an exper­ combine negative and positive data]." iment they were doing at the Brook- Rhine felt justified in withholding haven National Laboratory on Long low scores from his average because Island, New York. To their great he believed the low scorers were disappointment, they didn't see the deliberately (or paranormally) produc­ dip. A dip is something that could ing their low scores. Such self- easily be missed if there were a deception is a common human failing, problem with the experiment, but not restricted to occultists. Main­ something that was unlikely to be stream scientists sometimes delude created by a problem. Thus the North­ themselves as well, as the following eastern group first thought the prob­ case shows. lem was theirs, not CERN's. But after repeated checks of their equipment The A2 is an elementary particle created in experiments in which pi revealed no problems, and repeated mesons from a high-energy acceler­ experiments continued to show no ator collide with the proton nuclei of dip, they announced their results at ordinary hydrogen. The direction and a stormy meeting of the American energy of the recoil proton after each Physical Society in 1971 (Bowen et al. collision is measured by a complex 1971). array of electronic detectors. The data A spokesman for the CERN exper­ from the detectors are stored on iment vigorously defended its result, magnetic tape for later computer claiming that the fad that CERN saw analysis. If a particle is created in some the dip proved that the CERN exper­ of the collisions, it appears as a bump iment had better resolution. To which in a plot of the analyzed data. All such Bernard Gottschalk, speaking for bumps, technically called resonances, Northeastern, replied, "Seeing spots have similar shapes, which follow before your eyes doesn't mean you from fundamental theory. But in have better vision." And so, amid 1967, a group at the European Center cheers and catcalls, the physicists for Nuclear Research (CERN) in argued their cases. Within a few Geneva found that the resonance of months, Northeastern's results were the A2 had an anomalous dip in the confirmed by other groups, and the center (Figure l); the resonance was dip was never seen or heard of again. split (Chikovani et al. 1967). This leaves the question of how a This was a startling discovery, group of distinguished scientists, contrary to all experience. As seen in using the best equipment in the world,

402 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 •-

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Figure 1. The A2 resonance as reported by the experimental group from CERN (Chikovani et al. 1967). The anomalous (and erroneous) dip in the middle of the resonance was caused by a bias in the way the data were selected. could see something that wasn't there. showed a dip, and since there is always The CERN group, it seems, did exactly something wrong in every run of a what Rhine had done—discarded data highly complex experiment, they that didn't show what it wanted to managed to boost an initially insignif­ find. As one CERN scientist so ingen­ icant glitch into pathological science. uously explained to Gottschalk: "We This story is worth telling because broke the data into batches. Whenever we are dealing here, not with a few we found a batch with no dip, we benighted occultists, but with a large looked very carefully for something team of highly trained scientists wrong and we always found some­ working with a mountain of electronic thing." Since they didn't look so equipment and computers. But in the carefully for trouble when a batch end, both Rhine and the CERN group

Summer 1993 403 were fishing in the noise for inexplic­ the same day, which wasn't part of able phenomena. the agreement. Langmuir found that the cases of Nature accepted the Jones paper pathological science he had studied 0ones 1989), but not the Fleischmann shared certain characteristics. They and Pons paper. This didn't delay are generally claims, based on a weak publication, however, because Fleisch­ or marginal effect, of fantastic phe­ mann and Pons had already had their nomena contrary to all experience. cold-fusion paper accepted by the There are conflicting reports from Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry independent investigators. Reason­ (Fleischmann, Pons, and Hawkins able explanations of the data, based 1989). on known science, are rejected. Inter­ How inconsistent were the Utah est rises rapidly for a time, then results with previous experience? gradually fades away. Fusion reactions—nuclear reactions in Nothing follows this description which two light nuclei combine to more closely than the case of cold form a heavier one—have been in­ fusion. [For a previous discussion, see tensely studied for more than 50 Milton Rothman's "Cold Fusion: A years. They are the basis of the Case History in 'Wishful Science'?" SI, hydrogen bomb, of the energy pro­ Winter 1990, pp. 161-170.] It was at duction of the sun, and of research a press conference on March 23,1989, efforts to produce controlled fusion on that Stanley Pons, a chemist at the earth. In the Utah experiments, the University of Utah, and Martin reaction involved the fusing of two Fleischmann, a chemist from the deuterium (hydrogen-2) nuclei, which University of Southampton, England, generally produces either a tritium first announced that they had (hydrogen-3) nucleus and a proton or obtained a controlled fusion reaction a helium-3 nucleus and a neutron. The in a small electrolytic cell. This claim fusion of two deuterium nuclei into is certainly contrary to all experience a helium-4 nucleus and a gamma ray or understanding of both nuclear and occurs less than one percent of the solid-state physics. Furthermore, time. Fleischmann and Pons didn't detect A deuterium nucleus consists of the lethal dose of neutrons that should one proton and one neutron; it is an have accompanied the amount of isotope of the hydrogen nucleus, fusion they reported. Their claim was which is just a single proton. Normally doubly fantastic. A miracle squared. the deuterium nucleus has an electron Immediately after the press confer­ encircling it, in which case it is an atom ence, a group of physicists at Brigham of deuterium (heavy hydrogen). Young University, headed by Steven Deuterium, like hydrogen, is a gas at Jones, made a similar announcement. room temperature; in this gas the The two groups had been working deuterium atoms are combined in independently, but became aware of pairs, forming a molecule. each other's work some months The difficulty of achieving fusion earlier. At a meeting that involved the comes from the fact that two deute­ presidents of these two Utah univer­ rium nuclei repel each other electri­ sities, an agreement was reached that cally, because each is positively on March 23,1989, each group would charged. They normally don't get close submit a paper on its work to Nature. enough to interact. In a deuterium Pons and Fleischmann also announced molecule, the electrons overcome this their results at a press conference on repulsion to a large extent, and the

404 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 two nuclei in the molecule are 7- a new type of nuclear reaction. millionths of a millimeter apart. This Scientists weren't immediately is still too far apart for them to fuse, aware of all this when the announce­ but Jones had previously achieved ment was made at a press conference. fusion by replacing one of the elec­ So when reporters asked scientists for trons in a deuterium molecule with their assessment of the Utah exper­ a negatively charged muon (Rafelski iments, there were mixed responses. and Jones 1987). The muon is 200 Philip Morrison said, "Based on the times heavier than an electron and information I have, I feel it's a very brings the two deuterons 200 times good case." He said his confidence in closer together. At this separation, the reality of the reaction was "high, fusion occurs at a measurable rate, but not conclusive." The Nobel phys­ though not enough energy is released icist Sheldon Glashow said, "I don't to pay for the cost of creating the believe a word of it" (Chandler 1989b). muons. The amusing comment of Kim Mol- It thus is clear that cold fusion is vig—"I am willing to be open-minded, possible if two deuterium atoms can but it's really inconceivable that there be squeezed together closer than they is anything there" (Pool 1989)— are in a deuterium molecule. It is also probably reflects the ambiguous use well known that many metals, includ­ we often make of "open-minded." ing palladium, absorb hydrogen. Most alarming were the comments Therefore, isn't it reasonable to from scientists who put extraordinary suppose that, if deuterium were confidence in Fleischmann and Pons: forcibly incorporated into palladium "I'd be extremely surprised if they've using an electrical current, deuterium done anything stupid. They have a atoms could be squeezed together very good track record in electrochem­ close enough for their nuclei to fuse? istry. I am pretty excited about this" No, it isn't. The palladium atoms (Chandler 1989a). In fact, stupidity, or are themselves three times farther human error, or self-delusion in apart than are the two deuterium science, is far less surprising than is atoms in a deuterium molecule. The the radical overthrow of well- palladium is able to absorb deuterium established doctrine. molecules because the spacing between A number of confirming experi­ the palladium atoms is larger than the ments were reported soon after cold diameter of the deuterium molecule. fusion was announced, followed by a No squeezing is involved. In fact, the deluge of nonconfirming experiments. deuterium molecule breaks apart At one point, we had the peculiar inside the palladium, and its two situation that physicists largely deuterium atoms end up being farther rejected the cold-fusion claims, while apart in the palladium than they were many chemists accepted them. In July in the free deuterium molecule. 1989, a U.S. Department of Energy Furthermore, Fleischmann and panel stated that there wasn't suffi­ Pons claimed their fusion reaction cient evidence of cold fusion to generated a large quantity of heat. A warrant government funding. Still, simple calculation shows that if the Fleischmann and Pons—together with heat they claimed were due to fusion, the remnants of their followers— there would have been enough neu­ carried on for another year, supported trons generated to have killed the by the largesse of the State of Utah. experimenters. They took the absence Jones and his group did detect a of the neutrons as the discovery of slight excess of neutrons above back-

Summer 1993 405 ground radiation, but mostly in the of work and at least one death (Dye first hour of the experiment. Some 1992). other groups also reported excess Real discoveries of phenomena neutrons, but many groups didn't see contrary to all previous scientific any more neutrons than are usually experience are very rare, while fraud, present in background radiation. So fakery, foolishness, and error result­ this is clearly a marginal effect. The ing from overenthusiasm and delusion heat claimed by Pons and Fleisch- are all too common. Thus, Glashow's mann—though not in principle mar­ closed-minded "I don't believe a word ginal—in fact resulted from heavily of it" is going to be correct far more processing data obtained by incorrect often than not. As Langmuir said procedures. They never actually about earlier nonexistent phenom­ generated the heat they talked about. ena: But for the layperson, unfamiliar with the science involved, the most These are cases where there is no characteristic sign of pathology was dishonesty involved, but where the language used. Fleischmann and people are tricked into false results Pons's insistence that "it is inconceiv­ by a lack of understanding about able that this [heat] could be due to what human beings can do to themselves in the way of being led anything but nuclear processes" isn't astray by subjective effects, wishful the language of science. It is the thinking, or threshold interactions. language of minds fixed on their own These are examples of pathological strongly held beliefs and unwilling to science. These are things that listen to the justified skepticism of attracted a great deal of attention. others. Usually hundreds of papers have There are many lessons from this been published upon them. . . . episode. First, scientists themselves [But] the critics can't reproduce are often poor judges of the scientific the effects. Only the supporters process. Many took Fleischmann and could do that. In the end, nothing was salvaged. Why should there be? Pons's incredible conclusions about There isn't anything there. There their own work at face value, before never was. (Langmuir 1989) even reading their papers. Second, scientific research is very difficult. Anything that can go wrong References will go wrong. Fleischmann and Pons Bowen, D., et al. 1971. Measurement of the forgot to stir their cell while meas­ A2- and A2* mass spectra. Physical Review uring its temperature, totally invali­ Letters, 26: 1663. dating their measurements. Working Chandler, David L. 1989a. Optimism grows in secrecy and isolation, even experi­ over fusion report. Boston Globe, April 1, p.l. enced scientists will be hindered by . 1989b. Reports set off chain reaction. the lack of guidance and criticism of Boston Globe, April 3, p. 27. others. Chikovani, G., et al. 1967. Evidence for a Third, science isn't dependent on two-peak structure in the A2 meson. Physics Letters, 25B, 44. the honesty or wisdom of scientists. Dye, Lee. 1992. Scientist killed, 3 hurt in It is a collective enterprise that seeks explosion at research facility. Los Angeles to obtain the broadest possible con­ Times, January 3, p. 3. sensus among its practitioners (Ziman Fleischmann, Martin, Stanley Pons, and 1968). It will survive Fleischmann and M. Hawkins. 1989. Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium. Pons, but only after the wasteful journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 261: expenditure of hundreds of man-years 301-308; erratum 263: 187.

406 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Jones. S., et al. 1989. Observations of cold reactions. Scientific American, 257: 84, fusion in condensed matter. Nature, 338: July. 737-740. Ziman, John M. 1968. Public Knowledge. Langmuir, Irving. 1989. Pathological science. Cambridge University Press. Physics Today, 42: 36-48, October. Tran­ scribed and edited by R. N. Hall from a microgrove disk found among Langmuir's papers in the Library of Congress of a Alan Cromer is a professor of physics at colloquium given at the Knolls Research Northeastern University, Department of Laboratory, December 13, 1953. Physics, 112 Dana Bldg., Boston, MA Pool, Robert. 1989. Fusion breakthrough? 02115. This article is adapted from his Science, 243: 1661. book Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Rafelski, J., and S. E. Jones. 1987. Cold nuclear fusion: The electronlike particles Nature of Science (Oxford University called muons can catalyze nuclear fusion Press, 1993).

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

THE HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE AND REAL LIFE.

Summer 1993 407 Jack Horkheimer, "Star Hustler"

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER talks with Public Television's exuberant "Star Hustler"

Interview by GABRIEL SEABROOK

Avid astronomy interpreter, freethinking teacher, and popular television personality, 54-year-old Jack Horkheimer has become something of an institution to astronomy buffs around the world. Indeed, his [ i enthusiasm for science is infectious, as 1 found out H when 1 visited him in his spacious, sunny office at "It seems that the Miami Space Transit Planetarium.—G.S. there is something SI: Most astronomers are content to work that naturally quietly behind the scenes in offices, labs, and observatories. Yet you write and host your own excites us, that fills television program. What inspires you to bring us with awe and astronomy before millions of viewers each wonder when we week? Jack Horkheimer: Ever since I was a kid, I've look up at the been a science nut; in fact, I'm addicted to all stars." the sciences. As I grew older, I would often find myself talking about the latest discovery to someone, or explaining the wonders of some particular aspect of science. And so early on I realized two things: first, that I wanted to share this enthusiasm with others, and second, that I had a talent for communicating. But more important, I wanted to make science accessible to people. When I finally had the opportunity to create "Star Hustler," it was for one reason: to turn on as many people as possible to the wonders of modern science and astronomy. SI: How does a "Star Hustler" episode get put on the air? J.H.: With a great amount of difficulty and angst! The basis of each show starts with something I think will interest people; some­ thing that people can see in the night sky, from

408 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 anyplace, at that time of year. We view of your show?" [Debussy's Arabesque each episode as a short story that No. 1; Tomita, "Snowflakes Are requires both drama and humor. We Dancing," RCA.] The second most start with a 20-minute script, hold asked question, "Are you really that production meetings, art meetings, excited about the stars?" Yes, I am! and finally the computer specialists get The third: "Is that space beam real, together for the animation layouts. and have you ever fallen off?" The We do four episodes a month, one for answer: Yes, it's real, and yes, I've each week. It takes about two weeks fallen off! and 35 people to complete four shows. SI: Besides working with public There's so much I'd like to say on the television station WPBT on "Star air about the stars; I only wish I had Hustler," you're also involved with the fifty minutes instead of four! Miami Space Transit Planetarium. SI: What questions are most often How did you come to be executive asked by your viewers? director there? J.H.: The number one question is, J.H.: Well, I started off running the believe it or not, "What's the name planetarium as a volunteer; it was kind of that music you use in the beginning

Summer 1993 409 there is something that naturally excites us, that fills us with awe and 7 want to reach people no one wonder, when we look up at the stars. else has been able to reach." All great religions placed their gods in the skies, and for good reason: the stars inspire us with their inaccessi­ of a hobby for me. I worked seven days bility and with their permanence. a week, sometimes fourteen hours a Though the seasons change, the stars day. After the first year, they asked always remain the same. I think this me if I'd like to take over permanently. engendered incredible wonder in I said, "What does that entail?" They prehistoric men and women, who saw said, "We'll pay you." I said, "Great!" the stars as unchanging, immortal That was 24 and a half years ago! beings. SI: Tell us about the Miami Space SI: How did you yourself become Transit Planetarium itself. interested in astronomy? J.H.: It opened in 1966 as one of J.H.: I think all astronomers worth the largest planetariums of its kind. their salt will admit that it begins in It's unique in that the starfield is one childhood; something back then got of the few ever designed by Roy K. them hooked on the awe, the immen­ Marshall, the great astronomer of the sity, the wonder of it all. For me, it forties and the fifties. It's probably one was a lunar eclipse. Wow!" of the most natural looking starfields SI: What prompted you to then go in the world. We can duplicate all kinds on and take up the study of stars of motions, not only on the planet but professionally? off the planet. We've won inter­ J.H.: Harlow Shapley, one of the national awards, our shows are seen great astronomers of our century, all over the world, and we were the said, when asked that same question, first planetarium ever to get a grant "Because they're so pretty." from NASA to produce an inter­ SI: Your approach to astronomy on national show [Slarbound]. We were "Star Hustler" has on occasion been the first planetarium in the country called "too flamboyant." The word that we know of to produce science hustler itself suggests a carnival-like dramas: full multimedia shows, full atmosphere. What do you say to those soundtracks, professional narration. who assert that science is a serious Sally Jessy Raphael narrated my topic that should be presented in a shows Child of the Universe and Buck restrained, scholarly manner? Rogers, Right On. Leonary Nimoy, J.H.: One word? Bullshit. They're Arthur Godfrey, and several other wrong. This attitude turns science media celebrities have done shows for into a religion, makes it inaccessible, us here too. the very opposite of what it should SI: While astronomers today use be. radio telescopes instead of stone SI: Science then becomes dog­ circles, isn't humanity's primal fasci­ matic? nation with the stars still at the root J.H.: Of course! It becomes the very of contemporary astronomy? thing that good scientists are scream­ J.H.: Yes. We are animals; we are ing against. How far are we away from biological, chemical organisms; we are astrology when we get misguided products of evolution. Our fascination scientists going around saying that with the stars goes way back to astronomy must be treated with great prehistoric times. Indeed, it seems that reverence? Science is for everyone!

410 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 SI: How do you see your role as there isn't any rise in crime at all a popularizer of astronomy? during a full moon. Yet stories about J.H.: I want to reach people no one the moon and crime from our grand­ else has been able to reach. I could parents' day are still circulating, tell you lots of stories about people leading many to believe that the moon who have been turned on to the stars directly affects human behavior. This for the first time through my televi­ nonsense is then reinforced by the sion shows and planetarium lectures; wild claims of astrologers. young and old, educated and unedu­ SI: In 1984, the Committee for the cated, from every walk of life. I get Scientific Investigation of Claims of letters from people in nursing homes the Paranormal called on all of the telling me that they watch my show newspapers in the United States to because they can no longer see the carry a disclaimer in their astrology stars themselves. Then there are the columns. As an astronomer, what are kids who get their first telescope after your views on astrology? coming to the planetarium or watch­ J.H.: People search for guidance. If ing the television show. This is my they don't get it from formalized reward. I don't do "Star Hustler" for the money. I do it because I want to share my love of science with others. "I do it because I want to share SI: Many people continue to believe my love of science with others." that the full moon brings out violent, romantic, or lunatic behavior in other­ wise "normal individuals. How do you religion, they turn to an informal defend the moon against such religion, and that's what astrology is; charges? it's an informal religion. The books J.H.: Well, it's true: celestial bodies don't say this, but it's the biggest, most can affect the human mind. Suppose popular religion in the world. [Anthro­ you get hit in the head by a meteorite? pologists refer to astrology as one of That would definitely have a direct the "celestial religions.] The planets effect! Seriously though, the moon and stars were originally thought to does affect human behavior, but not be deities that affect human behavior, in the way most people think it does. human destiny. It's said, really, that Historically speaking, there once were so many people today continue to use more crimes committed during the full astrology as a guide on how to live. moon. Not because of some myste­ I've talked to teachers who treat their rious lunar force, but for two very students according to their individual simple reasons: one, before the advent astrological signs. This is child abuse. of gas and electric light, many people It's beyond imagination. It's supersti­ found it more convenient to travel, tion, high-tech witchery. plant crops, or hold festivals, parties SI: What do you see as the primary and meetings on nights of the full difference between astronomy and moon because of the bright light. The astrology? more people out, the more easily J.H.: Simply put: astrology is sub­ crimes were committed against them. jective, astronomy is objective. Astrol­ Second, with so many people out and ogy is a religion, astronomy is a about, more homes were empty. The science. result? More break-ins. Today, how­ SI: Astronomy has been called the ever, with modern lighting, all of that "oldest of the physical sciences," while has changed. Statistics now show that systematic astrology began in Meso-

Summer 1993 411 potamia a mere 4,400 years ago. Yet They're laughing all the way to the the myth that astrology arose prior bank! to astronomy persists. SI: A majority of Americans say J.H.: Astronomy comes first be­ they have seen or believe in the cause you have to know the motions existence of UFOs. What, in your of the stars before you write a opinion, is behind this phenomenon? horoscope! And of course, we have J.H.: Objects that are not easily carvings of the moon on bones, and identifiable to the majority of people! cave drawings of the moon dating back Look, there are lots of UFOs; lots of to the Paleothic period, long before flying objects are unidentifiable. civilization emerged. These prehis­ What's really behind all of this is that toric people were studying the work­ people want to believe in something ings and paths of the planets and stars, that's bigger than themselves. Let's not casting astrological charts!. put it this way, most human institu­ SI: Despite the best efforts of tions are full of hypocrisy. We have skeptics, science teachers, and scien­ evangelists on the take, and so on. tists themselves, the popularity of These institutions don't provide ade­ astrology and other pseudosciences quate answers to questions about the seems to increase with each passing universe, and so people have to turn year. What are your feelings about to something for comfort, for this? answers. As a skeptic and scientist, I J.H.: Part of this had to do with naturally don't believe in things like simple statistics: the total world astrology or UFOs. But at the same population increases each year. Thus time, I don't think the spiritual rug the amount of people who embrace should be pulled out from under the pseudosciences increases propor­ people who are not ready, or who have tionally. More important, however, nothing to replace their belief systems has been the development of elec­ with. Many are simply not intellectu­ tronic communications: radio, televi­ ally equipped to go beyond astrology sion satellites, computers, tape and other spiritual belief systems. This recorders, telephones, videos, and fax is why I say that scientists must machines. While these technologies combine reason with compassion. If have greatly accelerated the prolifer­ we lose our humanity we might as well ation of authentic science on a global join the ranks of magicians posing as scale, they have helped spread the psychics and other fakes. pseudosciences as well. Demand cre­ SI: You spend a lot of time gazing ates supply, and soon we have organ­ skyward. Have you yourself ever seen izations like Time-Life, who feed this what some would call a "UFO"? hunger by publishing books on the J.H.: Sure. Then I go out, make paranormal. some phone calls, do some research, SI: What is your opinion of Time- and find out what it was! Inevitably, Life's promotion of the pseudo- it turns out to be a combination of sciences? an atmospheric phenomenon and a J.H.: They've lost all credibility, celestial phenomenon. It can look quite period. They're not interested in spooky and quite convincing to the truth, they're interested in making untrained or uncritical eye. Obviously money. The individual head execu­ there is a psychological factor involved tives of the companies like these pull in believing that these things are down millions a year. They don't care "flying saucers." That's what fasci­ that they're fleecing the public. nates me, not so much the "UFOs"

412 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 themselves. SI: There are those who would maintain that the universe is only "I'm very much into feeling a 6,000 to 10,000 years old. Yet light is part of nature and the natural traveling to us from stars that are processes of the universe. I'm thousands, even millions of light- years from Earth. Why, in the face of filled with the wonder of it all. such naked evidence to the contrary, In the end, isn't that the essence is the religious creation model so appealing to so many? of both good science and true J.H.: People believe what they want spirituality?" to believe, and if they have a belief system that tells them to believe such and such, no matter what the evidence that was supposed to have occurred says, they will. Most are not willing at the leader's moment of birth, or to risk jeopardizing their own value during another important time in his systems. If logic cannot dislodge life. If such an event didn't actually personal prejudice, no matter how occur, the astrologers invented one. obvious the logic is, then you're Often the appearance of a new comet dealing with a form of brainwashing, could literally bring down an entire of indoctrination. Millions of people empire. Caesar and all of the other all over the world are inflicted with great emperors had a star heralding this "illness." A good example is the their births. Heraldic stars proclaimed religious fundamentalists: some of great events like births, deaths, and these sects would literally kill each marriages. As Shakespeare said: other in order to prove that "God is "When beggars die, there are no love"! Observation tells us that logic comets seen; The heavens themselves is not enough for some. If you take blaze forth the death of princes." It's a brain and sufficiently condition it a symbolic theme found in every from birth, put a fear system into it, ancient culture throughout the world. that person will fight to preserve that Even though I come from a Jesuit programmed belief. Subconscious background myself, I don't take the fears will prevent that person from Star of Bethlehem literally. For if this submitting to logic. To those who say was indeed a historical event, then the the universe is only 6,000 years old, church must accept the fact that it is I say, the image they have of their god promoting astrology. must be very small indeed. SI: How is it that from Earth it SI: Christian mythology teems looks to us as if the stars are moving with astronomical, even astrological away from us, yet Einstein showed symbolism. What, for example, is that there is no center to the universe? behind the "Star of Bethlehem" J.H.: Well, we start with the big theme? bang. Then if we picture the universe J.H.: Funny you should ask that. as a big balloon with dots painted on I once did a five-hour talk show on it, the dots represent galaxies. Then, this topic! Heraldic stars are political, pretending that you're standing on pure and simple. In ancient times, one of those dots, you slowly blow up shooting stars and comets were con­ the balloon. You'll find that no matter sidered portents, omens of power. A which dot you "stand" on, all of the ruler would hire astrologers to find other dots appear to be moving away signs of a great event in the heavens from you.

Summer 1993 413 SI: The ancient Babylonians, Chi­ Jesus," I just boil over. I agonize over nese, and Egyptians were all fairly children or invalids who are trapped sophisticated astronomers in their in homes with people like this. If day. What are the most significant someone is sick and suffering from an changes that have taken place in illness, it is an insult to have such ideas astronomy since the Bronze Age? forced on them. I think that religious J.H.: Most important, the use of the beliefs like these are a crime against telescopes. In 1610, Galileo saw the the human mind, against human moons of Jupiter through a telescope dignity. Unfortunately, we will always and proved that we are not a geo­ have unethical people preying on the centric system. Second, the develop­ gullible and desperate. ment of spacecraft and computer SI: What relevancy does astronomy technology. These things have funda­ and space exploration have for the mentally and forever altered the world average person? in which we live, as well as our J.H.: Most modern technologies are perception of it. spinoffs of the American space pro­ SI: Many ancient and medieval gram. Nearly all jobs today are related, scientists paid a heavy price for in some way, to data gleaned from viewing "God's creation" skeptically. astronomical pursuits. And so I see J.H.: I feel a great sadness for all thespace program as the most cost those who were persecuted in the productive enterprise that humanity name of science, people like Giordano has ever undertaken. If we took the Bruno, who was burned at the stake money set aside for NASA and gave because of his astronomical findings. it back to Congress, where do you I'm sure there were thousands just like think it would go, to the poor? Hell him who perished silently, alone, in no, it would go to another bureauc­ agony. Think of all the great minds racy. For one thing NASA is the least throughout history who had put up corrupt of all the agencies. To me, it's with intolerant belief systems. like the Holy of Holies. The bottom SI: On "Star Hustler" you are line is that astronomy creates jobs, careful to separate physics from improves the quality of life, and metaphysics, no doubt, in part, teaches us about the universe, and because the general public is often ultimately about ourselves. unaware of the line that separates SI: How likely is it that Earth is science from pseudoscience. the only planet in the cosmos that J.H.: I was on a talk show in contains sentient beings? Philadelphia once, and the host asked J.H.: I suggest you call Carl Sagan. me, "What do you think about Shirley I agree with him! Seriously, though, MacLaine's new book?" I said, "I don't I believe that the universe is populated care to discuss it." He asked "Why with sentient beings. We like to think not?" I said, "Because I was Shirley our species is the only intelligent life- MacLaine in a past life and I've had form in the cosmos. I don't agree. I enough of her!" Seriously though, this think that dolphins, gorillas, and is a real problem. I'm horrified by these chimps are pretty hip. Listen, there "crystal people," the "New Agers," the are planets everywhere in space. Logic channelers. When I see some self- says that "we are not alone." righteous televangelist telling people SI: Some take the development of that cancer and other illnesses are the current astrophysical concepts like result of evil spirits and that they can "wormholes," a "tenth planet," "baby only be cured by getting "closer to universes," "imaginary time," and

414 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 "white holes" as a sign that empirical J.H.: Actually, I don't celebrate astronomy and metaphysics are mov­ Christmas in the traditional sense, and ing ever closer together. Will science I don't see the tree as being exclusively and religion ever become one? Christian. The evergreen itself is a J.H.: I don't think well ever reach symbol of the winter solstice, of the point where we talk about how spiritual renewal, of hope for the many angels sit on the head of a future. I celebrate equinoxes too. You singularity. Otherwise I defer to see, I'm an optimist, and so for me Stephen Hawking. I have a little altar these are periods of rejuvenation, of to him in my room and I light a candle rebirth, of the revitalization of life, for him once a month ... on the night just as they were to ancient peoples. of a full moon! Ill aways be drawn to things like SI: Speaking of Hawking, do you Stonehenge, the Maya, medicine have any heroes, or people who you wheels. I still love to watch the sun personally admire? rise in the morning and the moon rise J.H.: Well, aside from Sagan and at night. I see my own yard as a small Hawking, all of the people at the Jet Stonehenge: it marks the passing of Propulsion Laboratory and at NASA. the seasons. I guess you could say that, These people are epic; they are mytho- though I'm nonreligious in the logic to me. They are the great orthodox sense, I'm spiritual in what "spiritual" leaders of our time, and I think of as the original meaning of they're producing the great mythol­ the word. That is, I'm very much into ogies of modern-day society. My feeling a part of nature and the natural "religion" is the religion of JPL and processes of the universe. I'm filled NASA, it really is. with the wonder of it all. In the end, SI: Aristarchus, Ptolemy, Coperni­ isn't that the essence of both good cus, Herschel, and many others saw science and true spirituality? incredible advances in astronomy during the time periods in which they lived. What, in your view, is the most Gabriel Seabrook is a writer on scientific exciting development in astronomy and religious topics, founder of the today? Collegium for Cognitive Religiology, a J.H.: Multi-mirror, computerized member of the American Anthropological telescopes. Computers help us control Association, and a board member of the telescopes and refine data in ways that Institute for Free New Thought. He is we never could before. currently writing several books on the SI: One last question. As a skeptic origins and development of religious and a scientist, you maintain a highly thought. Jack Horkheimer may be critical view of established religion. contacted at the Miami Space Transit Yet you have a Christmas tree here Planetarium, 3280 5. Miami, FL in your office. 33129; (305) 854-4244.

Summer 1993 415 Book Reviews

Skepticism and Science In Mental Testing

A Question of Intelligence: The IQ Debate in America. By Daniel Seligman. Carol Publishing Group, New York, 1992. 239 pp. Hardcover, $16.95.

U LEE LOEVINGER

keptical inquiry is a wise attitude, to present the IQ debate in terms as the readers of this publication comprehensible to the ordinary liter­ S are aware, when confronted ate citizen, which is necessary because with such popular beliefs as those in much of the debate has been con­ astrology, telepathy, the prophecies of ducted at a high level of statistical professional seers, and other aspects sophistication. As a preliminary, of the paranormal. But skepticism is Seligman therefore starts out with an equally useful in confronting many of explanation of statistical correlation the ideas that constitute conventional and standard deviation. After describ­ wisdom, particularly those that have ing what it's like to take an IQ test, some current popularity as being Seligman wades into the crux of the "politically correct." controversy, which is whether there Confronting the attitudes now cur­ is any single mental trait that can be rent in the mass media and the popular measured and identified as intelli­ press about mental testing is the gence. Athough some psychologists mission that Daniel Seligman, a argue that there are numerous differ­ longtime editor and writer for Fortune, ent mental faculties and that they undertakes in A Question of Intelligence. cannot be meaningfully combined in In the Preface he states his assumption a single score like an IQ, a recent book, that most educated Americans, having The ]Q Controversy, the Media, and been told repeatedly that IQ tests are Public Policy, by Mark Snyderman and biased against poor people and racial Stanley Rothman (1988), reports that minorities, accept this conclusion, an extensive survey of psychometri- doubt that such tests do or can cians, the experts in the field, shows measure intelligence, and would be remarkable agreement among them happy to have IQ testing abolished. that there is such a thing as general He undertakes to demonstrate that all intelligence (usually identified as g) of these conclusions are wrong, but and that it is measured fairly well by confesses that most readers will find IQ tests. his message "deeply troubling." The real controversy about IQ tests The stated purpose of the book is arises from two facts that seem

416 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 incompatible with the political basic tension between the American assumptions of democracy. These are: commitment to the ideal of equality first, that there are reliable differences and the uncomfortable fact of intel­ in average group scores when IQ tests lectual inequality. He gives what I are given to different ethnic and racial think are the clearly proper answers populations; and, second, that IQ is to those who are troubled by this substantially, but not entirely, deter­ apparent antagonism. mined by heredity. Seligman examines The equality of rights, the equality both of these subjects in detail with of everyone before the law, is not an extensive but nontechnical and merely a legal principle but is founded fairly balanced summary of the on basic concepts of morality. It has evidence. nothing to do with individual equality One major conclusion is the or inequality in intellect or in any scarcely debatable proposition that other personal characteristic. Indeed, people with high IQs tend to do well to consider that inequality of personal in life. CEOs of large corporations, abilities or talents is even relevant to judges, research scientists, senior the principle of equal rights is implic­ executives, and others in prestigious itly to assert that such factual inequal­ and high-paying occupations are ity might justify unequal treatment, almost always people of superior which is contrary to our fundamental mentality (although sometimes of political principles. Nobel laureate unpleasant personality). Furthermore, F. A. Hayek is quoted as saying: "It in almost every other kind of job the is of the essence of the demand for best predictor of performance is equality before the law that people intelligence, not experience or formal should be treated alike in spite of the education, or any combination of the fact that they are different." two. At every level of job complexity, With respect to the demonstrable tested intelligence is a better indicator fact of differences in average IQ scores of job performance than any combi­ between different ethnic and racial nation of credentials or tests of specific groups, the appropriate response is job knowledge. This is true of aca­ also clear. The range of individual demic performance, as well as of differences in IQ among the members employment occupations, since Scho­ of all groups that have been tested is lastic Aptitude Tests (SATs) are quasi- approximately the same, although the IQ tests. group averages may differ by as much Although related in nontechnical, as a standard deviation. In other lucid, and easily understandable lan­ words, all racial and ethnic groups guage, Seligman supports the data for have extremely smart, as well as these conclusions by endnote citations extremely stupid, members, with the and an inclusive bibliography. How­ majority clustered between these ever, the limits of the data are also extremes, and group averages are no noted. The correlations between IQ indication of intelligence (or any other and success in various fields is not characteristic) of any individual close to 1.0. For example, the corre­ member of a group. As a matter of lation between IQ and income is about common sense, as well as political .50, which translates into a "coeffi­ principle, this means that individuals cient of correlation" indicating that should be judged and treated as about 25 percent of the variability in individuals and not as members of a income is traceable to IQ differences. group. The final paragraph in Selig- Finally, Seligman confronts the man's book is: "One major message

Summer 1993 417 of the IQ data is that groups are heredity and IQ variability ranging different. A major policy implication from .50 to .80. of the data, I would argue, is that In this wide survey of data and people should not be treated as arguments there will surely be some­ members of groups but as indi­ thing to displease everyone. My own viduals." senior-citizen sensibilities are jarred The most controversial issue con­ by the chapter titled "Slipping: How cerning intelligence is the heritability Intelligence Declines with Age." That of IQ. As Seligman says, passions are seems an unduly harsh description of regularly torn to tatters over this my own mild episodes of absent- issue. But two aspects are often mindedness. overlooked. First, the debate is neces­ While the research is mainly aca­ sarily over how much of the difference demic, the subject of intelligence and between people is attributable to individual variability is not of merely heredity, not the unanswerable ques­ academic interest. Data on the subject tion of what determines an individual are important for many of the social IQ. Second, it is indisputable that both and political problems confronting the heredity and environment contribute country today. A healthy skepticism to the variability of intelligence; and toward current cliches and slogans is the only sensible question is the warranted. But in practical affairs relative importance of the two ele­ conclusions must be reached and ments. Although this debate is at least decisions made. For these the best a century old, it has become more guide we have is science and the data acrimonious since World War II, partly it produces. This book is a competent because of revulsion against Nazi and inclusive survey of the best data atrocities, attributed to their false and science has produced to date in the distorted notions of genetics, and field of mental testing. partly because of the growth of egalitarian political ideologies. Selig­ man summarizes and analyzes the Lee Loevinger is a Washington lawyer accumulating evidence of numerous with a degree in psychology. He frequently recent studies showing correlations of reviews books on scientific subjects.

An Illustrated Guide to Quackery

American Health Quackery. By James Harvey Young. Princeton University Press, 1992. 299 pp. Hardcover, $24.95.

HI TERENCE HINES

ames Harvey Young is the leading appeared in 1961. This excellent text, expert on health quackery in which told the story of American J America, a topic long neglected quackery up to the passage of the Food by historians until his ground­ and Drugs Act of 1906, is now out breaking Toadstool Millionaires of print. It was followed in 1967 by

418 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 The Medical Messiahs, which brought the story up to 1966. Both these titles were also published by Princeton University Press. The Medical Messiahs is available in a 1992 paperback edition, with a new Afterword. The present book is a collection of 14 of Young's essays on health quackery. Most have been published previously, although in some cases in shorter form or in obscure locations, such as local campus magazines. Thus their publication here is a valuable service in that they are made available to a wider audience. The essays run the gamut from the new-to-print history of the development of the author's interest in quackery (Chapter l) to detailed and highly referenced chapters on the history of laetrile (Chapter 13) and "AIDS and Decep­ tive Therapies" (Chapter 14), also new to print. These last two chapters will the basic fact that humans are not very be of special interest to readers of the good at perceiving the real relation­ SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. ship between cause and effect. Thus Other chapters concern such var­ the individual who goes to an arthritis ied topics as the sale of quack med­ quack when his or her pain is at its icines intended for use on children, greatest and gets a copper bracelet (or quackery by the federal and state whatever) will strongly attribute the governments (several chapters), and following lessening of. pain to the the psychology behind the success of bracelet and not to the natural ups and quacks and the reasons patients fall downs of the arthritis that are the real victim to their claims (several cause. This is but one example of chapters). numerous instances of what might be One important and recurring termed information-processing fail­ theme is Young's belief that the battle ures, which will always allow quacks against quackery will never end. The to exist. crusades against quackery date back, To counter such quackery, Young in America, to at least the early part argues, education may be important, of the nineteenth century. At that but governmental regulation is vital. time, the anti-quackery forces The government must impose at least believed that once the public was the minimum standard of proved better educated quackery would dis­ effectiveness on drugs that are offered appear. It didn't. As medical progress for sale. And it must deal sternly with advanced in the twentieth century, those who violate these standards. again the hope was that quackery While these standards seem quite would nearly disappear. Clearly it reasonable, they have recently been hasn't. Young correctly points out in much opposed by the health-food several chapters that the quack will industry and its now allied, and well- always be able to take advantage of organized, lobbying groups. As the

Summer 1993 419 The tax stamp that had to be affixed to Dalley's Magical Pain Reliever.

chapters on laetrile and AIDS make stamp is Scott number RS 4a. Printed clear, these minimal standards have in black, it is a beautiful example of been and are in danger of being the engraver's art, like so many other watered down in the face of hysteria similar stamps. Young reproduces, over particular quack cures and spe­ alas not in color, numerous examples cific diseases. of posters, labels, and trade cards of One additional feature of the book quack medicine pushers. These are deserves comment. It is beautifully both lovely and chilling, as is the illustrated. In the nineteenth and early poster for Mrs: Winslow's Sooth­ twentieth centuries, quack medicine ing Syrup for children during tee­ manufacturers and retailers produced thing. It contained high levels of excellent examples of advertising art. morphine. Included were posters, labels on the actual boxes or bottles of the medi­ —Terence Hines cines, and even the tax stamps that had to be affixed to the product during Terence Hines is a professor of psychology the periods in which products were at Pace University, Pleasantville, New taxed (1862-1883 and 1898-1900). An York, currently completing a sabbatical example of such a stamp, issued by at the University of Warsaw and Nenci the company producing Dalley's Mag­ Institute of Experimental Biology, War­ ical Pain Extractor, is shown here. The saw, Poland.

The Flat Error

Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians. By Jeffrey Burton Russell. Praeger, New York, 1991.117 pp., plus 26 pages of plates. Hardcover,

Jl MONTY VIERRA

o celebrate the quincentenary of spective coin collectors reads in part: Christopher Columbus's arrival T in the Western hemisphere, the Spain, 1492 . . . The world is flat. U.S. Mint in 1992 produced both a Navigation of the seas is limited by five-dollar gold coin and a one-dollar fear of sailing over the "edge." silver coin. The Mint's flyer to pro­ . . . Conventional wisdom cautions

420 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 against sailing west, "too near the edge."

As the story goes, says Jeffrey Burton Russell in his Inventing the Flat Earth, early Greek discoveries show­ ing the earth was a round ball had been shelved by the time of Christian ascendancy in the Roman Empire. According to Andrew Dickson White's History of the Warfare of Science with Theology (1895), many early church fathers were against the idea of a round earth because it distracted people from thinking about God. Roman maps of the time portrayed the world as a flat circle circumscribed by a great river, Oceanus. In the sixth century B.C., Cosmas Indicopleustes of Alexandria, drawing on metaphorical passages in the Bible, such as Isaiah they've either been misread or given 40:22, Proverbs 8:27, and Job 22:24, more credit than they deserved. The conceived of the earth as a flat, Middle Ages, he notes, never lost sight rectangular box (Daniel J. Boorstin, of the discoveries of Aristotle and The Discoverers, 1985:108-109). Euro­ Ptolemy. "The sphericity of the earth," peans of the eleventh century, Carl Russell quotes science historian David Sagan writes in Cosmos, "imagined a Lindberg, "was a central feature of flat Earth centered on Jerusalem." theoretical dogmas as it came down Throughout the twentieth century to the Middle Ages" (p. 2). The oft- and right up until the 1980s, Russell cited Cosmas was actually an eccentric writes, many textbooks and encylope- "whose works were ignored or dis­ dias subscribed to the view that people missed with derision throughout the from the Middle Ages and well into Middle Ages" (p. 4). the Renaissance believed the earth The "flat" maps used by Romans was flat, and Columbus set out to and Christians alike simply projected prove them wrong. the world in a way convenient for Yet it ain't so. Russell claims that their purposes. Their maps didn't in what he calls "The Flat Error" is flat any way contradict what the learned out an illusion. "The Error is not the already knew: the earth was a sphere. alleged medieval belief that the earth "A future historian would be unjus­ was flat, but rather the modern error tified in concluding from [a modern that such a belief ever prevailed" Mercator projection map of the world] (p. 3). that twentieth-century people Although the subtitle indicates the believed in a flat earth," notes Russell. book will be about Columbus, actually Yet this is what many modern writers, Russell uses the bulk of this slim particularly since the nineteenth volume to set the world aright. In his century, have concluded about the second chapter, he examines the people of the Middle Ages. authors often cited as having pro­ In fact, Russell maintains in his pounded the flat error and shows that third chapter, the idea that medieval

Summer 1993 421 Europeans believed the earth was flat History of the Life and Voyages of was due in part to the subsequent Christopher Columbus (1828). The tale battle over Darwin's theory of evo­ is "hard to resist, but it is fabrication, lution. Progressivists and secularists and it is largely upon this fabric that claimed to find in the Middle Ages a the idea of a medieval flat earth was time of reaction and irrationality, and established" in the modern English they likened anti-evolutionists to mind. supposed flat earthers of the Dark In his final chapter, Russell tries to Ages. "The educated public, seeing so sort out "why the Flat Error continues many eminent scientists, philo­ to persist." He gives five reasons: sophers, and scholars in agreement, (l) we fail to check methods and concluded that they must be right" sources; (2) we let biases outweigh evi­ (p. 46). dence; (3) we fail to apply skepticism For Russell, the problem has come to our own worldview; (4) we assume about because too many writers rely our views are superior "to that of older too much on secondary sources rather cultures"; and (5) our fallacies and than on primary ones. The Christian myths take on a life of their own. church of the Middle Ages, he says, Russell concludes by observing that was not anti-science. Rather, many in we have a terror of the unknown and the medieval church, such as Bede and of meaninglessness—a terror of "fal­ Isidore, valued scientific knowledge; ling off the edge of knowledge [which] and at worst, others were simply is greater than the imagined fear of indifferent to it where it did not touch falling off the edge of the earth. And on questions of morality and theology. so we prefer to believe a familiar error In addition to the evolutionists' than to search, unceasingly, the need to repudiate their opponents, darkness" (p. 77). argues Russell in Chapter 4, there was a stirring picture of Columbus-the- Monty Vierra teaches English as a for­ courageous standing against the eign language part-time at Nihon Uni­ benighted churchmen. This image was versity, Mishima Campus, Mishima painted by Washington Irving in his City, Japan.

Creationism: Not Only Bad Science But Bad Religion

Scientific Malpractice: The Creation/Evolution Debate. By Ivan L. Zabilka. Bristol Books, Lexington, Ky., 1992. 160 pp. Paper, $9.95.

Ill ROBERT A. BAKER

Although the gulf between science and the church. In fact, a L^ science and religion has always number of steps were taken on the / \been wide and deep, before part of both the church and the 1960 there was little in the way of scientific community to harmonize irreconcilable conflicts between their differences and develop better

422 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 understanding and working relations evolutionary scientists. Creation­ between the black-garbed clerics and ism is an inadequate alternative be­ the white-coated specialists. cause it rejects much of modern sci­ Things were going well between ence without sufficient justification the two groups until the early 1970s, or adequate alternatives. Further­ more, the Creationist position is the when a number of conservative Chris­ result of an inappropriate method tians calling themselves Scientific of interpreting the Bible, (p. 8) Creationists decided to speak for all Christians. Their edict was simple: Zabilka makes it very clear not only Christianity is only partially or inade­ that the creationists are wrong but quately understood if the creationists' that his intent is to "focus upon the position is not adopted. They insisted traditionally orthodox Christian posi­ that the creation/evolution conflict is tion that science and religion are the strategic issue confronting the compatible and to provide a more church today. They further insisted adequate interpretation of the rele­ that a person not believing—as they vant biblical passages that allows us believe—that the universe was to keep the progress that modern created 10,000 years ago, has only an science has made in understanding inadequate faith or has been duped by origins." Zabilka reaches these goals the scientific community. Since that by presenting every one of the crea­ time the creationists have succeeded tionist arguments and then tearing it in convincing a majority of Americans to shreds, showing that creationists that their position is not only the fail to understand the very Bible they correct one but one so important it quote. This is typified by their use of ought to be presented in the public the hermeneutic called "proof- schools—as important as, and equal in texting," that is, they begin with a validity to, the scientific concept of fixed conclusion and then seek quota­ evolution. tions to support it. The result is nei­ Because most Christians believe ther good science nor good theology. that God is the originator of the Zabilka then attacks the creation­ universe (even though they have only ists' political objectives, showing that the vaguest notion about how God they have also distorted the core of may have gone about it), they— the Christian faith (Christ's divinity without knowing too much about and salvation) by focusing upon scientific creationism—find themselves creation alone. Moreover, they also sympathetic to the idea. Ivan L. attack other Christian beliefs, make Zabilka has four advanced degrees in the church's views appear to be theology and the history of science. ridiculous, seek to impose their own In Scientific Malpractice, a comprehen­ views on society as a whole, and have sive and lucid little volume, he stresses succeeded in polarizing both the that creationism is not only undeserv­ scientific and the religious commun­ ing of the prominent position it has ities into one of two choices: creation­ gained, it is also bad religion as well ism or scientific atheism. Zabilka as bad science and in no conceivable persuades us there is another alter­ way deserves to bear the label "scien­ native for believers and clearly states tific." In his words: his position as both an Evangelical Christian and a scientist: Creationism is not a satisfactory alternative to the atheism implicit . . . Whatever in science relates to in some exposition of origins by the physical universe will be corn-

Summer 1993 423 patible with the revelation of God cation, as well as Harold S. Slusher, in the created cosmos, if both are John W. Moore, Martin E. Clark, properly understood. We may W. L. Wysong, and Robert E. Kofahl— expect God to be consistent, not in Zabilka's words, "appear to be capricious." (pp. 16-17) scientifically, socially, and religiously narrow." This description is fully In the following chapter Zabilka substantiated by their frequent con­ points out that most creationists are fusion of biological evolution with not scientifically trained. They are, social Darwinism. They also see instead, technologically trained. Where­ evolution as the fountainhead of other as the scientist is trained to think assumed evils, such as relativism, abstractly and theoretically in an mechanistic and positivistic philoso­ exploratory and tentative fashion, the phies in the sciences, and determinism technologist is only interested in what in philosophy. Their major beliefs works. Where the scientist sees a include the following: (1) the Earth is spectrum of possibilities, the tech­ only about 10,000 years old; (2) human nician is looking for the "one best beings and the apes are not related solution." Creationists are predomi­ in any way; (3) fossils are all the result nantly technicians and, sadly enough, of the universal flood several thou­ many engineers, computer experts, sand years ago; (4) the obivous com­ and clinical physicians also oppose plexity of life is by simple probability evolution. As a result, with this base impossible—the inherent design of respectability, the creationists have necessitates a designer; (5) the uni­ been able to gain a hearing among all verse, and everything in it, was of those already distrustful and sus­ created from nothing; and (6) God, not picious of the indefiniteness and matter, is eternal. abstractness of formal science. In the following chapter Zabilka Not only are the creationists fun­ reviews the social and political impli­ damentalist in their belief that the cations of creationism, tracing the Bible provides the one and only correct history and the conduct of the Scopes picture of reality, they also believe the Trial (1925-1927) as well as its after­ sole function of science is to provide math. Since those days, the creation­ the supporting evidence. Nor will the ists have amassed a large following creationists tolerate differences—to with hundreds of thousands of Amer­ differ means that you are wrong. The icans and numerous libraries on their creationists have also separated them­ mailing lists. Their total number today selves from the Protestant churches may be as high as 18 million. As for in general and publish only in crea­ their influence, they have been instru­ tionist journals and with creationist mental to introducing legislation in at publishers. None of the "research" least 35 states, seeking to legalize the they do is peer-reviewed or subjected teaching of creationism alongside to any criticism of any sort. In sum, evolution in the science classroom. In the creationists—led by Henry M. Arkansas and Louisiana they secured Morris, director of the Institute for passage of such laws, which were Creation Research (ICR); Duane Gish, challenged in the courts and struck associate director of ICR; Gary Parker down. They have influenced textbook and Richard Bliss, also of ICR; Kelly adoption in several states, especially L. Seagraves of the Creation Science Texas and California, although in Research Center; Paul Ellwanger of California their power seems to be the Committee for Fairness in Edu­ eroding.

424 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Zabilka next addresses the scien­ creationists and commit the same sins. tific arguments of creationists in depth Zabilka also makes it clear that one and finds them wanting on each and of the reasons creationists continue to every issue; the problem of "kinds," receive a public hearing is that evo­ the fossil record, the origin-of-life lution itself is, in no way, free of problem, the evidence of geology, difficulties. There are serious prob­ astronomy, and physics, as well as the lems with strictly mechanistic and creationists' misuse of probability, the deterministic views as well as with rules of evidence, and just about every "scientism." He also stresses that dis­ other tool and technique of the agreements and disarray among the scientific process. Creationism is not evolutionists themselves have played in any way science. What they must into the creationists hands. be credited with, Zabilka says, "is Zabilka, in his closing arguments, marvelous political skill and immense makes a number of comments and success in getting science debated in recommendations that everyone the public arena." interested in the creationist/evolution Zabilka next shows how the crea­ debate should ponder: (l) The Scrip­ tionists have not only misinterpreted tures, properly interpreted, do not the Bible but have also caused embar­ require an anti-evolutionary stance rassment to the Christian faith. As for (2) Scientists need to recognize their their political/legal strategy, discussed own metaphysical assumptions. fully in Chapter 6, it is clear that (3) Christians have an obligation creationist political influence is wan­ under American law to keep the ing. This does not mean, however, metaphysical debate out of the class­ that their strategy has not succeeded room. (4) Creationism is not science in arousing antagonism toward and should not be seen as a science. science and causing many to regard (5) Both Christians and scientists all science as a potent threat to should avoid all arrogance. (6) Natural traditional values. Although creation­ revelation and special revelation do ism cannot win on the basis of its not conflict, although interpretation scientific merits, Zabilka warns, it can of them will. (7) The truth is more cause havoc in the area of public moral difficult to discern than either crea­ attitudes. For example, the Christian tionists or scientists would have us Heritage College in California and believe. A flexible interpretation of Liberty University in Virginia, both of both the Bible and scientific results, which turn out creationist public Zabilka believes, is most likely to school teachers, have recently been produce satisfactory results in the accredited and show an increase in long run. influence at the local level. While there are lengthier, more Although Zabilka's sympathies for comprehensive, and more authorita­ science are clear and unmistakable, he tive books about creationism from the warns against the kind of emotional, scientific point of view, e.g., Kitcher's sarcastic, and belittling outbursts that Abusing Science: The Case Against have occasionally appeared in some of Creationism (MIT Press, 1982), McGo- the skeptical journals. He also notes wan's In the Beginning . . . (Macmillan, that some scientists seem unable to 1983), Niles Eldredge's The Monkey differentiate magic and superstition Business (Washington Square Press, from theology and philosophy. When 1982), and D. J. Futuyma's Science on they do this, Zabilka cautions, they Trial: The Case for Evolution (Pantheon play into the dogmatic hands of Books, 1982), there are few, if any,

Summer 1993 425 as clear, concise, yet also as thorough carefully, she stated, "I think that as Zabilka's. Written from both the science in a way is the highest form scientific and religious point of view, of piety, because it is always whisper­ Zabilka's arguments are effective, ing in our ears, 'Remember, you could sensible and unusually persuasive. be wrong.' " Zabilka would agree. They also remind us of a remark made by Ann Druyan in her new book with Robert Baker is professor emeritus of Carl Sagan. Choosing her words psychology at the University of Kentucky.

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426 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 New Books

Aping Language. Joel Wallman. Cam­ that often seemed unfounded. An bridge University Press, 110 Midland international group of experts, Avenue, Port Chester, NY 10573.191 brought together for a special meeting pp. $47.95 hardcover, $13.95, paper­ of the American Chemical Society's back. A critical assessment of each of Division of the History of Chemistry, the recent experiments designed to contributed chapters examining spe­ impart a language, either natural or cific aspects of the controversy. The invented, to apes. Compares the editor says that in his opinion "the performance of these animals in riddle has now been solved." experiments with the course of semantic and syntactic development in The Mask of Nostradamus. James children, examines what is known Randi. Prometheus Books, Buffalo, about our own species' language- N.Y., 1992. 256 pp. $16.95, paperback. learning attributes and the commun­ Paperback edition of book published ication of nonhuman primates in in hardcover by Scribner in 1990. This nature. is Randi's in-depth biography of the 16th-century astrologer and physi­ Empiricist Research on Teaching. cian. Randi shows how contemporary John H. Chambers. Kluwer Academic beliefs in magic and astrology adul­ Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Norwell, terated the science of the time. He MA 02061. 1992. 282 pp. hardcover. exposes some of the tricks Nostrada­ Presents a novel thesis that there has mus used to make his predictions seem been a pervasive misunderstanding in authentic and the rationalizations research on teaching. In attempting to used by followers throughout the be scientific, researchers have been centuries to make the prognostica­ empiricist. Moreover, because they tions "fit" subsequent events. have used a very restricted kind of empiricist method, their results have Miracle Mongers and Their Methods: been only moderately useful and A Complete Expose. Harry Houdini. research needs to be radically Prometheus Books, 700 East Amherst modified. Street, Buffalo, NY 14215. 1993. 240 pp. $15.95, paperback. A paperback The Kekule Riddle. John W. Woltz, edition of the work in which the ed. Cache River Press, Rt. 3, Box legendary magician and illusionist 239C, Vienna, IL 62595. 1993. 329 pp. reveals the techniques of fire-eaters, $78.00, hardcover. Did the chemist F. sword-swallowers, stone-eaters, August Kekule conceive the cyclic reptile-defiers, and other early mas­ structure of benzene, as well as his ters of deception. The Foreword is by theory of carbon chains, in his James Randi. dreams? This revisionist book re­ examines how, why, and if Kekule Mysterious Realms. Joe Nickell with merits this reputation, a reputation John F. Fischer. Prometheus Books,

Summer 1993 427 700 East Amherst Street, Buffalo, NY The Mythmaker's Magic. Delos B. 14215. 1993. 221 pp. $23.95, hard­ McKown. Prometheus Books, 700 cover. Authoritative examination of East Amherst Street, Buffalo, NY ten prominent "mysteries" that per­ 14215. 1993. 180 pp. $23.95, hard­ suaded many people that supernatural cover. The head of the Philosophy events happen. Nickell and Fischer use Department at Auburn University their skills and experience in historical looks behind the "illusion" of "creation document examination and forensic science." McKown has aimed his book research to examine a variety of "at the kind of intelligent, reasonably strange claims: Has the government open-minded, public-spirited people concealed evidence of UFO visitations who serve on the nation's school to Earth? Is there really a miracle of boards," as well as at science teachers congealed blood in a Naples cathedral? and scientists in general. Puts scien­ Are crop circles the work of unknown tific creationism into historical pers­ visitors or clever hoaxers? Did Lee pective, examines its legal and Harvey Oswald assassinate J.F.K. or constitutional strengths, and suggests was it a Soviet look-alike? Is a Ken­ tactics for thwarting its influence in tucky house really haunted by a "gray public education. lady's ghost"? —Kendrick Frazier

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428 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Articles Of Note

Coleman, Julian, and David Concar. the United States." Chapter 8 in B. "Pouring Cold Water on Lorenzo's Misztal and A. Shupe, eds., Religion Oil." New Scientist, March 6,1993, pp. and Politics in Comparative Perspective, 23-24. The movie Lorenzo's Oil relates 97-109. Prager, New York, 1993. the experience of two parents' heroic Examines the creationist movement quest for a cure for their son's and relates it to the concerns of degenerative disease. They felt that a cultural traditionalists upset by a wide dietary supplement, Lorenzo's oil, was range of modern sociopolitical trends responsible for halting the disease. they find disturbing. This article tells the other side of the story. A neurologist who has con­ Ferraiuolo, Perucci. "Warnke Calls ducted clinical trials with the sub­ Critics Satanists." Christianity Today, stance calls the movie "an abom­ 36(13): 49-52, November 9, 1992. ination" and attributes Lorenzo's long Mike Warnke, whose prominent survival to natural variability in the claims of having been part of a satanic severity of the disease. Many other conspiracy have been attacked by medical researchers also feel the movie Christian organizations as untrue, is claims too much. having financial problems. He accuses his critics of being part of a satanic DeWire, Elinor. "Don't Call Me conspiracy against him. Ernie!" Mariners Weather Log, 36(40): 32-35, Fall 1992. The New London French, Sean. "Diary." New Statesman Ledge Lighthouse is supposedly & Society, 6(235): 8, January 15, 1993. haunted by the ghost of a former Columnist French argues that astrol­ lighthouse keeper who committed ogy is not only nonsense, but harmful, suicide there. because of the worldview it creates.

Diamond, John. "News from the Hill, Lyda, and Nancy Oliver. "Tech­ Front." Times Saturday Review, 25, nique Integration: Therapeutic Touch January 2, 1993. Columnist Diamond and Theory-Based Mental Health says that the best argument against Nursing." Journal of Psychosocial Nurs­ psychics, spoon-benders, and so on is ing, 31(2): 18-22, February 1993. In the trivial nature of their concerns. Therapeutic Touch, nurses assess "the Why do the spirits spend their time client's energy field" by holding their predicting unimportant events when hands a few inches away from the skin they could be warning of famines, and trying to refocus the energy. This etc.? article attempts to apply TT to mental- health problems. Eve, Raymond A., and Francis B. Harrold. "Scientific Creationism and Hutchings, Vicki. "If They Ruled the the Politics of Lifestyle Concern in World." New Statesman & Society,

Summer 1993 429 6(235): 12-13, January 15, 1993. A O'Neill, Graeme. "There's No Science decidedly skeptical report on the First Like Pseudoscience." Search, 23(8): International Conference that exposes 235-236, September 1992. Scientific a global deception. Speakers reported and environmental journalists have to on conspiracies behind UFOs, the write about controversial topics. Illuminati, the JFK assassination, etc. O'Neill discusses the problem of maintaining objectivity while report­ James, Ronald M. "Knockers, ing all sides of such issues as dioxins, Knackers, and Ghosts: Immigrants in the greenhouse controversy, Noah's the Western Mines." Western Folklore, Ark, and chemical carcinogens. 51(2): 153-177, April 1992. A long scholarly study on the Tommy- Rogers, Stuart. "How a Publicity Blitz knockers, legendary haunters of the Created the Myth of Subliminal Cornwall mines, who managed to Advertising." Public Relations Quar­ make it into the mining legends of the terly, Winter 1993. How in the late American west. 1950s an unemployed market researcher, James M. Vicary, exploited Klemperer, Frances. "Ghosts, Visions, a new short-light-pulse instrument and Voices." British Medical Journal, called a tachistoscope to "invent a December 19-26,1992, pp. 1518-1519. sparkling new pseudoscience," sublim­ Note pointing out that hallucinations inal advertising, and persuaded CEOs, need not be pathological; they may marketing directors, and advertising often be simple perceptual mistakes. managers of multi-million-dollar cor­ porations to buy into it. Lovelock, James. "Gaia: Science or Myth." New Statesman & Society, Rosellini, Lynn. "The Case of the 6(237): 37-38, January 29, 1993. Weeping Madonna." U.S. News & Lovelock states that the Gaia hypothe­ World Report, March 29,1993, pp. 46- sis began with the views of the 55. Asks, "Are the extraordinary eighteenth-century geologist James events in a Virginia suburb a miracle Hutton and is based on a refusal to or a hoax?" This report on the latest fragment science into disciplines. highly publicized "weeping madonna" case includes a sidebar, "Charlatans in Mayor, Adrienne. "Derelict Ships." the Church," about James Randi's Mariners Weather Log, 36(4): 4-10, Fall exposure of faith-healer Peter Popoff 1992. Ghost stories like "The Flying and a photo and quotations of skep­ Dutchman" began with genuine tical physicist (Lawrence Berkeley encounters with derelict ships, some Lab) and magician Shawn Carlson: both bizarre and dangerous. "I could walk through and airport, never having been there before, and McCarthy, Paul. "Cryptozoologists: make virtually anything cry without An Endangered Species." The Scientist, touching it. I can also make statues 7(1): 1, 4-5, 7, January 11, 1993. Some cry for days to weeks on end and keep scientists have had their careers them crying without anyone around. stunted because of their involvement And these techniques have been in the International Society of Cryp- available for hundreds of years." Chip tozoology. A report on the work of Denman of the National Capital Area some of the society's members, includ­ Skeptics, whose offer to investigate ing the discovery of two genuine new was declined by the church, is also species. quoted.

430 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Sagan, Carl. "What's Really Going the author. The worst manifestations On?" Parade Magazine, March 7,1993, took place in psychology, biology, and pp. 4-6. A thoughtful examination of anthropology. The belief that there the phenomenon of reports of abduc­ could be a biological basis for behavior tions by alien spacecraft. Goes into the was called biologism and was consi­ nature, commonness, and causes of dered the ideology of the enemy. hallucinations, the cultural antece­ These ideological constraints evapo­ dents of, and influences on, today's rated in 1989, and have been replaced abduction stories, and the absence of now by financial constraints. any physical evidence that such abduc­ tions really happen. "What is more Weldon, Fay. "Down Among the likely," Sagan asks, "that we're under­ Scientists." New Scientist, December going a massive but generally over­ 19-26, 1992, pp. 40-41. A good- looked invasion by alien sexual humored but still pointed criticism, abusers, or that people are experienc­ from a writer and representative of ing an unfamiliar mental state?" the liberal arts, of "scientism." Scient- ism is the implied belief in the omni­ Siemens, David F. "More Problems present competence of science, With Flood Geology." Perspectives on combined with the notion that the Science and Christian Faith, 44(4): 228- "ethics" of science is identical to 235, December 1992. A Christian personal and social morality—or, as philosopher argues against creationist Weldon puts it, "if it's science it must ideas, such as postflood mountain- be right." She's actually responding, building and a pre-flood canopy of "waving a white flag," to criticisms by waters. scientists of an earlier article on the subject she'd been asked to write for Sigmon, Becky A. "Physical Anthro­ the Daily Telegraph. The core of pology in Socialist Europe." American concern here is scientific hubris and Scientist, March-April 1993, pp. 130- the unbecoming lack of humility 139. Finds that scholars in socialist exemplified in some scientists' think­ Europe were limited not only in the ing. It best be avoided, and reading questions they could ask but in the such constructive criticisms is one way answers they could consider. "The to see why. Stalinists rejected scientific theories and scientific evidence that did not —Kendrick Frazier conform to political ideology," notes and Robert Lopresti

Curiosity and Compassion

Science cannot develop unless it is pursued for the sake of pure knowledge and insight. It will not survive unless it is used intensely and wisely for the betterment of humanity and not as an instrument of domination. Human existence depends upon compassion and curiosity. Curiosity without compassion is inhuman; compassion without curiosity is ineffectual.

-MIT physicist Victor F. Weisskopf, "Science Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow," presented at the 159th Meeting of the AAAS, Boston, February 11-16, 1993.

Summer 1993 431 Fill in the gaps in your SKEPTICAL INQUIRER collection 15% discount on orders of $100 or more ($6.25 for each copy. To order, use reply card insert.)

SPRING 1993 (vol. 17, no. 3): Anguished silence and sense skepticism, Aach. Spook Hill, Wilder. Lucian and helping hands: Autism and Facilitated Communication, Alexander, Rowe. 1991 CSICOP conference. Shore and Mulik, Jacobson, and Kobe. Faciliated Communication, Frazier. Autism, and Ouija, Dillon. Treading on the edge: Practicing SUMMER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 4): Lucid dreams, Blackmore. safe science with SETI, Tarter. Education for science, Gore. Nature faking in the humanities, Gallo. Carrying the war A threat to science, Schatzman. Charles Honorton's legacy into the never-never land of psi: Part 2, Gill. Coincidences, to parapsychology, Blackmore. 1993 CSICOP Conference Paulos. Locating invisible buildings, Plummer. True proceedings. believers. Bower. WINTER 1993 (vol. 17, no. 2): Special report: 3.7 million SPRING 1991 (vol. 15, no. 3): Special report: Hi-fi Americans kidnapped by aliens? Stires and Klass. Psychics: pseudoscience, Davis. Searching for extraterrestrial Do police departments really use them? Sweat and Durm. intelligence: An interview with Thomas R. McDonough. Psychic detectives: A critical examination, Walter Roioe. Getting smart about getting smarts, Faulkes. Carrying the Therapeutic Touch, Bullough and Bullough. Improving war into the never-never land of psi: Part 1, Gill. Satanic science teaching in the U.S., Marek and Wayne Rowe. The cult 'survivor' stories, Victor. 'Old-solved mysteries': The Big Sur 'UFO,' George. The strange case of the New Haven Kecksburg incident. Young. Penn & Teller, the magical oysters, Quincey. iconoclasts, Gordon. Magic, medicine, and metaphysics in FALL 1992 (vol. 17, no. 1): A celebration of Isaac Asimov: Nigeria, Roder. What's wrong with science education? A man for the universe, Kendrick Frazier, Arthur C. Clarke, Look at the family, Eve. Frederik Pohl, Harlan Ellison, L Sprague de Camp, Carl Sagan,WINTE R 1991 (vol. 15, no. 2): Special report / Gallup Stephen jay Gould, Martin Gardner, Paul Kurtz, Donald Goldsmith,poll : Belief in paranormal phenomena, Gallup and Newport. James Randi, and E. C. Krupp. Gaia without mysticism. Science and self-government, Piel. West Bank collective Shannon. Gaia's scientific coming of age, Frazier. The curse hysteria episode, Stewart. Acceptance of personality test of the runestone: Deathless hoaxes, Whittaker. Night results, Thiriart. Belief in astrology: A test of the Barnum terrors, sleep paralysis, and devil-stricken telephone cords effect, French, Fowler, McCarthy, and Peers. A test of from hell, Huston. Scientific creationism: The social agenda clairvoyance using signal-detection, McKelvie and Gagne. of a pseudoscience. Shore. Observing stars in the daytime: Intercessory prayer as medical treatment? Wittmer and The chimney myth, Sanderson. Does an ancient Jewish Zimmerman. amulet commemorate the conjunction of 2 B.C.? Rubincam. FALL 1990 (vol. 15, no. 1): Neural Organization SUMMER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 4): Freedom of scientific Technique: Treatment or torture, Worrall. The spooks inquiry under siege, Kurtz. Psychic experiences: Psychic of quantum mechanics, Stenger. Science and Sir William illusions, Blackmore. The scientist's skepticism, Bunge. The Crookes, Hoffmaster. The 'N' machine, Gumming. Biological persistent popularity of the paranormal, Lett. Self-help cycles and rhythms vs. biorhythms, Wheeler. 1990 CSICOP books: Pseudoscience in the guise of science? Gambrill. Conference. Ghost lights in Texas, Lindee. SUMMER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 4): Ghosts make news: How SPRING 1992 (vol. 16, no. 3): Special Report: The four newspapers report psychic phenomena, Klare. Maharishi caper: JAMA hoodwinked, Skolnick. Myths of Thinking critically and creatively. Wade and Tavris. Police subliminal persuasion: The cargo-cult science of sublim­ pursuit of satanic crime. Part 2, Hicks. Order out of chaos inal persuasion, Pratkanis; Subliminal perception: Facts and in survival research, Berger. Piltdown, paradigms, and the fallacies, Moore; Subliminal tapes, Phelps and Exum. The Avro paranormal, Feder. Auras: Searching for the light, Loftin. V2-9 'flying saucer/ Blake. Two 19th-century skeptics: Biorhythms and the timing of death, Lester. Augustus de Morgan and John Fiske, Rothman. SPRING 1990 (vol. 14, no. 3): Why we need to understand WINTER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 2): On being sued: The chilliing science, Sagan. The crisis in pre-college science and math of freedom of expression, Kurtz. The crop-circle pheno­ education, Seaborg. Police pursuit of satanic crime. Part menon, Nickell and Fischer. Update on the 'Mars effect/ 1, Hicks. The spread of satanic-cult rumors, Victor. Lying Ertel. A dissenting note on Ertel's 'Update/ Kurtz. Magic about polygraph tests, Shneour. Worldwide disasters and Melanin: Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities. moon phase, Kelly, Saklofske, and Culver. Part 2, de Montellano. Adventures in science and cyclosophy, WINTER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 2): The new catastroph- de Jager. Searching for security in the mystical. Grimmer. ism, Morrison and Chapman. A field guide to critical think­ FALL 1991 (vol. 16, no. 1): Near-death experiences, ing, Lett. Cold fusion: A case history in 'wishful Blackmore. Multicultural pseudoscience: Spreading scien­ science'? Rothman. The airship hysteria of 1896-97. tific illiteracy. Part 1, de Montellano. Science and common- (continued on next page) Bartholomew. Newspaper editors and the creation- M.D.; Alternative therapies, Jones; Quackery, Pepper. evolution controversy, Zimmerman. Special report: New Catching Geller in the act, Emery. Special Report: evidence of MJ-12 hoax, Klass. CSICOP's 1987 conference. FALL 1989 (vol. 14, no. 1): Myths about science, Rothman. SUMMER 1987 (vol. 11, no. 4): Incredible cremations: The relativity of wrong, Asimov. Richard Feynman on Investigating combustion deaths, Nickell and Fischer. fringe science. Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest, Subliminal deception. Creed. Past tongues remembered? Muller. The two cultures, Jones. The 'top-secret UFO Thomason. Is the universe improbable? Shotwell. Psychics, papers' NSA won't release, Klass. The metaphysics of computers, and psychic computers, Easton. Pseudoscience Murphy's Law, Price. and children's fantasies, Evans. Thoughts on science and SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 4): The New Age—An superstrings, Gardner. Special Reports: JAL pilot's UFO Examination: The New Age in perspective, Kurtz. A New report, Klass; Unmasking psychic Jason Michaels, Busch. Age reflection in the magic mirror of science, O'Hara. SPRING 1987 (vol. 11, no. 3): The elusive open mind: The New Age: The need for myth in an age of science, Ten years of negative research in parapsychology, Schultz. Channeling, Alcock. The psychology of channeling. Blackmore. Does astrology need to be true? Part 2: The Reed, 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield, Thomason. answer is no, Dean. Magic, science, and metascience: Some Crystals, Lawrence. Consumer culture and the New Age, notes on perception, D. Sagan. Velikovsky's interpretation Rosen. The Shirley MacLaine phenomenon, Gordon. Special of the evidence offered by China, bo. report: California court jails psychic surgeon, Brenneman. WINTER 1986-87 (vol. 11, no. 2): Case study of West SPRING 1989 (vol. 13, no. 3): High school biology Pittston 'haunted' house, Kurtz. Science, creationism and teachers and pseudoscientific belief, Eve and Dunn. Evidence the Supreme Court, Seckel, with statements by Ayala, for Bigfoot? Dennett. Alleged pore structure in Sasquatch Gould, and Gell-Mann. The great East Coast UFO of August footprints, Freeland and Rowe. The lore of levitation. Stein. 1986, Oberg. Does astrology need to be true? Part 1, Dean. Levi tat ion 'miracles' in India, Premanand. Science, Homing abilities of bees, cats, and people, Randi. pseudoscience, and the cloth of Turin, Nickell. Rather than FALL 1986 (vol. 11, no. 1): The path ahead: Opportunities, just debunking, encourage people to think, Seckel. MJ-12 challenges, and an expanded view, Frazier. Exposing the papers 'authenticated'? Klass. A patently false patent myth, faith-healers, Steiner. Was Antarctica mapped by the Sass. ancients? Jolly. Folk remedies and human belief-systems, WINTER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 2): Special report: The Reuter. Dentistry and pseudoscience, Dodes. Atmospheric 'remembering water' controversy, Gardner and Randi; electricity, ions, and pseudoscience, Dolezalek. Noah's ark Bibliographic guide to the 'dilution controversy.' and ancient astronauts, Harrold and Eve. The Woodbridge Pathologies of science, precognition, and modern UFO incident, Ridpath. How to bust a ghost. Baker. psychophysics, Jensen. A reaction-time test of ESP and SUMMER 1986 (vol. 10, no. 4): Occam's razor, Shneour. precognition. Mines and Dennison. Chinese psychic's pill- Clever Hans redivivus, Sebeok. Parapsychology miracles, bottle demonstration, Wu Xiaoping. The Kirlian technique, and repeatability, Flew. The Condon UFO study, Klass. Watkins and Bickel. Certainty and proof in creationist Four decades of fringe literature, Dutch. Some remote- thought, Leferriere. viewing recollections, Weinberg. FALL 1988 (vol. 13, no. 1): Special report: Astrology and . SPRING 1986 (vol. 10, no. 3): The perennial fringe, the presidency, Kurtz and Bob. Improving Human Asimov. The uses of credulity, de Camp. Night walkers and Performance: What about parapsychology? Frazier. The mystery mongers, Sagan. CSICOP after ten years, Kurtz. China syndrome: Further reflections on the paranormal Crash of the crashed-saucers claim, Klass. A study of the in China, Kurtz. Backward masking, Mclver. The validity Kirlian effect, Watkins and Bickel. Ancient tales and space- of graphological analysis, Furnham. The intellectual revolt age myths of creationist evangelism, Mclver. against science, Grove. WINTER 1985-86 (vol. 10, no. 2): The moon was full SUMMER 1988 (vol. 12, no. 4): Testing psi claims and nothing happened, Kelly, Rotton, and Culver. Psychic in China, Kurtz, Alcock, Frazier, Karr, Klass, and Randi. The studies: The Soviet dilemma, Ebon. The psychopathology appeal of the occult: Some thoughts on history, religion, of fringe medicine, Sabbagh. Computers and rational and science, Stevens. Hypnosis and reincarnation, Venn. thought, Spangenburg and Moser. Pitfalls of perception, Wheeler. Wegener and pseudos­ FALL 1985 (vol. 10, no. 1): Investigations of firewalking, cience: Some misconceptions, Edelman. An investigation Leikind and McCarthy. Firewalking: reality or illusion, of psychic crime-busting, Emery. High-flying health quackery, Dennett. Myth of alpha consciousness, Beyerstein. Spirit- Hines. The bar-code beast, Keith. rapping unmasked, V. Bullough. The Saguaro incident, SPRING 1988 (vol. 12, no. 3): Neuropathology and the Taylor and Dennett. legacy of spiritual possession, Beyerstein. Varieties of alien SUMMER 1985 (vol. 9, no. 4): Guardian astrology study. experience, Ellis. Alien-abduction claims and standards of Dean, Kelly, Rotton, and Saklofske. Astrology and the commod­ inquiry (excerpts from Milton Rosenberg's radio talk- ity market, Rotton. The hundredth monkey phenomenon, show with guests Charles Gruder, Martin Orne, and Amundson. Responsibilities of the media, Kurtz. 'Lucy' out Budd Hopkins). The MJ-12 Papers: Part 2, Klass. Dooms­ of context, Albert. day: The May 2000 prediction, Meeus. My visit to the SPRING 1985 (vol. 9, no. 3): Columbus poltergeist: I, Nevada Clinic, Barrett. Morphic resonance in silicon chips, Randi. Moon and murder in Cleveland, Sanduleak. Image Varela and Letelier. Abigail's anomalous apparition, Durm. of Guadalupe, Nickell and Fischer. Radar UFOs, Klass. Phren­ The riddle of the Colorado ghost lights. Bunch and White. ology, McCoy. Deception by patients, Pankratz. Commun­ WINTER 1987-88 (vol. 12, no. 2): The MJ-12 papers: Part ication in nature, Orstan. I, Philip J. Klass. The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression WINTER 1984-85 (vol. 9, no. 2): The muddled 'Mind Race,' revisited. Baker. The brain and consciousness: Implications Hyman. Searches for the Loch Ness monster, Razdan and for psi, Beyerstein. Past-life hypnotic regression, Spanos. Kielar. Final interview with Milbourne Christopher, Fantasizing under hypnosis, Reveen. The verdict on Dennett. Retest of astrologer John McCall, lanna and Tol- creationism, Gould. bert. FALL 1987 (vol. 12, no. 1): The burden of skepticism, FALL 1984 (vol. 9, no. 1): Quantum theory and the Sagan. Is there intelligent life on Earth? Kurtz. Medical paranormal. Shore. What is pseudoscience? Bunge. The new Controversies: Chiropractic, Jarvis; Homeopathy, Barrett, philosophy of science and the 'paranormal,' Toulmin. An eye-opening double encounter, Martin. Similarities abductions, Klass. Hypnosis not a truth serum, Hilgard. between identical twins and between unrelated people, H. Schmidt's PK experiments, Hansel. Further comments Wyatt et al. Effectiveness of a reading program on on Schmidt's experiments, Hyman. Atlantean road, Randi. paranormal belief, Woods, Pseudoscientific beliefs of 6th- Deciphering ancient America, McKusick. A sense of the graders, A. S. and S. ]. Adelman. ridiculous. Lord. SUMMER 1984 (vol. 8, no. 4): Parapsychology's past eight WINTER 1980-81 (vol. 5, no. 2): Fooling some people years, Alcock. The evidence for ESP, C. E. M. Hansel. all the time, Singer and Benassi. Recent perpetual motion $110,000 dowsing challenge, Randi. Sir Oliver Lodge and developments, Schadewald. National Enquirer astrology the spiritualists, Hoffmaster. Misperception, folk, belief, and study, Mechler, McDaniel, and Mulloy. Science and the the occult, Connor. Psychology and UFOs, Simon. mountain peak, Asimov. SPRING 1984 (vol. 8, no. 3): Belief in the paranormal FALL 1980 (vol. 5, no. 1): The Velikovsky affair — articles worldwide: Mexico, Mendez-Acosta; Netherlands, Hoebens; by Oberg, Bauer, Frazier. Academia and the occult, Green- U.K., Hutchinson; Australia, Smith; Canada, Gordon; France, well. Belief in ESP among psychologists, Padgett, Benassi, Rouze. Debunking, neutrality, and skepticism in sci­ and Singer. Bigfoot on the loose, Kurtz. Parental expec­ ence, Kurtz. University course reduces paranormal belief. tations of miracles, Steiner. Downfall of a would-be psychic, Gray. The Gribbin effect, Roder. Proving negatives, Pas- McBurney and Greenberg. Parapsychology research, Mishlove. quarello. SUMMER 1980 (vol. 4, no. 4): Superstitions, Bainbridge WINTER 1983-84 (vol. 8, no. 2): Sense and nonsense and Stark. Psychic archaeology, Feder. Voice stress analysis, in parapsychology, Hoebens. Magicians, scientists, and psy­ Klass. Follow-up on the 'Mars effect,' Evolution vs. chics, Ganoe and Kirwan. New dowsing experiment, Martin. creationism, and the Cottrell tests. The effect of TM on weather, Trumpy. The haunting of SPRING 1980 (vol. 4, no. 3): Belief in ESP, Morris. UFO the Ivan Vassilli, Sheaffer. Venus and Velikovsky, Forrest. hoax, Simpson. Don Juan vs. Piltdown man, de Mille. FALL 1983 (vol. 8, no. 1): Creationist pseudoscience, Tiptoeing beyond Darwin, Greenwell. Conjurors and the Schadewald. Project Alpha: Part 2, Randi. Forecasting radio psi scene, Randi. Follow-up on the Cottrell tests. quality by the planets, Dean. Reduction in paranormal WINTER 1979-80 (vol. 4, no. 2): The 'Mars effect' — belief in college course, Tobacyk. Humanistic astrology, articles by Kurtz, Zelen, and Abell; Rawlins; Michel and Francoise Kelly and Krutzen. Gauquelin. How I was debunked, Hoebens. The metal SUMMER 1983 (vol. 7, no. 4): Project Alpha: Part 1, Randi. bending of Professor Taylor, Gardner. Science, intuition, Goodman's 'American Genesis,' Feder. Battling on the air­ and ESP, Bauslaugh. waves, Slavsky. Rhode Island UFO film, Emery. FALL 1979 (vol. 4, no. 1): A test of dowsing, Randi. Science SPRING 1983 (vol. 7, no. 3): Iridology, Worrall. The Nazca and evolution, Godfrey. Television pseudodocumentaries, drawings revisited, Nickell. People's Almanac predictions, Bainbridge. New disciples of the paranormal, Kurtz. UFO Donnelly. Test of numerology, Dlhopolsky. Pseudoscience or UAA, Standen. The lost panda, van Kampen. Edgar Cayce, in the name of the university, Lederer and Singer. Randi. WINTER 1982-83 (vol. 7, no. 2): Palmistry, Park. The SUMMER 1979 (vol. 3, no. 4): The moon and the great SRI die mystery, Gardner. The 'monster' tree-trunk birthrate, Abell and Greenspan. Biorhythms, Hines. 'Cold of Loch Ness, Campbell. UFOs and the not-so-friendly reading/ Randi. Teacher, student, and the paranormal, skies, Klass. In defense of skepticism, Reber. Krai. Encounter with a sorcerer, Sack. FALL 1982 (vol. 7, no. l): The prophecies of Nostradamus, SPRING 1979 (vol. 3, no. 3): Near-death experiences, Cazeau. Prophet of all seasons, James Randi. Revival of Alcock. Television tests of Musuaki Kiyota, Scott and Hutchin­ Nostradamitis, Hoebens. Unsolved mysteries and extra­ son. The conversion of J. Allen Hynek, Klass. Asimov's ordinary phenomena, Gill. Clearing the air about psi, corollary, Asimov. Randi. A skotography scam, Randi. WINTER 1978-79 (vol. 3, no. 2): Is parapsychology a. SUMMER 1982 (vol. 6, no. 4): Remote-viewing, Marks. science? Kurtz. Chariots of the gullible, Bainbridge. The Radio disturbances and planetary positions, Meeus. Divin­ Tunguska event, Oberg. Space travel in Bronze Age China, ing in Australia, Smith. "Great Lakes Triangle," Cena. Keightley. Skepticism, closed-mindedness, and science fiction, Beyer- FALL 1978 (vol. 3, no. 1): An empirical test of astrol­ stein. Followup on ESP logic, Hardin and Morris and Gendin. ogy, Bastedo. Astronauts and UFOs, Oberg. Sleight of SPRING 1982 (vol. 6, no. 3): The Shroud of Turin, Mueller. tongue, Schwartz. The Sirius "mystery," Ridpath. Shroud image, McCrone. Science, the public, and the SPRING/SUMMER 1978 (vol. 2, no. 2): Tests of three Shroud, Schafersman. Zodiac and personality, Gauquelin. psychics, Randi. Biorhythms, Bainbridge. Plant percep­ Followup on quantum PK, Hansel. tion, Kmetz. Anthropology beyond the fringe. Cole. WINTER 1981-82 (vol. 6, no. 2): On coincidences, Ruma NASA and UFOs, Klass. A second Einstein ESP letter, Falk. Croiset: Part 2, Hoebens. Scientific creationism, Schade­ Gardner. wald. Follow-up on 'Mars effect,' Rawlins, responses by FALL/WINTER 1977 (vol. 2, no. 1): Von Daniken, Story, CS1COP Council and Abell and Kurtz. The Bermuda Triangle, Kusche. Pseudoscience at Science FALL 1981 (vol. 6, no. 1): Gerard Croiset: Part 1, Hoebens. Digest, Oberg and Sheaffer. Einstein and ESP, Gardner. N- Test of perceived horoscope accuracy, Lackey. Planetary rays and UFOs, Klass. Secrets of the psychics, Rawlins. positions and radio propagation, lanna and Margolin. SPRING/SUMMER 1977 (vol. 1, no. 2): Uri Geller, Marks Bermuda Triangle, 1981, Dennett. Observation of a psychic, and Kammann. Cold reading, Hyman. Transcendental Medi­ Mclntyre. tation, Woodrum. A statistical test of astrology, McGervey. SUMMER 1981 (vol. 5, no. 4): Investigation of 'psychics/ Cattle mutilations, Stewart. Randi. ESP: A conceptual analysis, Gendin. The extrover­ FALL/WINTER 1976 (vol. 1, no. 1): Dianetics, Wallis. sion-introversion astrological effect, Kelly and Saklofske. Art, Psychics and clairvoyance, Fine. "Objections to Astrology," science, and paranormalism, Habercom. Profitable night­ Westrum. Astronomers and astrophysicists as astrology mare, Wells. A Maltese cross in the Aegean? Loftin. critics, Kurtz and Nisbel. Biorhythms and sports, Fix. Von SPRING 1981 (vol. 5, no. 3): Hypnosis and UFO Daniken's chariots, Omohundro. Follow-Up Samoan Hoax, Margaret Mead, J and Cultural Relativity

Martin Gardner's article "The Great "other." Boas was one of the leading Samoan Hoax" (SI, Winter 1993) spokespersons for racial and religious provoked considerable reaction. We here tolerance until his death in 1943; like publish representative commentaries from Dewey (and unlike most professional three anthropologists and follow them with scholars) he devoted huge amounts of a response from Gardner. time and energy to public writing, radio interviews, advising popular JOHN R. COLE movements, and so forth, on the need to respect cultural differences without was surprised by Martin Gardner's assuming the superiority of white, article for a couple of reasons. I Western European mores—while at the I believe he may rely too strongly on same time tirelessly campaigning against the case made against Margaret Mead racism, sexism, culturally imposed by Derek Freeman with Mead now inequality, imperialistic warfare, and dead and unable to reply. More many other "progressive" issues; he important, I question his rather worked extensively with Dewey and others extreme and puzzling definition of the on these matters. Boas in fact died at "cultural relativism" taught by a luncheon he was helping to sponsor anthropologist Franz Boas and to support Paul Rivet and the French Gardner's assertion that this idea was Resistance. at great odds with John Dewey's I onced asked Boas's daughter philosophy. Franziska about the possible conflict In fact, Franz Boas and philosopher between her father's relativism and John Dewey co-taught courses at his political activism. She replied, in Columbia University on the nature of essence, that her father taught his culture and the relationship between students what he taught his family: education and biological determinism. not to judge people harshly because Both were adamant cultural determi- they differ from your culture, but to nists in the "nature-nurture" argu­ defend human dignity and oppose ment. Both men are widely regarded suffering—by taking the lead in your as founders of the modern "humanist" own society, showing that doing movement, which emphasized human "right" does not get defined as just behavioral plasticity and the possibil­ doing things the way "normal, middle- ity of improving society through class Europeans do them," one gains education, defining morality without the authority to criticize harmful recourse to divine or biological abso­ cultural practices in other cultures as lutes, and by learning from diverse well. cultures rather than condemning the Cultural relativism is such a cor-

Summer 1993 435 nerstone of the skeptical, humanistic promise not to "hit back." Gardner is movement that I do not like to see correct that this was unscientific it portrayed otherwise. It certainly has conduct, but silence is not quite the its problems, and at worst it can be same thing as agreement with charges used by a Jerry Falwell to slander any or the inability to reply. form of respect for other peoples' Incidentally, Gardner does not beliefs, but that certainly was not mention that one of the factors that Boas's approach or goal. It was not the led anthropologists to defend Mead so "moral relativism" Gardner implies. strongly was Freeman's seeming to Margaret Mead did, in fact, say save his attack until after her death some oversimplified things in public when he had been nursing it long about the absoluteness of cultural before. Also, there was resentment relativism. I challenged her on this a that he seemed to break the story couple of times when I was in one of sensationalistically via press conferen­ her classes and was not satisfied with ces and press releases with comments her "public," pat answer, which along the lines of how his book was seemed to imply that "all behaviors are going to put an end to Mead's rep­ equal." But this was not her view in utation once and for all. Many thought serious conversation or in her long life his success on the talk-show circuit of work for specific goals, such as made his claims look less scientific opposing war, sexism, and inequality. (although Mead was a champion on Some—maybe a lot—of the critique that route). Instead of "adding to an of her book Coming of Age in Samoa earlier ethnography," or "revising" it, is accurate. Mead was indeed looking or correcting errors (not everything for evidence that there were people in it was wrong), Freeman made it his a lot different from her own, happier mission to destroy the reputation of with their sexuality, and proof that the book's recently deceased author. "normal" was not limited to the In any case, I'm troubled to see this supposed Victorian ideal. Boas did blanket denunciation of cultural relat­ send her in search of evidence to ivism. Boas and Mead and others have demonstrate that the Euro-American used the concept to advocate tolerance middle class was not the only viable of diversity without defending human way of life, and she was undoubtedly suffering, which is, of course, a too uncritical of informant informa­ widespread human norm. tion. Without defending everything in John R. Cole is an anthropologist at the Coming of Age in Samoa, in her last University of Massachusetts, Amherst. years Mead and some of her allies in fact made some serious counterargu­ ments. (Freeman's complaints and THEODORE SCHWARTZ others like them were in the wind long before he published them.) Sadly, she uch is my great respect for confided possibly important informa­ Martin Gardner, whom I iden­ tion to friends while maintaining that S tify with skepticism, that I was it was important not to "stoop to grieved to see the lapse in his own reply." The result, of course, leaves skepticism in "The Great Samoan her reputation tarnished probably Hoax." The article shows what more than it should be. At least one happens when skepticism is applied to of her long-time assistants told me of only one side of a polemic. I do not her frustration at living up to her see evidence of close critical reading

436 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 of Derek Freeman's (1983) book and construct a past suited to present certainly not of Margaret Mead's beliefs and values. What is remarkable (1928; 1930) two books on Samoa. I is that some of pre- or early colonial wrote one of the many reviews native culture survives, although (Schwartz 1983) of the Freeman book often underground or under a deep (together with Mead's), striving to be reluctance to speak of past customs objective and balanced (an aim that I so thoroughly condemned by Chris­ thought needed no apology in this tian modernity. Freeman's own book journal). Mead's second field trip was is not without contradictory indica­ to Manus, in what is now Papua New tions with respect to Samoan sexual Guinea, a few years after her work morality. Mead's other book on in Samoa. When she returned to Samoa, like her second book on Manus 25 years later (1953), I worked Manus, is a scholarly monograph on with her as a field assistant while kinship and social organization. I am doing my own doctoral research. I was sure that there are both errors and neither her student nor an acolyte; we omissions, as there are in her Manus both agreed and disagreed on many works. They are nevertheless remark­ things, but I observed her work at able for the time in which they were firsthand and was able to check her done. earlier work in Manus. I do not find That Mead was highly intelligent, it credible that she was so mistaken quick, perceptive, and phenomenally or taken in as Freeman argues and energetic cannot be taken from her. Gardner swallows. Gardner's inclusion of mere gossip, One could write Freeman's book by which followed her wherever she negating every sentence in Mead's. I went, that she took native lovers, that will not repeat here what I wrote in she danced bare-breasted, does him no my review. There is much more in her credit. Freeman convinces me that book than the tales of trysts to which Mead gave a one-sided picture of Gardner refers, which were to some Samoan culture and temperament (as degree institutionalized as a part of does he). She was partly mistaken. Samoan and Polynesian culture. The Having labored for decades to prove idea that the anthropologists' infor­ this, it seems odd that Freeman could mants (now correctly referred to as now offer, and Gardner accept, the "associates" and "collaborators") idea that she was the "hoaxee" rather systematically lie to the gullible than the "hoaxer." I believe that she anthropologist over an extended was neither, but rather that she was period is a story that I have heard quite partly in error, biased by a wish to often, not just with respect to Mead. prove her point and dramatize it as We are aware that people often tell was her wont. So, for example, she us what they think we are eager to failed to give a full account of Samoan hear, although of course this doesn't aggressivity. She discounted the apply to Freeman and those who Samoan cult of virginity. (I argue it interviewed Mead's informants 50 is likely that Freeman has done the years later. opposite.) What we study disappears before As for the elementary discourse on our eyes over a few decades. I have human nature, spare us! Freeman's made a dozen field trips to Manus over and Gardner's "interactionism" is at the past 40 years. There is much that a level that no sane person denies— I was once told and can document that and when it gets more specific, as in would now be denied, as people some of the claims of sociobiology,

Summer 1993 437 Freeman also balks. The "biology" that the values by which we condemn Boas (a person of towering stature in genocide or infanticide must be the founding of anthropology) com­ grounded in the biological base of bated was not that of a generic human nature. I would suggest that biological substrate to human behav­ these values are emergent, and as yet ior and culture, but rather that of incompletely so, from cultural racism and eugenics that would evolution. explain the differences among cul­ tures (and individuals) by biological References difference. Freeman and Mead, were it not for his quest to redeem the Freeman, Derek. 1983. Margaret Mead and Samoan people from her depiction of Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of an a relaxed sexuality, would fully agree Anthropological Myth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. in rejecting the idea that differences Mead, Margaret. 1928. Coming of Age in between Samoan and American Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive behavior and culture were biological. Youth for Western Civilization. New York: William Morrow Further, Boas and Mead believed . Social Organization in Manu'a. 1969 that when any universalistic charac­ [orig. 1930]. Honolulu: Bishop Museum. terization of human nature was Schwartz, Theodore. 1983. Anthropology: A offered, it was subject to what Mead quaint science. American Anthropologist, called the "yes, but the Eskimo . . ." 85(4): 919-929, December. test. The issue that Mead addressed was not whether puberty was a Theodore Schwartz is a professor of universal biological event, but anthropology at the University of Cali­ whether adolescence inevitably had fornia at San Diego, La]olla. the characteristics of "storm and stress" attributed to it by psycholo­ FRANK LEE EARLEY gists like G. Stanley Hall. Puberty here is the near-genotype; adolescence is greatly appreciated Martin phenotypic, what particular cultures Gardner's article. As Karl Popper make of puberty. Even if Mead were I said, "The habit of calling its own wrong about Samoa, the point is findings into question and attempting solidly established by many other to disprove them is the core of studies in Polynesia and elsewhere scientific work." From that perspec­ that the concomitants of puberty are tive, Gardner has done notable service variable, that cultures run the gamut on the Margaret Mead issue and on from sexual permissiveness to repres­ many previous occasions. siveness, as has our own Amer- There is, however, one trouble­ European culture in different subcul­ some aspect of the article: Gardner's tures and historical periods. The only treatment of cultural relativity. He biological determinism that this would takes the most extreme possible view offend would be a straw man as in citing Boas ("there were no univer­ phoney as the cultural determinism sal human values"), erroneously that Freeman and, alas, Gardner equates that position with cultural choose to engage. determinism, and then implies that Any sensible formulation of cultu­ anthropology adopted the whole ral relativism and cultural determi­ package. nism would see it for what it then was, In fact, the anthropological a well-founded antidote to racism and approach to cultural relativity is quite ethnocentrism. Gardner suggests that different. Cultural relativity begins

438 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 with the recognition that there are obligations to science, to human many ways of solving human prob­ dignity and rights, and to the com­ lems; and it is the task of anthropology munication of knowledge and to research and understand all of research. them. If the task is to understand, then This ethical and universalist adopting a-priori judgments about approach to cultural studies, and the what is good or bad becomes an very vigorous debate in anthropology impediment to the study. We can over the Mead-Freeman controversy, understand any cultural behavior only indicates that Gardner has misunder­ if we find the assumptions on which stood the anthropological use of it is based. If an American anthropol­ cultural relativity. ogist begins a study by expecting that the target population ought to behave Frank Lee Earley is an anthropologist and like Americans, and that other behav­ Social Science Department Chair at iors are bad, savage, primitive, child­ Arapahoe Community College, Littleton, like, or ignorant, then what chance Colorado. would the researcher have of learning why Aztecs sacrificed their best warriors or why Americans ask their Martin Gardner Responds best athletes to maim themselves in football games? Several times John Cole faults Free­ From the understanding about man for publishing his book on Mead cultural assumptions and the systems after she died. This seems unfair. of logic that drive human behavior, Holding the book until after her death anthropologists can define not only was an act of kindness. Had he the limits of human behavior (the published it earlier, Mead admirers cultural universals specified by Franz would have accused him of bashing Boas, Clark Wissler, and others in the a sick, elderly woman, perhaps con­ 1930s and since), but the beneficial or tributing to her demise. harmful consequences that stem from Rather than continue to defend various systems or elements of cul­ Freeman, or to repeat criticisms of ture. From these definitions and Mead I have made elsewhere (espe­ insights comes the large, growing, and cially in my book The New Age, where very useful practice of applied anthro­ I focus on her lifelong beliefs in psychic pology. phenomena and her late in life con­ Applied anthropology, as Gardner viction that we are being observed by is probably aware, is one of only a few aliens in flying saucers), let me try to disciplines that attempt to make erase some ambiguity about the term improvements in the human condition "cultural relativism." by blending academic research and Terms with a strong meaning at practical application of social knowl­ one time often grow weak over the edge. The Society for Applied Anthro­ years. If cultural relativism is taken pology (SAA) in 1948 adopted an today to mean only that cultures vary elaborate and very useful statement enormously and that one must not on ethics. The ethics statement has judge an alien culture by the standards been revised several times since then of one's own, then of course everyone and has never assumed, as Gardner should be a cultural relativist. How­ blithely asserts, that there are no ever, when young Mead wrote about universal values. The statement deals Samoa, the term had a more contro­ specifically with the anthropologist's versial, philosophical meaning. It

Summer 1993 439 denied the existence of "cultural life, lays stress on the dignity inherent universals"—meta-biological needs in every body of custom and on the that were common to humans need for tolerance." Admirable words, everywhere. but as one reviewer commented, In his essay "What Is Human dignity and tolerance are not accepted Nature?" Bronislaw Malinowski an­ values even in American culture. swered by defining it as a set of such Similar contradictions can be found needs as breathing, eating, drinking, in the writings of dozens of anthro­ sex, rest, activity, sleep, micturition, pologists of Boas's day. Ruth Bene­ defecation, escape from danger, and dict's Patterns of Culture, for instance, avoidance of pain. As I pointed out in includes a vitriolic attack on the mores an early essay "Beyond Cultural of American business tycoons. She Relativism" (reprinted in my Order and considered them worse than hardened Surprise), the amusing thing about this criminals. True, their behavior is the list is that it gives human nature to product of a business subculture, but a cow. it never occurred to Benedict that her It was an easy step from such a attack ran counter to her book's main narrow concept of human nature to theme. the notion that the task of cultural When Clyde Kluckholn attacked anthropology is not to decide what is cultural relativism in his paper "Ethical good or bad about cultures, but merely Relativism: Sic Et Non," he was to study their multifarious patterns. roundly chastised by colleagues. There In actual practice, however, cultural are, he said, common human needs relativists constantly issued value and motives "so deep and so generic judgments that crossed cultural boun­ that they are beyond the reach of daries. Boas and Dewey were indeed argument." Calling attention, he friends who shared lofty ideals about continued, to the diversity of cultural tolerance, democracy, and world behavior is an excellent way to combat progress, but these ideals rested on ethnocentrism, but the more impor­ different philosophical foundations. tant task now for cultural anthropol­ Consider racism, such an integral part ogy is to search for common elements of our Southern culture. When Boas within the diversity—elements that attacked it, on what podium did he can become the basis of a worldwide stand? Pinned down, he would have naturalistic ethics. been forced to say that his opinions This was Dewey's view. It is Karl and actions emerged from his own Popper's view. I suspect it is the view cultural background, not from values of all three letter writers. If so, it that could be defended objectively. would be a clearer use of language if Melville Herskovits once defined they would stop redefining cultural cultural relativism as "a philosophy relativism and instead recognize it as which, in recognizing the values set an extreme philosophical view that up by every society to guide its own long ago had its day. D

440 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Forum

H The Well-Run Universe—Fad or Fancy? RALPH ESTLING

an goes missing with ear Universe is completely incomprehen­ on thigh" was how they sible? It strikes me that in order to M headed the medical edi­ conclude this, we must first know a tor's item in The Independent. great deal about the Universe, enough It was a simple, everyday tale of to know that incomprehensibility is plastic surgery. A man had had his ear indeed the case, rather than merely bitten off in a scuffle and the surgeons a high level of complexity or perhaps stitched it, in a provisional way, onto even an underlying simplicity, so the side of his leg to maintain its blood simple that we fail to register it. Yet supply while they waited for the implicit in the argument that we cannot wound to heal before reattaching the know a great deal about the Universe ear to its normal spot, a standard lies the very Ignorance that prevents operational procedure. But the man us from saying anything so explicitly never returned. A man with an ear about the nature of the Universe. on his thigh who goes missing is Logically, the argument destroys itself definitely gilding the lily of the absurd. at this point, since it obviates itself. It is an extravagance we can do We simply don't have enough concrete without, inordinate, overdone, de hop. evidence so far, enough information, It is not the sort of thing one expects to know whether the Universe is to find in a Weil-Run Universe. comprehensible or not. The matter of the missing man and I can't help thinking that scientists his transported ear insinuated itself who write books about God and the into my thoughts (if one can so dignify Universe would be better advised to what was going on in my mind) as write more scientifically, and less I sat reading Paul Davies's latest book, poetically. Much of their problem The Mind of God. I hope God's mind stems from confusing human descrip­ isn't as easily sidetracked as mine. One tions with external reality. This often has, over the years, come to expect happens when scientists handle phil­ rather more from God. osophic or metaphysical subjects; they At the close of one of his Fables for confuse the language for the sub­ Our Time, James Thurber decided that stance, the word for the thing, and it is better to be hen-dubious than get themselves, and the rest of us, cock-sure. On the question of God and frightfully muddled. They are used to Universe I tend toward the hen- thinking scientifically/logically, and dubious. Lately though, I've not been when they encounter metaphysics so sure. Why must we conclude (as they continue to apply this methodol­ many deep thinkers do) that the ogy, which of course is totally inappro-

Summer 1993 441 We have to be careful about "having "I can't help thinking that no evidence to the contrary" and using this fact, or rather, absence of fact, scientists who write books about to indicate something. This is the very God and the Universe would be old logical fallacy of the "negative proof." Having no evidence to the better advised to write more contrary about Purpose in the scientifically, and less Universe tells us nothing about that Purpose, including whether or not it poetically." exists. Keeping open minds when there's no evidence either way sounds priate for metaphysics. Philosophers like, and often is, a good thing. But and metaphysicians who write about in cases where no evidence is science have the same problem in physically possible to come by, a mirror image, attempting—and contention about something existing failing—to employ their becomes a metaphysical statement methodologies to the exigencies of and therefore outside the realms of science. Here is the Two-Culture scientific, logical inquiry. My problem with a vengeance: Total suggestion is to ignore all such miscomprehension, without even the statements. An eternity's discussion awareness of it. of them will get nowhere. And we A lot of thinkers with scientific- don't have an eternity. cum-philosophic proclivities, often Part of the "Purpose" contention though not invariably French, insist is the age-old Argument from Design, that the Universe have Sense and which is just a case of false analogy: Meaning, that is, sense and meaning from clearly man-made objects we that accords with their ideas and infer the Universe and all things in outlooks about sense and meaning. it to be God-made on analogous Otherwise, they conclude, it is a very principles, i.e., they seem to indicate bad, wicked, mechant Universe. It is planned, intelligent construction. without logic. It is not like them at There is no question about there being all. Voila. design in the Universe. The question Now, I do not know what, if is whether this design is imposed from anything, the Universe has in its mind, the Outside or whether it is inherent but I am quite, quite sure that, in the physical laws governing the whatever it has in its mind, it is not Universe. The next question is, of at all like what we have in ours. And, course, who or what made these considering what most of us have in physical laws? One very possible ours, it is just as. well. answer is no one, and the question One of the main problems about is like asking who made a triangle have the Universe is in knowing whether three sides. The "laws" are in the or not there is a predetermined nature of things. Presumably, if the Purpose in it. There appears to be no nature of things was different, the real evidence for it; on the other hand, laws would be different. So far, the there appears to be no real evidence matter remains debatable, but that against it. At this point in our little doesn't mean the arguments are teleological Mexican stand-off a lot of equally logical or that the evidence is people are ready to plump for Purpose, equally balanced. What evidence we there being, they say, accurately have so far (admittedly inconclusive) enough, no evidence to the contrary. leads to a finding that the design is

442 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 WHO AMI?

(AM— «»

implicit in the physical nature of meaning from us on to the rest of the things and no Outside, Intelligent Universe. I like peanut butter and jam Designer is required. sandwiches. That is enough. It is not A further trouble with the Argu­ required, in fact it is an extravagance, ment from Design is that it assumes, that the Universe like peanut butter for some reason, that the Designer is and jam sandwiches. My feelings, my obsessively concerned with the wel­ opinions are sufficiently meaningful fare of human beings, although there to me for me to enjoy things (such is no logical or evidential cause to think as peanut butter and jam sandwiches this. The latest attempt to do so is the and Universes) without the pressing so-called "Anthropic Principle." This need for pushing an identical propen­ states that the Universe is the way sity onto the Universe. What meaning, it is because we exist. It has not yet what sense there is we create to suit occurred to the anthropic principlists ourselves. So long as we bear this in that we exist because the Universe is mind, and cease to worry about the the way it is. When it does, the Mind of God, we shouldn't behave too Anthropic Principle will disappear in foolishly. a puff of logical deduction. Not to behave too foolishly is all It is essential that we create sense that is required of us. and meaning—for ourselves. It is not essential, indeed, it is very childish, for Ralph Estling writes from Ilminster, us then to extrapolate that sense and Somerset, England.

Summer 1993 443 Letters to the Editor

UFO-abduction test its items and items are selected based lacks validity only on common sense or some obvious logical connection to the subject being Having been one of the many mental- measured, the items and the test are said health professionals who received the to have "face validity." Face validity is controversial Unusual Personal Experien­ considered to be the weakest type of ces booklet I was gratified to see an validity. Although the authors of this appropriate response from the UFO-abduction test did not specifically SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (Winter 1993) in the claim to have used criterion keying, they form of the excellent special report "3.7 do imply that the methodology for item Million Americans Kidnapped by selection was sufficiently sophisticated Aliens?" by Lloyd Stires and Philip J. to warrant the use of somewhat subtle Klass. The authors of the booklet in items, as opposed to direct questions question presented the results of a about UFO-abduction. Apparently, in national survey concerning the preva­ the minds of the test authors, the items lence of certain unusual experiences. selected "correlated" with the supposed However, they then suggested that UFO-abduction "criterion group." As endorsement of four or five key items pointed out by Stires, there really is no may be indicative of a history of UFO- undisputed UFO-abduction "criterion abduction. Part of the survey, thus, was group." Because the test items were used as a test. I would like to expand really not selected via a sophisticated, briefly upon Stires's point that the correlational methodology and have authors of the booklet offer no evidence only a questionable claim to face validity, of validity for the test items. Neither it is absurd, as Stires indicates, that the do they offer evidence of validity for the most obvious face-valid item was omit­ entire "test." The adequacy of the survey ted: "Have you ever been abducted by as simply a measure of certain unusual a UFO?" experiences is not in question. But the Given that this UFO-abduction test's "test" pertaining to UFO-abduction items rely on face validity, one must should be held to scientific standards, apply common sense and clinical knowl­ as is the case with psychological tests. edge and ask whether endorsement of Psychological tests often use a tech­ each of the five key items might suggest nique of test construction known as something other than UFO-abduction. criterion keying. Potential test items are The key questions are listed in Stires's correlated to a known criterion group, article (p. 143), and alternative interpre­ and if an item correlates significantly to tations will be listed in order, (l) Klass the criterion group it can be included points out that waking up temporarily as a test item regardless of the obvious­ paralyzed and seeing unusual things is ness or subtlety of the content of the easily explained as a common and normal item. The entire test itself, once con­ hypnopompic hallucination. (2) People structed, is rigorously and scientifically with dissociative disorders or who abuse evaluated, and the test is not released alcohol or certain drugs often have for use by professionals until it is shown periods of "lost time." (3) As Stires to have evidence of validity and relia­ points out, respondents may have been bility. If a questionnaire-type test does referring to common dreams of flying not use correlational methods to select when asked about "feeling that you were

444 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 actually flying." (4) People can see lights in their room as an after image if they 4 V SKEPTICAL are looking at a light in an otherwise dark room and then the light is turned INQUIRER off. Hypnogogic imagery is another possible culprit. (5) People might find POLICE & PSYCHICS puzzling scars on their bodies if the scars occurred in very early childhood, at an age too young for many events to be remembered. Alternately, people in certain clinical groups (primarily disso­ ciative disorders, seizure disorders, and substance-abuse disorders) might delib­ erately or accidentally injure themselves while in an altered (or intoxicated) mental state and later fail to remember it the cause of the injury and the resulting scar. In conclusion, the test questions are questionable. One cannot rule out on an a-priori t basis the possibility, however remote, that certain people endorsed key items by referring to Arthur Lyons and my on this "test" because they were actually book The Blue Sense as being an example abducted by UFOs. This is one possibility of the "many books that proclaim of many. But when one constructs a psychic power." If they had truly read "test" and presents its results to pro­ our book (and not perhaps just the fessionals, the burden of establishing the highly misleading earlier SI review of it validity of the test lies with the authors. by Robert A. Baker), they might see that The authors of the Unusual Personal our position does not endorse psychic Experiences booklet suggested that 2 abilities at all. The position of our book percent of the American population may is strictly agnostic, but what may offend have experienced abduction by UFOs. some of Si's writers is the fact that we This conclusion was based on responses criticized both the psychics' advocates to a small number of questions in a test and their CSICOP critics. that lacks established validity. As a By claiming that our book has a "veil clinician who is accustomed to treating of objectivity" and that we are "subtle the usual types of abuse that people proponents of 'the blue sense,' " Sweat inflict upon each other, I will not be in and Durm reveal more about their own a hurry, based on this UFO-abduction biases than those of our book. For one test, to learn how to detect and treat thing, we clearly state in our book that victims of extraterrestrial (ET) abuse. what we term "the blue sense" does not necessarily refer to a psychic ability at Andrew D. Reisner all. For another, we are not advocates Psychologist/Chief Clinical of the blue sense just because we report Officer that many police and some scientists are Community Counseling Services taking a reasonable position in trying the Galion, Ohio use of some alleged psychics in dead­ end situations. Our position is that we need more research and inquiry and less Police and psychics prejudgment and that a constructive skepticism should be shown toward any The article "Psychics: Do Police Depart­ questionable claims, whether made by ments Really Use Them?" by Jane Ayers their proponents or critics. Sweat and Mark W. Durm (Winter 1992) The main reason for this letter, does a disservice to us and your readers however, is to comment on the survey

Summer 1993 445 Sweat and Durm conducted. Their kind of validity checks (as might nor­ questions were manifestly biased. For mally be expected in well-conducted example, questions 4 and 5 did not ask survey research) on the comments by if psychic information proved helpful or their respondents. In science we should valuable, as one might have expected, not take a skeptical posture only toward but if it was "more helpful" or "more what we don't want to hear. valuable" than ordinary information. In sum, then, this purportedly Despite such obvious biases, their first debunking article (apparently hiding question ("In the past has your Police behind its own "veil of objectivity") is Department used psychics or does the actually a strong source of evidence that department presently use them?") the use of psychics by police is not only elicited responses that are shocking in widespread but may actually be increas­ a way quite opposite to Sweat and ing. In light of their own new data Durm's interpretation. (especially when contrasted with the Even though most previous evidence previously more conservative esti­ indicates that psychics have been used mates). Sweat and Durm's conclusion more often by rural than by urban police that "there is not a prevalent use of and that when urban police use them psychics among the police departments they are most often consulted by of our largest cities" is both misleading individual officers (often unofficially) and unwarranted. Most objective read­ rather than by those at the top of the ers would, I think, view their mere 35 police bureaucracy (which is concerned percent as remarkably extensive. that the media might mock such efforts), Sweat and Durm surveyed only urban Marcello Truzzi departments. While 65 percent of the Professor of Sociology responding departments said they did Eastern Michigan University not use psychics, an extraordinary 35 Ypsilanti, Mich. percent acknowledged having tried them. Since no researcher to my knowl­ edge has ever claimed that most police Mark W. Durm responds: departments have officially used psy­ chics, and our own book claimed a rather Marcello Truzzi writes, "If they had truly low estimate of actual use (most of read our book . . . , they might see that which was unofficial, anyway), this our position does not endorse psychic abilities admission of official use by 35 percent at all." In their book Truzzi and Lyons say: is quite startling and suggests an enormous increase over what most The fact of the matter is that although other analysts have estimated might a serious scientific case for psi does exist, exist. the general scientific community has Two lesser critical points are worth remained unconvinced. mentioning: While Sweat and Durm tell us that the police departments of both Where is this "serious scientific case" Philadelphia and Washington, D.C., for psi? The quoting of anomaly research, declined to reply (so presumably were Louis Rhine's research, and the Census of not among the 35 percent of respond­ Hallucinations is not quoting "serious" ents they counted as affirmative), science. newspaper accounts exist reporting both Furthermore, Truzzi ambiguously these departments' past use of psychics. writes in his letter: "For one thing, we clearly It also should be noted that some of their state in our book that what we term the poll's respondents replied "No" to their blue sense does not necessarily refer to a question 1, even though extensive major psychic ability at all." But then, on page newspaper stories from several of these 11, Lyons and Truzzi offer the following: same cities exist that describe these same departments' past use of psychics. Sweat The "blue sense," named after the and Durm seem not to have run any common color of police uniforms, is that

446 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 hunch that sends a cop back to that gas company called Mind Development & station or down an alley; that feeling of Control, which offered training in impending danger that tells him to draw becoming a psychic investigator. At the his gun. It is that unknown quantity in time, her photo and predictions appeared the policeman's decision-making process, in numerous issues of the National the heightened sense of intuition that goes beyond what he can see hear and smell. Enquirer. The Star and Globe tabloids ran Because the blue sense specifically relates enthusiastic stories about her work as to the practical application of this a psychic gumshoe. She participated in unknown faculty to law enforcement, we the Atlanta child-murders case, along have chosen to extend the term to cover with many other psychics, with no all those persons—police and non- visible success. Although I asked for police—who use psychic powers to solve specific instances of her success as a crimes. psychic, she never provided any objective data to support her many claims. Regarding Truzzi's statement that our In at least one case she did impress questions 4 and 5 were biased, he is incorrect. a couple of police officers. The Super­ If one looks at the questionnaire more closely, intendent of the Missouri State High­ it is clear that we simply wanted to know way Patrol wrote me, in 1980, about her if those who had used psychics found them involvement in one homicide case. He more helpful than other sources, since said, in part: "Mrs. Jaegers was brought psychics are claimed to have extraordinary into the case by the news media, with powers. the approval and consent of the inves­ As for Truzzi's concern that we only tigating police agencies. Our case files surveyed urban departments and not rural do not reflect, in any great detail, what ones "even though most previous evidence contribution she made to the case, but indicates that psychics have been used more I do recall some of her comments were often by rural than urban police. . . .": very interesting and very similar to the What previous evidence? true facts of the matter when the case Truzzi's comment that the "admission was completed." Superintendent Lubker of official use [of psychics] by 35 percent" also said that "the Missouri State of the cities' police departments "is quite Highway Patrol does not regularly use startling" is a misinterpretation. He should the services of any psychic." reread the comments of those departments In 1979 or 1980 Jaegers formed the that used psychics; they for the most part U.S. Psi Squad, which the tabloids make "startling" disclaimers. dubbed the "Psychic S.W.A.T. Squad." Only one of the team's members, Karen C. Uchima, made it past the beginner Beverly Jaegers stage of psychic detective. Jaegers's actual involvement in police cases, at the The two articles dealing with psychic time, was ambiguous. When I pressed detectives (SI, Winter 1993) were both her for names of police she had helped interesting and valuable contributions to she explained that all the law- the information available on the subject. enforcement people she worked with The article by Walter Rowe mentioned "prefer to remain anonymous." Beverly Jaegers, but the author said he According to newspaper accounts, could discover little about her or the she gave police in Buffalo and Atlanta group of psychic detectives she allegedly sketches of possible suspects. In neither organized. case did her efforts yield results. None Now retired, Jaegers was a prominent of the other members of the "Squad," psychic in the late seventies and early to my knowledge, ever produced any eighties. She ran seminar courses on interesting results, but such a group did "Enhancing Your ESP." At one of these exist. sessions she told me that even skeptics could be trained to use ESP. (She was Michael R. Dennett wrong, at least in my case.) She had a Federal Way, Wash.

Summer 1993 447 Yes, our Buffalo office received a long letter 24 hours, so the issue of whether a from Bevy (Beverly) jaegers complaining (probably nonexistent) rhythm changed about the references to her in the article. phase by a few hours after transplan­ She lives in Sappington, Missouri. "This tation becomes irrelevant. . . . article purported to dismiss myself and Brown used his interpretation of my work as a disappearing or non-person these experiments, and other, similar . . . not to mention coupling my name with results, as evidence for his hypothesis that of another person whose work was that endogenous biological "clocks" do discredited within the same paragraph not exist; that biological rhythmicity, as . . . thus making it seem as if I were of observed under presumably constant like ilk." In literature she enclosed, she conditions in the laboratory, represents described herself as a journalist and psychic nothing more than continuing respon­ researcher and not a "psychic." She says siveness by the organisms to "uncon­ she has never approached a police department trolled periodic variables"—that is, to to offer any impressions on criminal cases— some pervasive, rhythmic "Factor X" "In my case, police departments sought me from the broader geophysical environ­ for assistance."—EDITOR ment, which then directly evokes rhyth­ mic behavior. With the recognition that much of the evidence invoked to support this hypothesis involves misinterpreta­ Oyster rhythms long buried tion of time-series data (Enright, ibid.), that proposal was rejected by the vast I am entirely in sympathy with Paul majority of biologists more than 20 years Quincey's reasoning (SI, Winter 1993), ago. Nearly everyone accepts today that when he disputes the 1954 claim of the we each have a built-in "biological clock" late Frank A. Brown, Jr., that oysters, that can lead to jet lag and to discomfort when transplanted from Connecticut to when we force wakefulness upon unwil­ Illinois, behave as though they "knew" ling physiological substrate. It remains when the moon was passing overhead uncertain whether or not oysters do, in their new location. The case against too. And while Frank Brown's largely the claim is, however, much stronger forgotten arguments to the contrary than Quincey apparently realizes; his have historical interest, the data them­ examination of those data simply throws selves deserve, I think, to remain buried another shovelful of sand onto the grave without undue attention. of a long buried issue. By reproducing graphs from the J. T. Enright original publication, Quincey lends Professor of Behavioral acceptance to Brown's point of depar­ Physiology ture, that oysters in the laboratory have Scripps Institution of tidal rhythm—that their shell-opening Oceanography activity involves a consistent tendency to vary in a 24.8-hour cycle. In fact, however, a thorough reanalysis (J. T. Paul Quincey replies: Enright, ]. Theor. Biol., 8:426-468,1965) of those same data (as fully published While it is good to hear that these data later: Brown et al., /. Exper. Zool., are considered "long buried" by biologists, 131:235-262, Table 3, 1956), as well as the point is that they still haunt the rest of additional data on the activity of of us, as can be seen by their continued oysters and other animals, indicates that influence in the general accounts mentioned Quincey has been too generous. Proper in the article. All of these were written after time-series treatment of such data 1965, yet none of them refer to Enright's demonstrates that there is no consistent reanalysis published in that year, so reason to think the oysters, either before apparently news of the burial has been slow or after transplantation, were showing to spread. any consistent rhythm with period near 1 hope that drawing attention to its

448 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 funeral 28 years ago will now consign this Marek and Rowe offer sound sugges­ experiment—and others in a similar vein— tions in their excellent article. Their to history for all of us, as Enright wishes. point lying elsewhere, however, they place insufficient emphasis, in my opinion, on the need for competent, interested science teachers. This lack of Improving science teaching good teachers is at least as central to our current problems as student lack of The reforms suggested by Edmund A. interest in science. I offer the following Marek and Wayne Rowe in "Improving (true) anecdote to illustrate the point. Science Teaching in the United States" A few years ago I was approached (SI, Winter 1993) are neither new nor by a student aware of my undergraduate unique. The reforms are, however, training as a chemist with a request for needed. The excellent learning oppor­ assistance with an assignment from his tunities that would be provided by high school chemistry class. The class following the proposed model would not was using the recommended learning- only improve science education but, if cycle approach, and teams of students applied to other disciplines, would had performed experiments intended to improve education in these areas as well. demonstrate the unitary nature of In order for the proposed reforms to chemical reactions, i.e., that simple occur, and for students to "house build," reactions always occur in the same the following are needed: (1) the oppor­ proportions due to reproducible molec­ tunity to explore and "house build" ular structure. Unfortunately, the data without the limits of time; (2) more and would not support any such conclusion. better interactions with teachers and The figures appeared to be random and other students; (3) easy and constant did not reflect some introduced syste­ access to lab equipment and supplies. matic error. I reviewed the data and the My observations of schools suggest theory with the young man and tried that these needs are rarely met; in­ to the best of my ability to explain to deed, the structure of many schools him what he should have obtained and seems designed to prevent these reforms what it would have proved. from being accomplished. My observa­ I asked the student to find out from tions of teachers suggest that they want his teacher why he had not had the to accomplish the reforms. Teachers students repeat the experiment. (All the hope desperately for flexible schedules students in the class had results as with small classes and adequate random as the figures I had seen.) I facilities. would not have been surprised by a I agree that "readers of the SKEPTICAL response pleading lack of time or INQUIRER are especially qualified" to shortage of supplies. What I did not influence decisions regarding science expect was the answer I received, which teaching in local schools. Those who are was that my understanding of the literate in and enthused about science experiment was defective and that the need to push for the reforms. Marek and real purpose of the exercise was to teach Rowe recommend several questions to the students to work together as a pose when investigating science teach­ group. Therefore, the useless data and ing in local schools. I suggest the undiscovered principle were unimpor­ following be added to the list: How is tant and my concern misplaced. your school working to improve science I then took my concern over the level education? How can I help implement of chemistry teaching to the school's change? And, finally, if you meet principal. He supported his teacher, resistance, What must I do to force you explaining that challenging a teacher's to change? competence would open a can of worms he had no interest in facing and that, Gary Ackerman in any case, none of the students would West Rutland, Vt. be going into science anyway. A self-

Summer 1993 449 fulfilling prophecy if I ever heard one. You get the idea. I've spoken with Nevertheless, I appreciated the arti­ Ference and some of her followers, and cle. Keep up the good work, SI. they are confident that they are in the forefront of scientific progress. Matthew L. Howard, M.D. Ukiah, Calif. Dan Dugan San Francisco, Calif.

Therapeutic touch The article on Therapeutic Touch is Thanks for Vern Bullough and not correct in the history of this Bonnie Bullough's article on Thera­ form of treatment. Krieger and other peutic Touch (Winter 1993). It re­ early workers in this field were in­ minded me of the Nightingale Society, spired and influenced by the work of another nursing pseudoscience cult, Bernard Grad, a biologist at McGill based in Carmel, California. I dis­ University, Canada. In the 1950s and covered it when I followed up a UPI 1960s Grad published several studies report, "People Feel Better Under 'Blue' showing that energy from the hands of Light." a well-known healer, a Hungarian The Nightingale Society promotes military officer named Esterhazy, could "Human Field Motion," a theory pub­ stimulate plant growth and enzyme lished by Helen M. Ference in her 1979 activity. Grad also showed that if the New York University dissertation "Rela­ healer held a glass jug of water and "did tionship of Time Experience, Creativity his thing" the energy was transferred Traits, Differentiation, and Human Field to the water, which would then stim­ Motion: An Empirical Investigation of ulate plant growth just as the healer did Rogers' Correlates of Synergistic in person. From the fact that the energy Human Development." This theory from the healer's hands passed through appears to have developed out of the glass, which is an electrical insulator, influence of Martha Rogers, who, as the Grad concluded that it could not be Bulloughs said, "imbued a whole gener­ electricity, but must be a nonelectro- ation of graduate students with her magnetic specific biological energy. beliefs' (p. 170). Ference and her follow­ Grad's work was well-publicized at the ers use a "human field motion test" to time—he was even on radio talk-shows collect data on the effects of light on in Canada—and Krieger was one of his health. They have also discovered the students. rich interpretive potential of Kirlian Grad has studied under Wilhelm photography. Reich, the discoverer of a non- I'd like to quote from a Nightingale electromagnetic specific biological Society paper to give you a sense of its energy that he called "orgone," which style: has been mentioned in SI before. In a conversation in Montreal, Grad Theoretically defined, HFM is a mul­ told me of having once seen Reich tidimensional experiential position of heal a sick infant without touching the human energy field pattern (Fer­ it, just by bringing his hand near ence 1979, 1989). Rogers' (1986) it. Grad's research was strongly influ­ model assumes human energy fields enced by Reich's orgone theories, so are known by their pattern and Wilhelm Reich and orgone energy manifestation. Ference defined should be regarded as the true historical human field image as "the noticeable starting point of modern Therapeutic appearance of a recognizable pattern profile," which is ever present and Touch. accords conditions of shared relative space-time and similar wave frequen­ Joel Carlinsky cies (Ference 1990). . . . Hawley, Mass.

450 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Humphrey's parapsychology the original research underlying Ertel's fellowship article, but apparently Paul Kurtz has. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER'S Winter 1992 issue There are several points in Lewis Jones's contained Kurtz's dissent, which pointed note on the appointment of Nicholas out weaknesses in Ertel's work. For Humphrey to the senior research fel­ example, in the original research the lowship in parapsychology at Darwin definition of "eminent" kept changing. College, Cambridge (SI, News and Then, in the case of U.S. athletes, Comment, Winter 1993), that I should Kurtz's computations didn't show any like to comment on. effect, but a subsequent analysis by the First, the money to pay Humphrey investigator, with football and basketball will come from the Perrott-Warrick players dropped, did. If Las Vegas would fund, as opposed to the "Perrott and let me make a series of theoretical bets Warwick" fund. at roulette and then pay me on the Second, critics of his appointment results after some of the losers were were worried by such comments as: dropped, even I could win. I note that "I want to show not only that these Ertel did not respond to Kurtz's things don't happen, but that they are criticism. logically impossible. . . ." This was felt Ertel's second defense is a nit-picking to be an unscientific attitude. quibble about the design of an exper­ Third, where does it say that the iment. He completely ignored the purpose declared purpose of the early Society of the experiment, which was to dem­ for Psychical Research was to "dem­ onstrate the ability to predict using the onstrate the survival of the soul claimed effect. I don't care how many empirically," as Lewis Jones asserts? babies are chosen, provided it is a valid Its stated aim has always been "to sample. He at least ought to be able to examine without prejudice or prepos­ predict which of a sample's babies will session and in a scientific spirit those be extolled in the pages of 21 "refer­ faculties of man, real or supposed, ences" in years to come. which appear to be inexplicable in terms of any generally recognized David J. Simmons hypothesis." Which is more than can Ridgecrest, Calif. be said for Humphrey, it would seem.

Tom Ruffles West Winch, Norfolk, U.K. QM doesn't Invalidate realism

Jonathan Dowling's letter in your Winter 1992 issue illustrates a pseudos- More on 'Mars effect" cientific belief that has gained disturb­ ingly wide acceptance, even among I read with interest and some amuse­ scientists. He claims that realism, ment the response by Suitbert Ertel (SI, meaning the principle that "the world Letters, Winter 1993) to my criticism exists independently of those who study (Summer 1992) of his "Mars effect" it," has been invalidated by quantum methodology (Winter 1992). His defense physics. He cites studies that he claims was in two parts. First, there wasn't any support his conclusion. bias because "eminent" people were Only one type of experimental result selected from 21 "references." Second, could invalidate the principle of realism: the experiment of selecting newborns one in which two competent observers and predicting which would become examined the same event, under pre­ "eminent" couldn't be done because no cisely the same conditions, and yet saw one would fund selecting 10,000 babies different events that could not be for subsequent tracking. ascribed to differences in the observers' As to his first defense, I have not read sensor apparatus or any other cause.

Summer 1993 451 While I am not a physicist, I have some so, he would have found that economics familiarity with the Bell inequality and measures up as well as any social science. the experiments relating to it, and I have Rather, he chose to list six irrelevant and not heard of any results invalidating ambiguous reasons unrelated to his own realism from these experiments. As criteria. Mario Bunge pointed out in his reply, It is suggested that a basic exercise the invalidation of locality (or any other may prove interesting to the reader. commonsense idea) doesn't invalidate Since the failure to satisfy these ad-hoc realism. On the contrary, it is because reasons indicates that economics is a we accept the independence of reality pseudoscience, any "real" science must that we accept these counter-intuitive satisfy their negated generalization. I discoveries when sufficient evidence is suggest that the reader negate and provided for them. generalize each reason, and then ask: Dowling wishes to cut science loose "Can any other field of knowledge from philosophy, giving the scientific generally accepted as 'science' conform method the status of a "guardian angel." to these criteria?" For example, from But if we regarded the scientific method Bunge's first reason, "... A key concept as true simply because we believed it, of the theory ... is not mathematically and not because of any philosophical well defined," one obtains, " 'Science' considerations, we would indeed be should be able to state all key concepts engaging in theology. Without philos­ of a theory in well-defined mathematical ophy, we would have no validation of form." Clearly, this criterion would the laws of logic (on which Dowling eliminate all disciplines that we cur­ explicitly relies), nor any other reason rently identify as science. The growing to consider science more valid than evidence of nonlinear dynamics suggests Tarot reading. The scientific method has that the "real world" works chaotically, value only if reality is independent of not mathematically. Therefore, precise the observer. Certainly there has been mathematical specification of key con­ a great deal of bad philosophy; but it cepts is impossible and does not merely is impossible to escape philosophy depend upon obtaining additional empir­ altogether. Giving the scientific method ical knowledge, because the "real world" the status of an epistemological primary, does not "work" that way. independent of all prior considerations, is itself a philosophical position—and, I Lewis Freiberg think, an untenable one. Professor of Economics Northeastern Illinois Gary McGath University Penacook, N.H. Chicago, 111.

Subliminal claims moderating? In defense of economics The special issue on "Myths of Sublim­ In his response to my critical letter (SI, inal Persuasion" (SI, Spring 1992) not Winter 1993), Mario Bunge abandoned only was interesting and timely but his cryptic, emotional attack on econo­ appears to be contributing to some mists and revealed that in his opinion manufacturers of subliminal products economics is a pseudoscience. In pres­ revising their publicity statements. enting the reasons for his opinion he For example, I noticed the recent ignored the five demarcation criteria advertising brochure of one of the larger proffered in his original article (SI, distributors of subliminal self-help audio Summer 1992). While the appropriate­ cassettes (Potentials Unlimited) included ness of these may be debated, one should the following note: "No therapeutic expect Bunge to use his own criteria in claims of any kind are made with regard reaching such a conclusion. Had he done to these tape programs. We believe cures

452 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 or improvements are a result of mind higher calling than can be exploited in over matter and these tapes are not immature parlor games. God and angelic intended as a substitute for seeing your beings of light are not to be mocked and physician, or for medical treatment." it is not necessary for truth to be This is a significant depature from defended." past statements. It is my belief that SI Thus, as with people who insist they in concert with a few other publications can see auras, fairies, and the like, showing the ineffectiveness of sublim­ testing the claims of people who say they inal products has helped lead to these can see angels can be devilishly difficult. revisions. Let's hope that in the next year or two, we will see the general C. Eugene Emery Jr. public begin to respond to the message Providence Journal coming from the scientific community Providence, R.I. and stop buying these products.

Bryan C. Auday Rosalind Heywood Department of Psychology Gordon College In "Francis Huxley's Alternative View Wenham, Mass. of the Universe" (SI, Fall 1992), John Pen La Farge mentions the name of an English author and clairvoyant who has Angels avoid testing written some books on behalf of the British Society for Psychical Research In my account of the American Confer­ (SPR). He called her "Rosiland Hey­ ence on Angels (SI, Fall 1992), I noted wood." As a longtime subscriber to the that if angels can perceive the real world journal of the SPR (and to the SKEPTICAL through the perceptions of the people INQUIRER), I didn't know anybody by that they're serving—as suggested by Karyn name. I then realized that it had to be Martin-Kuri, the North Falmouth, Rosalind Heywood. Heywood, who died Massachusetts, woman who claims to be some years ago, was the author of two able to see and communicate with books on psychical research, The Sixth angels—a simple test for the existence Sense and The Infinitive Hive. I gather La of angels would be to look at a playing Farge heard her name as it was men­ card and allow my guardian angel to tioned by Huxley and wrote it down relay the card's identity to Martin-Kuri. phonetically. After several SKEPTICAL INQUIRER readers called her toll-free line to Werner Eeman conduct such a test, Martin-Kuri Lede, Belgium informed me that my report was inac­ curate. Readers will be saddened to know that angels can't see objects, even Ken/ran and macrobiotics indirectly. "They can only see a relation­ ship to an object," she said. I read Walter Hearn's excellent article Even if you designed a test using (SI, Forum, Fall 1992) on Louis Kervran's names or relationships, it wouldn't belief in the biological transmutation of work, Martin-Kuri said. (I could have the chemical elements with great inter­ sworn she explained the reason this test est. It occurred to me that your readers wouldn't work is that angels are easily might be interested in the lasting confused by a person's past lives. But influence that Kervran has had on the when I raised that issue later, she said macrobiotic cult. that I had, once again, misunderstood Zen Macrobiotics, by George Ohsawa her because angels can't be confused.) (1965), tells of an experiment performed Ultimately, no experiment could be by Ohsawa. "On June 21,1964 in Tokyo, devised, she said, because angels "would I completed the transmutation of the refuse to cooperate. Angels have a element sodium (Na) into potassium (K)

Summer 1993 453 under laboratory conditions of low "harmless." temperature, pressure and energy." People who are convinced that death Instead of explaining how he performed is not final are most dangerous. They this feat of alchemy, Ohsawa cites the may not only be prepared to lose their work of Kervran as confirmation. own life (which is their affair) but take Biological transmutation allows the lives of others (who may not share Ohsawa to dismiss the idea "that there their belief). Even more dangerous is a is a need for externally produced oil, country with mass-destruction weapons protein, calcium or vitamin C. . . ." ruled by people who believe that their Indeed, he tells that "man must not god wants them to destroy another borrow elements from nature as he does country ruled by people who do not when he doses himself with specifics share their belief. Does Wolansky regard such as iron, calcium, vitamin C, and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism as sugar substitutes, to name a few. He "harmless"? must be independent and manufacture his needs within his organism, by and Steuart Campbell for himself." Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K. This is, of course, the rationale for Oshawa's infamous Diet No. 7, where only brown rice is eaten. The letters column is a forum for views on Jeremy Genovese matters raised in previous issues. Brief letters Shaker Heights, Ohio (less than 250 words) are welcome. All letters are subject to editing. They should be typed double-spaced. Due to the volume Not so harmless of letters, not all can be published. Address them to Letters to the Editor, SKEPTICAL Taras Wolansky (Letters, Winter 1993) INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto Dr. NE, urges us to let people go on believing Albuquerque, NM 87111. in life after death, because it is

Science and Deep Questions of Origins

Every human community has somehow or other tried to understand . . . deep questions of origins. Origin of our group, whatever it is, origin of our species, origin of life, origin of Earth, origin of the universe. I think you have to be made out of wood not to be interested in these questions. And there's no way to understand even the questions, much less the answers, without understanding science.

—Carl Sagan, at the national meeting of the American Astronomical Society, Phoenix, January 5, 1993, where he received the first Annenberg Award for leadership in astronomical education.

454 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 17 Local, Regional, and National Skeptics Organizations The organizations listed below have aims New England. Contact Laurence Moss, similar to those of CSICOP but are indepen­ Ho & Moss, 72 Kneeland St., Boston dent and autonomous. They are not affiliated 02111. with CSICOP, and representatives of these MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol organizations cannot speak on behalf of Lynn, contact, 1264 Bedford Rd., Grosse CSICOP. Pointe Park, MI 84230-1116. MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics, Robert W. UNITED STATES McCoy, 549 Turnpike Rd., Golden Valley, ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics, Emory Kim- MN 55416. St. Kloud ESP Teaching brough, 3550 Watermelon Road, Apt. Investigation Committee (SKEPTIC), 28A, Northport, AL 35476 (205-759- Jerry Mertens, Coordinator, Psychology 2624). Dept., St. Cloud State Univ., St. Cloud, ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptical Society MN 56301. (TUSKS), James McGaha, Chairman, MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for 5655 E. River Rd., Suite #101-127, Skeptical Inquiry, Verle Muhrer, Chair­ Tucson, AZ 85715. Phoenix Skeptics, man, 2658 East 7th, Kansas City, MO Michael Stackpole, Chairman, P.O. Box 64124. Gateway Skeptics, Chairperson, 60333, Phoenix, AZ 85028. Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave., Univer­ CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics, Wilma sity City, MO 63130. Russell, Secretary, 17723 Buti Park Court, Castro Valley, CA 94546. East Bay NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay, Presi­ Reason, John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 dent, P.O. Box 20989, Oakland, CA 94620 Montclaire SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108; (415-420-0702). Sacramento Skeptics John Smallwood, 320 Artist Road, Santa Society, Terry Sandbek, 3838 Watt Ave., Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-2800). Suite C303, Sacramento, CA 95821-2664 NEW YORK. Finger Lakes Association for (916-488-3772). Skeptics Society (Los Critical Thought, Ken McCarthy, 107 Angeles). Contact Michael Shermer, 2761 Williams St., Groton, NY 13073. New N. Marengo Ave., Altadena 91001. York Area Skeptics (NYASk), Wayne COLORADO and WYOMING. Rocky Mountain Tytell, contact person, 159 Melrose Ave., Skeptics, Bela Scheiber, President, P.O. E. Massapequa, NY 11758, (516) 798- Box 7277, Boulder, CO 80306. 6902. Western New York Skeptics, Tim DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, DELAWARE, MARY­ Madigan, Chairman, 3965 Rensch Rd., LAND, and VIRGINIA. National Capital Buffalo, NY 14228. Area Skeptics, c/o D. W. "Chip" Den man, OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens, 8006 Valley Street, Silver Spring, MD 6006 Fir Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44102 20910. (216-631-5987). Association for Rational FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics, Gary Posner, Thinking (Cincinnati area), Joseph F. 6219 Palma Blvd., #210, St. Petersburg, Gastright, Contact, 111 Wallace Ave., FL 33715 (813-867-3533). Covington, KY 41014, (513) 369-4872 or GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Becky Long, (606) 581-7315. President, 2277 Winding Woods Dr., PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating Tucker, GA 30084. Committee of Pittsburgh (PICP), Richard ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee for Rational Busch, Chairman, 5841 Morrowfield Inquiry, Danielle Kafka, President, P.O. Ave., #302, Pittsburgh, PA 15217 (412- Box 2792, Des Plaines, IL 60017-2792. 521-2334). Rational Examination Assoc, of Lincoln SOUTH CAROLINA. South Carolina Commit­ Land (REALL), David Bloomburg, Chair­ tee to Investigate Paranormal Claims, man, P.O. Box 20302, Springfield IL John Safko, 3010 Amherst Ave., Colum­ 62708. bia, SC 29205. INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics, Robert Craig, TEXAS. Houston Association for Scientific Chairperson, 5401 Hedgerow Drive, Thinking (HAST), Darrell Kachilla, P.O. Indianapolis, IN 46226. Box 541314, Houston, TX 77254. North KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Texas Skeptics, Joe Voelkering, President, Educators and Skeptics (KASES), Chair­ P.O. Box 111794, Carrollton, TX 75011- man, Prof. Robert A. Baker, 3495 Cas- 1794. West Texas Society to Advance tleton Way North, Lexington, KY 40502. Rational Thought, Co-Chairmen: George LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Robertson, 4700 Polo Pky., Apt. 183, Rational Inquiry and Scientific Methods Midland, TX 79705-1542 (915-367-3519); (BR-PRISM), c/o Wayne R. Coskrey, P.O. Don Naylor, 404 N. Washington, Odessa, Box 82060, Baton Rouge, LA 70884-2060. TX 79761. MASSACHUSETTS. Skeptical Inquirers of WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible (continued on next page) Explanations, P.O. Box 7121, Seattle, WA Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Tamil nadu. 98133. Indian Rationalist Association, Contact WISCONSIN. Wisconsin Committee for Sanal Edamaruku, 779, Pocket 5, Mayur Rational Inquiry, Mary Beth Emmericks, Vihar 1, New Delhi 110 091. Convenor, 8465 N. 51st St., Brown Deer, IRELAND. Irish Skeptics, Peter O'Hara, WI 53223. Contact, St. Joseph's Hospital, Limerick. ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Controllo ARGENTINA. CAIRP, Director, Ladislao delle Affermazioni sul Paranormale, Enrique Marquez, Jose Marti, 35 dep C, Lorenzo Montali, Secretary, Via Ozanam 1406 Buenos Aires. 3, 20129 Milano, Italy. AUSTRALIA. National: Australian Skeptics, JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Chair­ P.O. Box E324 St. James, NSW 2000. person, 1-31-8-527 Takadanobaba, Regional: Australian Capital Territory, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 169. P.O. Box 555, Civic Square, 2608. New­ MALTA. Contact: Vanni Pule', "Kabbalah," castle Skeptics, Chairperson, Colin Keay, 48 Sirti St., The Village, St. Julian's. Physics Dept., Newcastle University, MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical NSW 2308. Queensland, P.O. Box 2180, Research (SOMIE), Mario Mendez- Brisbane, 4001. South Australia, P.O. Box Acosta, Chairman, Apartado Postal 19- 91, Magill, 5072. Victoria, P.O. Box 1555P, 546, Mexico 03900, D.F. Melbourne, 3001. Western Australia, 25 NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob Headingly Road, Kalamunda 6076. Nanninga, Secretary, Westerkade 20, BELGIUM. Committee Para, J. Dommanget, 9718 AS Groningen. Chairman, Observatoire Royal de Bel- NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptics, gique, Avenue Circulaire 3, B-1180 Vicke Hyde, Chairperson, South Pacific Brussels. SKEPP, W. Betz, Secretary, Publications, Box 19-760, Christchurch 5, Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussels (FAX: N.Z., Fax: 64 3 384-5138. 32-2-4774301). NORWAY. NIVFO, K. Stenodegard, Boks 9, CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd- N-7082, Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Ember- Price, Secretary, P.O. Box 5571, Station land, Contact, P. B. 2943 Toyen 0608, A, Calgary, Alberta T2H 1X9. British Oslo 6. Columbia Skeptics, Barry Beyerstein, RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian, Ulya- Chairman, Box 48844, Bentall Centre, novskaya 43, Kor 4, 109004, Moscow. Vancouver, BC, V7X 1A8. Manitoba SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational Skeptics. Contact John Toews, Presi­ Investigation of the Paranormal (ARIP), dent, Box 92, St. Vital, Winnipeg, Man. Marian Laserson, Secretary, 4 Wales St., R2M 4A5. Ontario Skeptics, Henry Sandringham 2192. Gordon, Chairman, 343 Clark Ave West, SPAIN. Alternativa Racional a las Pseudo- Suite 1009, Thornhill, Ontario L4J 7K5. sciencias (ARP). Contact Mercedes Quin- Sceptiques du Quebec: Jean Ouellette, tana, Apartado de Correos 17.026, E-280 C.P. 202, Succ. Beaubien, Montreal 80 Madrid. H2G 3C9. SWEDEN. Vetenskap & Folkbildning CZECH REPUBLIC. Contact Milos Chvojka, (Science and People's Education), Sven Inst, of Physics, Czech Academy of Sci­ Ove Hansson, Secretary, Box 185,101 23 ences, Na Slovance 2, 1 80 40 Prague 8. Stockholm. ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets, Hori- TAIWAN. Tim Holmes, San Chuan Road, 98 sont, EE 0102 Tallinn, Narva mnt. 5. Alley, #47, Fengyuan. FINLAND: Skepsis, Lauri Grohn, Secretary, UKRAINE. Perspectiva, Oleg G. Bakhtiarov, Ojahaanpolku 8 B17, SF-01600 Vantaa. Director, 36 Lenin Blvd., Kiev 252001. FRANCE. Comite Francais pour l'Etude des UNITED KINGDOM. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Phenomenes Paranormaux, Claude Representative, Michael J. Hutchinson, 10 Benski, Secretary-General, Merlin Gerin, Crescent View, Loughton, Essex IG10 RGE/A2 38050 Grenoble Cedex. 4PZ. The Skeptic magazine, Editors, Toby GERMANY. Society for the Scientific Howard and Steve Donnelly, P.O. Box Investigation of Para-Science (GWUP), 475, Manchester M60 2TH. London Amardeo Sarma, Convenor, Postfach Student Skeptics, John Lord, Univ. of 1222, D-6101 Rossdorf. London Library, Senate House, Malet St., HUNGARY. Hungarian Skeptics, Janos London WClE 7HU. Manchester Skep­ Szentagothai, c/o Termeszet Vilaga, P.O. tics, David Love, P.O. Box 475, Manches­ Box 25, Budapest 8, 1444. Fax 011-36-1- ter M60 2TH. Wessex Skeptics, Robin 118-7506. Allen, Dept. of Physics, Southampton INDIA. Indian Skeptics, B. Premanand, University, Highfield, Southampton Chairman, 10, Chettipalayam Rd., S09 5NH. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman Scientific and Technical Consultants George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University. William Sims Bainbridge, professor of sociology, Illinois State University. Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and academic education and professor of chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Washington, D.C. Martin Bridgstock, lecturer. School of Science, Griffith Observatory, Brisbane, Australia. Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. Shawn Carlson, physicist, Berkeley, Calif. Charles ]. Cazeau, geologist, Deary, Idaho. Ronald ]. Crowley, professor of physics, California State University, Fullerton. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Univ. J. Dath, professor of engineering, Ecole Royale Militaire, Brussels, Belgium. Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer science, University of Basque, San Sebastian, Spain. Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa. J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Observatory, Brussels, Belgium. Natham J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple University. Barbara Eisenstadt, educator, Clifton Park, NY. John F. Fischer, forensic analyst, Orlando Fla. Frederic A. Friedel, philosopher, Hamburg, West Germany. Robert E. Funk, anthropologist. New York State Museum & Science Service. Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare, University of California at Berkeley. Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy. Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist, University of Massa­ chusetts. Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president. Interstellar Media. Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology, SUNY, Buffalo. Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology, Pace University, Pleasantville, N.Y. Philip A. Ianna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia. William Jarvis, chairman, Public Health Service, Loma Linda University, California. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology. University of Saskatchewan. Richard H. Lange, M.D. Mohawk Valley Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history and archaeology, University of So. California. Bernard J. Leikind, staff scientist, GA Technologies Inc., San Diego. William M. London, assistant professor of health education, Kent State University. Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engineering, Caltech, and SETI Coordinator of the Planetary Society. James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot. Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psychiatry, Calabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles. Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology, School of Medicine, University of California. John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and engineering, Iowa State University. Steven Pinker, assistant professor of psychology, MIT. James Pomerantz, professor of psychology, Rice University; Gary Posner, M.D., St. Petersburg, Fla. Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo. Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Amherst College. Milton A. Rothman, physicist, Philadelphia, Pa. Karl Sabbagh, journalist, Richmond, Surrey, England. Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and medicine. University of Wisconsin- Madison. Steven D. Schafersman, geologist, Houston. Bela Scheiber, system analyst, Boulder, Colorado. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England. Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of anthropology, SUNY, Buffalo. Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo. Elie A. Shneour, biochemist; director, Biosystems Research Institute, La Jolla, California. Steven N. Shore, astronomer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Md. Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon. Mark Slovak, astronomer. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Gordon Stein, physiologist, author; editor of the American Rationalist. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics, University of Pittsburgh, editor of Language.

Subcommittees Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, I. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational Psychology, University of Saskat­ chewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada. Education Subcommittee: Secretary, Wayne Rowe, Education Dept., Univ. of Oklahoma, 820 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019. Electronics Communications Subcommittee: Chairman, Page Stevens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, OH 44102. Paranormal Health Claims Subcommittee: Co-chairmen, William Jarvis, Professor of Health Education, Dept. of Preventive Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D., P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA 18105. Parapsychology Subcommittee: Chairman, Ray Hyman, Psychology Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97402. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024.