UNIVERSITY OF THE -DILIMAN

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON THE PHONOLOGY OF TAGALOG, CEBUANO AND ITAWIS

ABIGAIL A. BOLLAS

LINGUISTICS 165 AUGUST 2013 PROF. VIVECA HERNANDEZ

List of abbreviations and symbols used adj adjective ex exclusive interj. interjection in inclusive n noun vs. versus

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1.0 Introduction Delahunty and Garvey (2010) define phonology as “…[one that] concerns itself with the ways in which make use of sounds to distinguish words from each other”. Phonology, according to Forel and Puskás (1986), gives “…gives us insight into how the human mind works”. Briefly, phonology is the study of the relations of sounds in a system (), how their relationship with each other produce contrasts or similarities in words.

1.1 Statement of the topic This paper aims to provide a comparative analysis of the phonology of three languages in the Philippines (in this paper Tagalog, Cebuano and Itawis). It aims to present the brief phonology of each language and provide a conclusion which presents the similarities and differences of the three languages.

1.2 Methodology Data gathering is essential in this work and to do this, the 500 word list (Swadesh list) is accomplished by the informants of Cebuano and Itawis (Tagalog is not included since the writer is a native speaker of the language herself). Also, one-on-one correspondence is done with the informants for further questions unanswerable by the 500 word list. Since the list does not encompass all the data needed for this work, referencing was also done with the previous works in each respective language.

1.3 Scope and Limitations This paper provides a short introduction on each featured language, their phonemic inventories, contrastive pairs, and a short presentation of their phonotactics. After presenting all the three featured languages, their similarities and differences will be presented in the conclusion part. However, although this paper aims to provide a sufficient collection and analysis of data for the phonology of each language, it was not able to do so since it lacked in examples and minimal pairs which depended solely on the data. Unfortunately, although the informants have been generous enough to provide all these (since they too are busy with their respective businesses), the data still lacks a lot which if provided for, will help improve the quality of this paper.

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1.4 Review of Related Literature There are many reference materials available for Tagalog, but it is wise to choose the updated ones since Tagalog is a well-documented language and using not updated works will simply provide room for more mistakes. Reid and Schachter‟s Tagalog chapter in the second edition of the book The World‟s Major Languages (2009) provides an updated and summarized presentation of the phonology and orthography of Tagalog. It also includes a brief discussion of Tagalog‟s syntax and morphology and a brief but comprehensive history of how the language acquired some of its sounds. Reid and Schachter‟s work maybe not that lengthy but it sure did explain the important notes one needs to know about Tagalog. Cebuano is also a well-documented language but most of its published references are quite out-of-date. Again, to promote updated linguistic work, I have chosen Rubrico‟s Notes. Although it has no available date, since it is published online, I chose to refer to it. Rubrico‟s work is very short yet it can give the reader a comprehensive glimpse of the . It also provides good sets of examples for the morphophonemic processes of Cebuano. What the work lacks is proper transcription of examples and also, abundance of examples themselves. It must also be noted that Bunye and Yap (1971) also have their own Cebuano Grammar Notes. It contains detailed and well-presented examples on Cebuano phonology especially on minimal pairs. It also includes Cebuano phonotactics and morphophonemic process found in Cebuano. Nelson‟s An Introduction to Cebuano (1964) provides a good introduction on what is the Cebuano language and where it can be found. He described Cebuano‟s phonology and orthography in an extensive way. While the first two languages seem to have a lot of materials, Itawis is left with very few. The only credible reference I saw was Jalotjot‟s master‟s thesis Diskripsyon ng Klos na Verbal ng Wikang Itawit (1937). This is obviously out-of-date but was still able to provide examples for minimal pairs that the data lacked. This work is mainly focused on the verbs of Itawis and it is quite lucky that the author provided a short description of Itawis phonology and morphology.

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2.0 Phonology of the Tagalog, Cebuano and Itawis 2.1 Tagalog (Tagalog-Bulacan [Obando])

2.1.1 Introduction The is a very wide-encompassing language in Central . Tagalog is also where Filipino is first based on. In the year 2000, the Tagalog speakers in the Philippines reached a number of 21, 500, 000 (Lewis, Simon, & Fennigs, 2013). In the year 2007, Tagalog ranked 58th in the 100 Most Spoken Languages in the World (Matos, 2009). According to the Ethnologue, it is commonly spoken in Manila, most of Luzon and Mindoro. It also has 9 dialects: Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Lubang, Manila, Marinduque, Puray, Tanay-Paete, Tayabas (Lewis, Simon, & Fennigs, 2013). In the Ethnologue, they also classified Tagalog as an Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Central Philippine language. In this paper, the dialect of Tagalog used is that of Bulacan (Obando).

2.1.2 Phoneme Inventory The Tagalog language has 25 phonemes: 23 segmental phonemes and 2 suprasegmentals (i.e. stress /ˈ/ at length /ː/). The 23 segmental phonemes are made up of 18 consonants and 5 . 2.1.2.1 Segmentals 2.1.2.1.1 Consonants This inventory is updated based on the data. It can be noticed that /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ are the additions to this inventory. These two phonemes probably came from the palatalized versions of the phonemes /t/ and /d/ (ts, ty, and dy). Table 1 - Consonants Bilabial Alveolar Post- Alveopalatal Velar Glottal alveolar Stops p b t d k g ʔ Nasal m n ŋ s h

Affricate ʧ ʤ Lateral l Glide w j w Trill r

BOLLAS 5 p /paˈʔaʔ/ „foot‟ l /lɪˈkɔd/ „back‟ s /saˈŋa/ „branch‟ b /ˈbaːgaj/ „thing‟ r /ˈrʊːrɔk/ „peak‟ h /ˈhaːŋɪn/ „wind‟ t /ˈtaːʔɔ/ „human‟ m /maŋˈga/ „mango‟ ʔ /ʔaˈtaj/ „liver‟ d /daˈhas/ „violence‟ n /ˈnaːmɪn/ „our (ex)‟ j /janˈtɔk/ „rattan‟ k /ˈkaːhɔj/ „wood‟ ŋ /ŋaˈjɔn/ „now‟ ʧ /ʧan/ „tummy‟ g /gaˈmɔt/ „medicine‟ w /waˈkas/ „end‟ ʤ /ʤan/ „there‟ Phonemic contrasts: A. /t/ vs. /d/ 1. ˈtɪːlaʔ „stop (rain)‟ ˈdɪːlaʔ „tongue‟ 2. tʊˈlaʔ „poem‟ dʊˈlaʔ „stage play‟ B. /p/ vs. /b/ 1. paˈsaʔ „bruise‟ baˈsaʔ „wet (adj)‟ 2. paˈla „expression for „thought so‟‟ ˈbaːla „bullet‟ C. /g/ vs. /k/ 1. ˈkaːmɔt „scratch (something itchy) (n)‟ gaˈmɔt „medicine‟ 2. kaˈhɔl „ (of a dog) (n)‟ gaˈhɔl „hassle (n)‟ D. /m/ vs. /n/ 1. ˈmaːna „inheritance‟ ˈnaːnaʔ „pus‟ 2. ˈsaːma „to go with‟ ˈsaːna „wishing‟ E. /l/ vs. /r/ 1. ˈbaːlɔʔ „widow‟ ˈbaːrɔʔ „clothes‟ 2. ˈpalaʔ „shovel‟ ˈpaːra „stop (spoken when getting off a )‟ F. /ʔ/ 1. ˈbaːsa „read‟ baˈsaʔ „wet‟

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G. Glides (/w/ vs. /j/) 1. hɪˈnaw „rinse‟ ˈhɪːnaj „slowly‟ 2. ˈʔaːraw „sun/ day‟ ʔaˈraj „interj. for something painful (ouch)‟

2.1.2.1.2 Vowels (Figure 1) a /ˈʔaːsɔ/ „dog‟ ɪ ʊ ʊ /ˈʔʊːbas/ „grape‟ ɪ /ʔɪˈjak/ „cry (n)‟ ɛ /ˈʔɛːpal/ „one who always intrudes‟ ɔ /ˈʔɔːsɔ/ „bear‟ ɛ ɔ

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Phonemic contrasts A. /ɛ/ vs. /ɪ/ B. /ɔ/ vs. /ʊ/ 1. ˈmɛːsa „table‟ 1. ˈtɔːjɔʔ „soy sauce‟ ˈmɪːsa „mass‟ tʊˈjɔʔ „dried fish‟ 2. ˈtɔːrɔ „bull‟ ˈtʊːrɔʔ „teaching (n)‟

2.1.2.1.3 Diphthongs (Figure 2) ʔaj /ˈbaːhaj/ „house‟ ʊj ɪw ʔaw /ˈlaːŋaw/ „fly (insect)‟ ʔɔj /ˈʔʊːgɔj/ „cradle (n)‟ ʔʊj /baˈdʊj/ „not trendy‟ ɛj ɔj ʔɪw /pakˈsiw/ „viand cooked with vinegar‟ ʔɛj /ˈrɛːjna/ „queen‟ aj aw

2.1.2.2 Suprasegmentals A. Stress B. Vowel length 1. pɪˈtɔ „seven‟ 1. ʔaːsɔ „dog‟ ˈpɪːtɔ „whistle (n)‟ ʔasɔ „smoke‟

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2.1.3 Phonotactics of Tagalog Onset Coda Medial 1. /p/ /ˈpaːsɔʔ/ „scald‟ /sɪpˈsɪp/ „suck‟ /ˈsaːpɪt/ „nearing‟ 2. /b/ /ˈbaːgaj/ „thing‟ /dɪbˈdɪb/ „chest‟ /ˈʔʊːban/ „white hair‟ 3. /t/ /taˈlon/ „waterfall/ jump‟ /ˈbaːkit/ „why‟ /ˈʔʊːtak/ „brain‟ 4. /d/ /ˈdaːhɔn/ „leaf‟ /hadˈhad/ „jock itch‟ /ʔapˈdɔʔ/ „gall bladder‟ 5. /k/ /ˈkaːhɔj/ „wood‟ /maˈnɔk/ „chicken‟ /lɪˈkɔd/ „back‟ 6. /g/ /ˈgaːlit/ „anger‟ /baˈsag/ „broken‟ /tiˈgaŋ/ „dry‟ 7. /m/ /maˈnɔk/ „chicken‟ /ˈparam/ „paːram‟ /ˈʔaːmɪn/ „our‟ 8. /n/ /ˈnaːtɪn/ „our (in)‟ /ŋaˈjɔn/ „now‟ /ˈsɪnat/ „small fever‟ 9. /ŋ/ /ŋaˈjɔn/ „now‟ /ʔaŋ/ „(determiner)‟ /paˈŋa/ „jaw‟ 10. /l/ /lɪˈkɔd/ „back‟ /daˈtal/ „arrival‟ /bʊˈlag/ „blind‟ 11. /r/ /ˈrɛːjna/ „queen‟ /pɪnˈtɔr/ „painter‟ /hɪˈram/ „borrowed‟ 12./s/ /ˈsɪːnag/ „ray‟ /ˈʔɪːpɪs/ „cockroach‟ /ˈʔɪːsɪp/ „mind‟ 13. /w/ /waˈkas/ „end‟ /ˈʔaːraw/ „sun/ day‟ /ˈbaːwaŋ/ „garlic‟ 14. /j/ /jaˈmot/ „irritation‟ /tʊˈlaj/ „bridge‟ /ŋaˈjɔn/ „now‟ 15. /ʔ/ /ˈʔaːso/ „dog‟ /ˈbaːbaʔ/ „chin‟ /pagˈʔɪːbɪg/ „love‟ 16. /h/ /ˈhaːŋɪn/ „wind‟ /baˈhaʔ/ „flood‟ 20. /ʧ/ /ʧan/ „belly‟ /ˈpɛːʧaj/ „Chinese cabbage‟ 21. /ʤ/

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/ʤan/ „there‟ /ʤaʤ/ „judge‟ /ˈbaːʤɛt/ „budget‟ Consonant Clusters These consonant clusters found in Tagalog usually originated from borrowed words from Spanish and English. Some clusters are results of deletion and palatalization in some words and this phenomenon is usually seen in native words (Reid & Schachter, 2009). Examples: Assumed native consonant clusters

C1 C2 Examples b1 w, j /bwan/ „moon/month‟; /ˈbjɛːrnɛs/ „Friday‟ d2 j /djan/ „there‟ s3 j /sja/ „he/she‟ 1from /bʊwan/ (deletion of /ʊ/); deletion of /ɪ/ in /bɪjɛrnɛs/ 2may also be the phoneme ʤ; also from /dɪˈjan/ (deletion of /ɪ/) 3may also be the phoneme ʃ; also from /sɪˈja/ (deletion of /ɪ/) Borrowed consonant clusters:

C1 C2 Examples b l, r /ˈblɔːkɛ/ „block‟; /ˈbraːsɔ/ „arm‟ p l, r, w /ˈplaːtɔ/ „plate‟; /praŋˈkɪsa/ „franchise‟; /ˈpwɛːstɔ/1 „position‟ t r /trak/ „truck‟ d r /ˈdraːjbɛr/ „driver‟ k l, r, w /ˈklaːsɛ/ „class‟; /ˈkwaːgɔ/2 „owl‟ g l, r, j /glamɔˈrɔːsɔ/ „glamorous‟; /ˈgraːbɛ/ „excessive‟; /ˈgjɛːra/3 „war‟ 1from /pʊˈwɛstɔ/ (deletion of /ʊ/) 2 from /kʊˈwagɔ/ (deletion of /ʊ/) 3from /gɪˈjɛra/ (deletion of /ɪ/)

Syllable structures 1. CV (ʔaso, paso) 4. CCVC (kwento) 2. CVC (pagkain) 5. CCCVC (straktura) 3. CCV (kweba)

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2.2 Cebuano (Binisaya/ Bisayan/ Sebuano/ Sugbuanon/ Sugbuhanon/ Visayan) 2.2.1 Introduction The Cebuano language is spoken across the Philippines because of the number of its speakers and because of trade especially in today‟s world where technology makes things easier and travel much convenient. In 2007, Cebuano speakers in the Philippines reached a number of 15, 800, 000 (Lewis, Simon, & Fennigs, 2013). In the year 2007, Tagalog ranked 68th in the 100 Most Spoken Languages in the World (Matos, 2009). In the Ethnologue, they also classified Tagalog as an Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Greater Central Philippine, Central Philippine, Bisayan language (Lewis, Simon, & Fennigs, 2013). Although Cebuano is quite rampant all over the country, it still has its major places where it is spoken and these are in Negros, , , , , south provinces, and also in some parts of . In each of these places, dialects have emerged so now, there are many dialects of Cebuano all over the country. Some are Boholano, Cebu (Standard Cebuano), Leyte (Kana), and Mindanao Visayan (Bisaya) like the one used in this paper which from City and Ozamis City. 2.2.2 Phoneme Inventory The Cebuano language has 21 phonemes: 19 segmental phonemes and 2 suprasegmentals (i.e. stress /ˈ/ at vowel length /ː/). The 19 segmental phonemes are made up of 16 consonants and 3 vowels. 2.2.2.1 Segmentals 2.2.2.1.1 Consonants This inventory is updated based on the data. It can be noticed that /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ are the additions to this inventory. These two phonemes probably came from the palatalized versions of the phonemes /t/ and /d/ (ts, ty, and dy). Table 2 – Consonants Bilabial Alveolar Post- Alveopalatal Velar Glottal alveolar Stops p b t d k g ʔ Nasal m n ŋ Fricative s h

Affricate ʧ ʤ Lateral l Glide w j w Trill r

BOLLAS 10 p /pɪˈsɪk/ „to shower‟ l /lʊˈʔag/ „loose‟ s /sʊˈkɔʔ/ „anger‟ b /baˈlas/ „sand‟ r /bɪˈra/ „pull‟ h /haˈʔɪt/ „sharpness‟ t /tamˈbal/ „medicine‟ m /maˈbaw/ „shallow‟ ʔ /ʔɪˈtɔm/ „black‟ d /daˈʔɔt/ „rotten‟ n /nɪˈpɪs/ „thin‟ j /ˈhɪnaj/ „weak‟ k /ˈkaːhɔj/ „wood‟ ŋ /ˈŋɪpɔn/ „tooth‟ ʧ /ʔaˈʧɪŋ/ „sneeze‟ g /gaˈmɔt/ „medicine‟ w /waˈlɔ/ „eight‟ ʤ /ʤɪs/ „ten‟

Phonemic contrasts A. /t/ vs. /d/ 1. tɪˈra „shoot/fire‟ dɪˈraʔ „there (near)‟ 2. ˈtɪktɪk „insect that sticks to the skin‟ dɪkˈdɪk „pound‟ B. /p/ vs. /b/ 1. paˈnaʔ „arrow‟ ˈbana „husband‟ 2. pʊˈla „red‟ bʊˈla „foam‟ C. /g/ vs. /k/ 1. galaˈʔɪn „separate‟ kaˈlaʔɪn „don‟t like‟ 2. gaˈsabɔt „having a plan‟ kasaˈbɔt „do you understand?‟ D. /m/ vs. /n/ 1. ˈmalʊmɔs „may drown‟ naˈlʊmɔs „drowned‟ 2. maˈbʊʔaŋ „to go crazy‟ naˈbʊʔaŋ „gone crazy‟ E. /l/ vs. /r/ 1. kʊˈlɔt „curly hair‟ kʊˈrɔt „pinch‟ 2. ˈbʊlak „flower‟ ˈbʊrak „break‟ F. Glides (/w/ vs. /j/) 1. laˈwas „body‟

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ˈlajas „to go out‟ 2. lʊˈwaʔ „to spit‟ ˈlʊja „ginger‟ G. Glottal stop 1. laˈwaj „spittle (saliva)‟ laˈwaʔ „spider‟

2.2.2.1.2 Vowels Rubrico (n.d.) gave a rule regarding the vowels of Cebuano. The phoneme /ɪ/ has 2 i.e. [ɪ] and [ɛ] which are in . The phoneme /ʊ/ has two allophones in complementary distribution: /ʊ/ [ʊ]/ ___C# Ex.: ug, uy! [ɔ]/ (V)C___# Ex.: ko, mo, ako, imo But apparently, this does not apply generally to the Cebuano dialect of Iligan. According to the informant, when I gave him words containing the phonemes /ɪ/ and /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ which I assumed can be interchangeable, he said it cannot be at all times interchangeable and most of the time cannot be interchangeable. This cannot be further proven in this paper since the data lacks the needed evidences to prove such although, now I consider the given phonemes to be not allophones of each other because they are not yet predictable based on the gathered data. One explanation which I think might have happened here is that a phonological shift occurred which split the traditional allophonic distribution of [ɪ] and [ɛ] under the phoneme /ɪ/ and [ʊ] and [ɔ] under the phoneme /ʊ/. Now that it has undergone split, the former allophones now became phonemes by themselves. [ɪ] /ɪ/ [ɔ] /ɔ/ /ɪ/ /ʊ/ [ɛ] /ɛ/ [ʊ] /ʊ/

Figure 3 - Vowels a /ʔadˈlaw/ „sun‟ ɪ ʊ ʊ /ʔʊnˈlan/ „pillow‟ ɪ /ʔɪˈrɔʔ/ „dog‟ ɛ /ˈpɛstɛ/ „pest‟ ɛ ɔ ɔ /ˈʔɔːban/ „buhok na puti‟

a BOLLAS 12

Phonemic contrasts A. /ɛ/ vs. /ɪ/ 1. pɪsˈtɪ „damn it‟ ˈpɛstɛ „pest‟ B. /ɔ/ vs. /ʊ/ 1. ˈʔɔːban „buhok na puti‟ ʔʊˈban „to go with‟ tʊˈʔɔ „obey‟ tʊˈʔʊ „right (direction)‟ 2.2.2.1.3 Diphthongs (Figure 4) ʔaj /gaˈmaj/ „few‟ ʊj ɪw ʔaw /laˈkaw/ „to walk‟ ʔʊj /maˈŋʊjʔab/ „yawn‟ ʔɪw /ˈsɪsɪw/ „chick‟ ɔj ʔɔj /ˈtʊtɔj/ „breast‟

aj aw

2.2.2.2 Suprasegmentals A. Stress B. Vowel length* 1. laˈhɪ „different‟ *Examples from Rubrico (n.d.). ˈlahɪ „kind / specie‟ 1. baːj „house‟ ˈʔʊlɪ „return baj „vocative for a friend‟ ʔʊˈlɪ „go home‟ ˈdaːpɪt „invite‟ daˈpɪt „place 2.2.3 Phonotactics of Cebuano Onset Coda Medial 1. /p/ /pɪˈgaʔ/ „to squeeze‟ /sʊpˈsʊp/ „suck‟ /hʊˈjɔpɪ/ „to blow‟ 2. /b/ /baˈgaʔ/ „thick‟ /tʊgˈʔab/ „to belch‟ /hʊˈbag/ „swollen‟ 3. /t/ /tʊˈnɔk/ „thorn‟ /paˈjat/ „thin‟ /kadˈtɔ/ „that (far)‟ 4. /d/ /dɪˈraʔ/ „there (near)‟ /kaladˈkad/ „to drag‟ /ˈtɪndɔg/ „stand up/ stature‟ BOLLAS 13

5. /k/ /kaˈnɪ/ „this‟ /tʊˈnɔk/ „thorn‟ /ʔɪˈkaw/ „you‟ 6. /g/ /gʊˈʔɔt/ „tight‟ /dalʊgˈdɔg/ „thunder‟ /baˈgaʔ/ „thick‟ 7. /m/ /maˈbaw/ „shallow‟ /ʔasˈlʊm/ „sour‟ /gaˈmaj/ „small‟ 8. /n/ /naˈhʊŋ/ „face‟ /ʔʊnˈlan/ „pillow‟ /taˈnʊm/ „plant‟ 9. /ŋ/ /ˈŋɪpɔn/ „tooth‟ /naˈhʊŋ/ „face‟ /ˈdʊŋan/ „ear‟ 10. /l/ /ˈlabaj/ „to throw‟ /kaˈtʊl/ „to scratch (itch)‟ /habˈla/ „to weave‟ 11. /r/ /ˈlɪdɛr/ „chief‟ /bɪˈra/ „to pull‟ 12./s/ /sʊˈkɔʔ/ „anger‟ /lamɪˈgas/ „ant‟ /ˈbrasɔ/ „arm‟ 13. /w/ /waˈlɔ/ „eight‟ /ʔʊˈpaw/ „bald‟ /laˈwas/ „body‟ 14. /j/ /jʊˈta/ „earth/soil‟ /ˈtʊtɔj/ „breast‟ /haˈjag/ „bright‟ 15. /ʔ/ /ʔaˈmɔg/ „fog‟ /pʊˈnɔʔ / „full‟ /tɪˈʔɪl/ „foot‟ 16. /h/ /hʊˈmɔt/ „fragrant‟ /ˈgahɪ/ „hard‟ 20. /ʧ/ /ʧan/ „belly‟ /ʔaˈʧɪŋ/ „sneeze‟ 21. /ʤ/ /ʤɪs/ „ten‟

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Consonant Clusters These consonant clusters found in Cebuano usually originated from borrowed words from Spanish and English. Some clusters are results of deletion and palatalization in some words. Examples (Rubrico, n.d.) [revised]:

C1 C2 Examples p l, r, w, j planɔ , praŋka , pwɛrtɔ , pjanɔ t r, w, s, j trapɔ , twɛrka , tsʊˈpɛr , tjabaw k l, r, w, j klɪma , krʊs , kwɛba , kjʊgpɔs b l, r, w, j blaŋka , brɪljantɛ , bwɪŋgɪt , bjɛrnɛs d r, w, j drajbɛr , dwɛndɛ , djamantɛ g r, w grabɛ , gwanɔ n w, j nwɛbɛ , njɛbɛ m w, j mwɛblɛs , myɛrkʊlɛs s w, j swapaŋ , sjagɪt h w hwɛs 1from /pʊˈwɛstɔ/ (deletion of /ʊ/) 2 from /kʊˈwagɔ/ (deletion of /ʊ/) 3from /gɪˈjɛra/ (deletion of /ɪ/)

Syllable structures 1. CV (ʔimo, tana) 2. CVC (ʔumoy) 3. CCV (klaro) 4. CCVC (kwarta, krus)

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2.3 Itawis (Itawes/ Itawit/ Tawit)

2.3.1 Introduction The Itawis language is spoken in Northern Luzon, in the southern parts of Cagayan. According to the Ethnologue, it has two dialects: Itawis and Malaueg (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). The Itawis language is an Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Philippine, Northern Luzon, Northern Cordilleran, , Ibanagic language (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). In the census of the year 1990, the Itawis speakers in the Philippines reached a number of 139, 000 (Lewis, Simons, & Fennig, 2013). The dialect from which the data is gathered is the one in Tuguegarao City.

2.3.2 Phoneme Inventory The Itawis language has 27 phonemes: 26 segmental phonemes at 1 suprasegmental (i.e. stress). The 26 segmental phonemes consist of 21 consonants and 5 vowels. 2.3.2.1 Segmentals 2.3.2.1.1 Consonants This inventory is updated based on the data. It can be noticed that /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ are the additions to this inventory. These two phonemes probably came from the palatalized versions of the phonemes /t/ and /d/ (ts, ty, and dy). It must also be noted that the Itawis language is a geminate language. In the data, the phonemes (consonants) which can be geminated are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ, f, s, z, l, j/. Table 3 - Consonants Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Post- Alveopalatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar Stops p b t d k g ʔ Nasal m n ŋ Fricative f v s z h

Affricate ʧ ʤ Lateral l Glide w j w Trill r p /paˈŋa/ „branch‟ t /ˈtagaŋ/ „chest‟ k /ˈkajʊŋ/ „brother-in-law‟ b /bagˈgɪ/ „body‟ d /daˈha/ „blood‟ g /ˈgafʊt/ „catch‟

BOLLAS 16 l /lɪˈkʊg/ „back‟ w /waˈhɪ/ „sibling‟ j /ˈjakan/ „I‟ r /ragˈgaŋ/ „red‟ s /saˈŋaw/ „now‟ f /ˈfʊtʊ/ „heart‟ m /ˈmʊla/ „plant‟ z /zɪˈraja/ „left‟ v /vʊˈkal/ „seed‟ n /nabɪˈsɪn/ „hungry‟ h /hanˈna/ „what‟ ʧ /ˈkaʧɔk/ „earwax‟ ŋ /ˈŋammɪn/ „all‟ ʔ /ʔaˈtʊg/ „knee‟ ʤ /ʤan na/ „where‟

Phonemic contrasts A. /t/ vs. /d/ 1. ʔɪtˈta „we (dual, pl.)‟ ʔɪdˈda „to lie (on side)‟ 2. ˈgadaŋ „rise (from the water)‟ ˈgataŋ „buy‟ B. /p/ vs. /b/ 1. mappatˈtʊ „to jump‟ mabbagˈgʊ „to wash‟ 2. ˈpagaŋ „good thing that happened to you (sarcasm)‟ ˈbagaŋ „ember‟ 3. lapˈpag „slap‟ labˈbag „rotten‟ C. /g/ vs. /k/ 1. tagˈgam „ant‟ ʔakˈkan „not‟ 2. tɔtˈtɔk „bump‟ tʊtˈtʊg „sit‟ 3. bannak „throw‟ banˈnag „tired‟ 4. lapˈpak „drop‟ lapˈpag „slap‟ D. /m/ vs. /n/ 1. ʔɪˈna „mother‟ ˈʔɪma „palm‟ naˈtaj „corpse‟ maˈtaj „to die‟ E. /l/ vs. /r/ 1. ˈʔʊlʊ „head

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ʔʊˈrʊ „medicine‟

F. /f/ vs. /v/ 1. ʔaˈfʊ „god‟ ʔaˈvʊ „ash‟ G. /s/ vs. /z/ 1. gassɪt „tobacco seed‟ gazˈzɪt „anger‟ H. Glides (/w/ vs. /j/) 1. sɪnˈnaw „washing the dishes‟ sɪˈnaj „belly‟

2.3.2.1.2 Vowels (Figure 5)

a /ʔaˈjam/ „animal‟ ʊ ɪ ʊ /ˈʔʊbat/ „buttocks‟ ɪ /ˈʔɪma/ „arm‟ e /ʔɛnˈtrɛ/ „and‟ ɛ ɔ o /dɔn/ „leaf‟

a

Phonemic contrasts I. /ɔ/ vs. /ʊ/ J. /ɛ/ vs. /ɪ/ 1. ˈkɔkɔt „to steal‟ 1. ˈbɛbaj „sea‟ kʊˈkʊ „nail‟ ˈbibaj „shell‟ 2. kɔkˈkɔg „to dig‟ 2. mɛkɔkˈkɔg „to bury (the dead)‟ kʊkˈkʊg „scraping coconuts‟ ʔɪkɔkˈkɔg „to bury‟

2.3.2.1.3 Diphthongs (Figure 6) ʔaj /sɪˈnaj/ „belly‟ ʔaw /ʔalˈgaw/ „day/ afternoon‟

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aj aw

2.3.2.2 Suprasegmentals Stress 1. ˈkajʊ „tree‟ (ʔɪ)kaˈjʊ „you‟ 2.3.3 Phonotactics of Itawis Onset Coda Medial 1. /p/ /paˈŋa/ „branch‟ /sʊnˈsʊp/ „suck‟ /naˈpɛt/ „bitter‟ 2. /b/ /bagˈgɪ/ „body‟ /ˈʔʊbat/ „buttocks‟ 3. /t/ /tagˈgam/ „ant‟ /gazˈzɪt/ „anger‟ /ˈʔʊtak/ „brain‟ 4. /d/ /daˈha/ „blood‟ /ʔapˈdʊʔ/ „gall bladder‟ 5. /k/ /ˈkajʊ/ „tree‟ /mamˈmanʊk/ „bird‟ /lɪˈkʊg/ „back‟ 6. /g/ /ˈgalʊt/ „bundle/ belt‟ /nalʊˈkag/ „awake‟ /ˈtagaŋ/ „chest‟ 7. /m/ /manaˈŋat/ „fish‟ /ʔaˈjam/ „animal‟ /tʊˈmaŋ/ „ankle‟ 8. /n/ /naŋʊˈral/ „dull (knife)‟ /ŋamˈmɪn/ „all‟ /sɪˈnaj/ „belly‟ 9. /ŋ/ /ŋamˈmɪn/ „all‟ /kaŋ/ „at‟ /paˈŋa/ „branch‟ 10. /l/ /lɪˈkʊg/ „back‟ /daˈkal/ „big‟ /vʊˈlag/ „blind‟ 11. /r/ /ragˈgaŋ/ „red‟ /trabahaˈdɔr/ „servant‟ /taˈram/ „sharpness‟ 12. /s/ /sɪˈnaj/ „belly‟ /ˈʔɪpɪs/ „cockroach‟ /naˈŋɪsɪt/ „black‟ 13. /w/ /waˈhɪ/ „sibling‟ /ʔalˈgaw/ „day/afternoon‟ /naˈnawag/ „bright‟ 14. /j/

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/ˈjakan/ „I‟ /naˈtɔlaj/ „alive‟ /ʔaˈjam/ „animal‟ 15. /ʔ/ /ʔaˈtʊg/ „knee‟ /ˈbabaʔ/ „chin‟ /mɛˈʔanʊg/ „to flow‟ 16. /h/ /hanˈna/ „what‟ /daˈha/ „blood‟ 17. /z/ /zɪˈraja/ „left‟ /ʔattazˈzɪt/ „tight‟ 18. /f/ /ˈfʊtʊ/ „heart‟ /ˈgafʊt/ „catch‟ 19. /v/ /vʊˈkal/ „seed‟ /ʔaˈvʊk/ „hair‟ /ʔaˈvʊ/ „ash‟ 20. /ʧ/ /ˈkaʧɔk/ „earwax‟ 21. /ʤ/ ʤ /ʤan na/ „where‟ /palaˈʤaw/ „to run‟ Consonant clusters These consonant clusters found in Itawis usually originated from borrowed words from Spanish. Some clusters are results of deletion and palatalization in some words. Examples:

C1 C2 Examples p w /ˈpwɛrta/ „door‟ b r, j /kʊstɔmbrɛ/ „custom‟, /bjɛrnɪt/ „Biyernes‟ t r /trabahaˈdɔr/ „servant‟ k w /kwan/ „to do‟ d w /dwa/ „two‟ g w, j /ˈgwapa/ „beautiful‟, /gjɛˈra/ „war‟ f r /ˈfrɛntɛ/ „forehead‟

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Gemination According to Bolozky (2004), gemination is “…a long consonant, represented either by a special mark, or by doubling the consonant. In syllable division, a geminate consonant is assumed to close one syllable and serve as the onset to the next one…” This is very particular in Itawis in the consonant phonemes /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ, f, s, z, l, j/. Some word examples are given below: pp lapˈpaw „flower‟ nn hanˈna „what‟ bb kabˈbaŋ „scratch/ carving‟ ŋŋ baŋˈŋag „deaf‟ tt bɪtˈtʊt „short‟ ff ʔʊfˈfʊ „thigh‟ dd gadˈdaŋ „skin‟ ss bɛsˈsaŋ „few‟ kk ʔɪkɔkˈkɔg „to bury‟ zz mɔzˈzan „last‟ gg magˈgɪna „to hear‟ ll ʔalˈlɛ „same‟ mm ʔamˈmʊ „to know‟ jj ʔarajˈjʊ „far‟

Syllable structures (Jalotjot, 1937) 1. CV (na) 2. CVC (garsig) 3. CCV (kwan) 4. CCVC (frente, byernit)

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3.0 Conclusion Having presented the phonology of Tagalog, Cebuano, and Itawis, it now calls for a definitive conclusion on their phonological similarities and differences. Tagalog and Cebuano are Central Philippine languages (although geographically, they belong to different islands and regions) while Itawis is a Northern Luzon (Northern Cordilleran) language. Given these subgrouping and geographical differences, how can these three languages be similar or different from each other? This phonemic inventory (table and figure below) shows the core segmental phonemes of the three languages. It means that these are the phonemes which occurred consistently in all three languages. We can see that the voiced and voiceless stops /p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ/ are present in all three Philippine languages, same with the nasals /m, n, ŋ/, /s, h/, /ʧ, ʤ/ glides /w, j/ and the lateral /l/ and the trill /r/. It should not be forgotten that stress /ˈ/ is also a core suprasegmental phoneme in these three languages. Also, adding the vowels: the low back unrounded lax /a/, the mid front unrounded lax /ɛ/, the high front unrounded lax /ɪ/, the mid back rounded lax /ɔ/, and the high back rounded lax /ʊ/. This makes the vowel inventory of the three languages the same and with no differences. Summed up, there are 24 phonemes which are inherent in Tagalog, Cebuano and Itawis. Table 4 – Core phonemes of Tagalog, Cebuano and Itawis (Segmentals) Bilabial Alveolar Post- Alveopalatal Velar Glottal alveolar Stops p b t d k g ʔ Nasal m n ŋ Fricative s h

Affricate ʧ ʤ Lateral l Glide w j w Trill r Figure 7 – Core Vowels of Tagalog, Cebuano and Itawis Since these three languages belong to

ɪ ʊ different subgroups and lies in different geographies, it must have also reflected in their respective language; there must be differences. The first ɛ ɔ difference is in the phonemic inventory, the suprasegmental phoneme vowel length /ː/. Although a BOLLAS 22 present in both Tagalog and Cebuano, it was not proven by the data gathered that it is phonemic (or if it exists) in Itawis. The Itawis language‟s voiceless and voiced labiodental fricatives /f, v/ and the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ are also the deviations from the core phoneme inventory of the three languages. Nonetheless, these are not borrowed phonemes in Itawis, rather they are native. With the diphthongs, the core ones are only /aj/ and /aw/. Although Tagalog had 6 diphthongs /aj, aw, ɛj, ɪw, ɔj, ʊj/ and Cebuano had 5 (all those of Tagalog too excluding /ɛj/), Itawis only had 2 which are /aj/ and /aw/. The core consonant cluster patterns of the three languages are CV, CVC, CCV, and CCVC. Only Tagalog deviated from this having an additional CCCVC pattern which obviously originated from borrowed words from English. The additional phonemes in the three languages (i.e. ʧ &ʤ) are due to recent innovations in the language. This may be limited only to speakers who are exposed to English or other foreign languages and may be acquired only by the younger speakers of each language. All based from the data, the findings of this paper reflects the current usage of Tagalog, Cebuano (in Iligan) and Itawis (in Tuguegarao) by the respective native speakers. It can be seen that there innovations that have reflected in this paper especially the vowels of Cebuano-Iligan. Tagalog, on the other hand, may include a lot of English borrowed terms and phonemes but it is not included here so as to distinguish Tagalog from Filipino. It is quite ecstatic to see how three geographically separated languages can have so many shared features and even in their lexicon (see Appendix 1). They may have differences but these deviations existed in order to distinguish these three languages from each other.

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References: Bolozky, S. (2004). Surface geminates (dageš forte) in Israeli Hebrew. In L. Ehrlich, S. Bolozky, R. Rothstein, M. Schwartz, J. Berkovitz, J. Young (Eds.), Textures and Meaning: Thirty Years of Judaic Studies at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Judaic and Near Eastern Studies, University of Massachusetts Amherst. Bunye, M. V. R. & Yap, E. P. (1971). Cebuano grammar notes. Honolulu: University of Hawaii. Delahunty, G. P., & Garvey, J. J. (2010). The English language from sound to sense. West Lafayette, Indiana: Parlor Press. Retrieved from http://wac.colostate.edu/books/sound/sound.pdf Forel, C-A., & Puskás, G. (1986). Phonetics and phonology: reader for first year English linguistics. Informally published manuscript, University of Oldenburg, Retrieved from http://www.staff.uni-oldenburg.de/cornelia.hamann/download/Phonology.pdf Jalotjot, E. M. (1937). Diskripsyon ng klos na verbal ng wikang Itawit (Master‟s thesis). University of the Philippines, Diliman, City. Lewis, M. P., Simons, G. F., & Fennig, C. D. (Eds.). (2013). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SiL international. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com Matos, F. H. (2009, June 28). The 100 most spoken languages on the world [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://frankherles.wordpress.com/2009/06/28/the-100-most-spoken- languages-on-the-world/ Nelson, A. M. (1964). An introduction to Cebuano. : Rotary Press. Reid, L. & Schachter, P. (2009). Tagalog. In B. Comrie (Ed.), The world‟s major languages (2nd ed., pp. 833-855). London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/Combined%20Files/A71.%202008.%20Tagalog%20chapt er%2049.pdf Rubrico, J. G. U. (n.d.). Cebuano Grammar Notes. Retrieved from http://www.languagelinks.org/onlinepapers/fil_cbstd.html

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Appendix 1 500 Wordlist English Tagalog Itawis Cebuano 001 adze tɪgbʊŋˈkal 002 alive bʊˈhaj naˈtɔlaj bʊˈhɪ 003 all laˈhat ŋamˈmɪn taˈnan 004 and ʔat ʔɛnˈtrɛ ʔʊg 005 anger ˈgaːlɪt gazˈzɪt sʊˈkɔʔ 006 animal ˈhaːjɔp ʔaˈjam ʔanɪˈmal 007 ankle bʊˈkʊŋbʊːkɔŋ tʊˈmaŋ ˈsakɔŋ ˈsaːkɔŋ 008 ant laŋˈgam tagˈgam lamɪˈgas 009 arm ˈbɪːsɪg ˈʔɪma ˈbrasɔ 010 armpit kɪˈlɪkɪːlɪ kɪlɪˈkɪlɪ ʔɪˈlɔk 011 arrow palaˈsɔ paˈnaʔ ˈpaːna 012 ashes ʔaˈbɔ ʔaˈvʊ ʔaˈbɔ 013 at sa kaŋ sa 014 awake gɪˈsɪŋ nalʊˈkag maˈta 015 back lɪˈkɔd lɪˈkʊg lɪˈkɔd 016 bad masaˈma naˈrakat maˈlɪ 017 bald kalˈbɔ kalˈbʊ ʔʊˈpaw 018 bamboo kaˈwaːjan kaˈwajan kaˈwajan ˈbʊːhɔ 019 bark (tree) baˈlat naŋ ˈkaːhɔj baˈrɔk 020 bear, suffer tɪˈʔɪs pasɛnˈʃan ʔanˈtɔs 021 beard balˈbas ˈʔɪmɪŋ bʊˈŋɔt 022 beautiful maganˈda ˈgwapa gwaˈpa 023 belly ʧan sɪˈnaj tɪˈjan 024 big malaˈkɪ daˈkal daˈkɔʔ 025 bile ʔapˈdɔ ʔapˈdʊʔ ʔapˈdʊʔ 026 bird ˈʔɪːbɔn mamˈmanʊk ˈlaŋgam 027 bitter mapaˈʔɪt naˈpɛt paˈʔɪt 028 black ʔɪˈtɪm, maʔɪˈtɪm naˈŋɪsɪt ʔɪˈtɔm 029 blade/ sharpness taˈlɪm taˈram haˈʔɪt 030 blind bʊˈlag vʊˈlag bʊˈta 031 blood dʊˈgɔʔ daˈha dʊˈgɔʔ 032 body kataˈwan bagˈgɪ laˈwas 033 bone bʊˈtɔ (also, seed) vʊˈkal bʊˈkɔg tʊˈlaŋ

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034 boy (young m., not ˈbaːtaŋ laˈlaːkɪ bagɪˈtɔlaj ˈlaːkɛ son) 035 brain ˈʔʊːtak ˈʔʊtak ˈʔʊlɔ 036 branch saˈŋa paˈŋa saˈŋa 037 breast ˈsʊsɔ ˈsʊsʊ ˈtʊtɔj 038 bright malɪˈwaːnag naˈnawag haˈjag 039 brother-in-law baˈjaw ˈkajʊŋ baˈjaw 040 bundle, belt bɪgˈkɪs ˈgalʊt baˈkʊs 041 butterfly paˌrʊpaˈrɔ tʊtʊˈbɪ 042 buttocks pwɛt, pwɪˈtan ˈʔʊbat lʊˈbɔt 043 catch, apprehend daˈkɪp ˈgafʊt dakˈpan 044 charcoal ˈʔʊlɪŋ ˈʔʊlɪŋ ˈʔʊlɪŋ 045 cheek pɪsˈŋɪ ʔaˈpɔŋɔl ʔaˈpɪŋ 046 chest dɪbˈdɪb ˈtagaŋ dʊgˈhan 047 chick ˈsɪːsɪw ˈpɪjak ˈsɪsɪw 048 chicken maˈnɔk maˈnʊk maˈnɔk 049 chief ˈpʊːnɔ (alsɔ, trɛɛ) ˈkajʊ ˈlɪdɛr 050 child (young) ʔaˈnak ʔaˈnak ʔaˈnak 051 chin ˈbabaʔ ˈbabaʔ sʊˈwaŋ 052 clean maˈlɪːnɪs naˈrɛnʊ ˈlɪmpjɔ 053 cloud ˈʔʊlap ˈdagʔɔm 054 cockroach ˈʔɪpɪs ˈʔɪpɪs ˈʔɪpɪs 055 coconut nɪˈjɔg ˈʔɪjʊg lʊˈbɪ 056 coconut grater kʊdˈkʊːran ˈʔɪjag kʊdkʊˈran 057 coconut milk gaˈtaʔ gaˈtaʔ gaˈtaʔ 058 cold (objects) malaˈmɪg nalamˈmɪn bʊgˈnaw 059 cold (weather) magɪˈnaw nalamˈmɪn bʊgˈnaw malaˈmɪg 060 corpse baŋˈkaj naˈtaj paˈtaj na ˈlawas 061 cousin ˈpɪnsan kapɪtˈta ʔɪgˈʔagaw 062 crocodile bʊˈwaːja bʊˈwaja bʊwaˈja 063 crow ʔʊˈwak mamˈmanʊk ʔʊˈwak 064 curly hair kʊˈlɔt kʊˈlʊt kʊˈlɔt 065 dark, dim madɪˈlɪm naˈkɔpan dʊˈlɔm 066 day (12 or 24 hrs) ˈʔaːraw (also, sun) ʔalˈgaw ʔadˈlaw 067 daytime (not night ʔʊˈmaːga ˈʔʊmma bʊnˈtag time) 068 deaf bɪˈŋɪ baŋˈŋag bʊˈŋɔl 069 debt ˈʔʊːtaŋ gatˈtʊt ˈʔʊtaŋ 070 deep maˈlaːlɪm ʔaˈdalam laˈlɔm 071 deer ʔʊˈsa ʔʊtˈta ʔʊˈsa

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072 demolish gɪˈbaʔ daralˈlan gʊˈba 073 dew haˈmɔg haˈmɔg 074 dirty marʊˈmɪ nadaˈpɪŋ ˈhʊgaw 075 dog ˈʔaːsɔ ˈʔatʊ ʔɪˈrɔʔ 076 door pɪnˈtɔʔ ˈpwɛrta pwɛrtaˈhan 077 downward pabaˈbaʔ pagʊˈkag baˈbaʔ 078 dream panaˈgɪːnɪp taˈtɛnat damˈgɔ 079 dry (substance) tʊˈjɔʔ namaˈha ʔʊˈga 080 dull (knife) mapʊˈrɔl naŋʊˈral haˈbʊl 081 dumb (mute) ˈpɪːpɪ ˈpɪpɪ ʔaˈmaŋ 082 dust ʔalɪkaˈbɔk gaˈhʊk ʔaˈbɔg ʔalaˈbɔk 083 ear ˈtɛːŋa daraŋˈgaŋ ˈdʊŋan 084 earth (soil) ˈlʊːpa lʊˈsak jʊˈta 085 earwax tʊtʊˈlɪ ˈkaʧɔk tʊtʊˈlɪ 086 edible, climbing ˈʔʊːbɛ ˈʔʊbɪ ˈʔʊbɛ plant from fleshy root stock 087 eel ˈʔɪːgat (freshwater) sɪˈhɪn paˈlɔs (saltwater) 088 egg ʔɪtˈlɔg ˈʔɪlʊg ʔɪtˈlɔg 089 eggplant taˈlɔŋ baraŋˈkɪnɪt taˈlɔŋ 090 eight waˈlɔ waˈlʊ waˈlɔ 091 elbow ˈsɪːkɔ ˈsɪkʊ ˈsɪkɔ 092 ember, hot coal ˈbaːgaʔ ˈsɪdʊg ˈbaga 093 erection ʔʊˈtɔg 094 evening gaˈbɪ gaˈbɪ gaˈbɪʔɪ 095 excrement dʊˈmɪ kaˈwɛt ˈtaʔɛ ˈtaːɛ 096 eye maˈta maˈta maˈta 097 eyebrow ˈkɪːlaj ˈkɪraj ˈkɪlaj 098 face mʊkˈha ˈmʊkat naˈhʊŋ 099 far maˈlaːjɔ ʔarajˈjʊ laˈjɔʔ 100 fast mabɪˈlɪs pasˈpas pasˈpas 101 fat (substance) taˈbaʔ taˈba tamˈbɔk 102 father ʔaˈma ʔaˈma ˈpapa 103 father/mother-in-law bjɛˈnan katʊˈwaŋan bjɛˈnan 104 feather (large) balaˈhɪːbɔ (fur,fine ˈdʊdʊt balaˈhɪbɔ hair) 105 fence ˈbaːkɔd ˈbakʊg kʊˈral 106 few ˈkɔːntɪ bɛsˈsaŋ gaˈmaj

BOLLAS 27

107 fin palɪkˈpɪk ˈʔɪpaj palɪkˈpɪk 108 finger daˈlɪːrɪ ˈʔɪma tʊdˈlɔʔ 109 fingernail kʊˈkɔ kʊˈkʊ kʊˈkɔ 110 fire ʔaˈpɔj ʔaˈfɪ ˈsʊnɔg 111 first ˈʔʊːna ʔʊnˈna ˈʔʊna 112 firstborn paˈŋaːnaj kaˈka pɪnakamagʊˈlaŋ 113 fish ʔɪsˈda manaˈŋat ʔɪsˈda 114 five lɪˈma lɪˈma lɪˈma 115 flatulence ʔʊˈtɔt ʔatˈtʊt ʔʊˈtɔt 116 flood baˈhaʔ baˈsaw baˈhaʔ 117 flower bʊlakˈlak lapˈpaw ˈbʊlak 118 fly (the insect) ˈlaːŋaw (small) ˈlaŋaw ˈlaŋaw ˈbaːŋaw (big) 119 foam bʊˈla ˈgʊwat bʊˈla 120 fog haˈmɔg lapˈpat ʔaˈmɔg 121 foot paˈʔaʔ ˈtaka tɪˈʔɪl 122 forehead nɔˈʔɔʔ ˈfrɛntɛ ʔagˈtaŋ 123 foul-smelling maˈbahɔ navʊˈyʊk baˈhɔʔ 124 four ˈʔaːpat ʔapˈpat ʔʊˈpat 125 fragrant mabaˈŋɔ nabaˈŋʊg hʊˈmɔt 126 frog palaˈka ˈtʊkak baˈkɪ 127 full (after eating) bʊˈsɔg nabatˈtʊg bʊˈsɔg 128 full (not empty) pʊˈnɔʔ napaˈnʊ pʊˈnɔʔ 129 fur balaˈhɪːbɔ ˈdʊdʊt balaˈhɪbɔ 130 garden ˈhaːlaːmanan talamˈnan 131 gills ˈhaːsaŋ barasaˈŋa ˈhasaŋ 132 ginger ˈlʊːja laˈja ˈlʊja 133 girl ˈbataŋ baˈbaʔɛ ʔabˈbɪŋ ɲa baˈbaj ˈbaʔɛ 134 god ʤɔs ʔaˈfʊ gɪˈnɔʔɔ 135 gold gɪnˈtɔ gɔld gɪnˈtɔ 136 good maˈbʊːtɪ mapˈja bʊˈʔɔtan 137 goodbye paˈʔaːlam pakamˈmʊ adˈtɔ saˈkɔ 138 grass daˈmɔ kadˈdat daˈmɔ 139 gray hair ˈʔʊːban ʔʊˈbaŋ ˈʔʊban 140 guts laˈmanlɔˈʔɔb tɪˈnaʔɛ 141 hair bʊˈhɔk ʔaˈvʊk bʊˈhɔk cowlick pʊˈjɔʔ ʔalɪmʊˈrak tɪnˈkɔj 142 hand kaˈmaj ˈʔɪma kaˈmʊt 143 hard matɪˈgas natagˈgat ˈgahɪ 144 he ʃa (he, she) ʔɪgˈgɪna ʃa 145 head ˈʔʊːlɔ ˈʔʊlʊ ˈʔʊlɔ BOLLAS 28

146 healthy malʊˈsɔg napˈja jɔ gawgaˈwajan ˈbaskʊg 147 heart ˈpʊːsɔʔ ˈfʊtʊ ˈkasɪŋˈkasɪŋ 148 heavy mabɪˈgat nadamˈmat bʊgˈʔat 149 here ˈdɪːtɔ kaˈɲaw dɪˈrɛ 150 high tide taˈʔɔb 151 hole (esp. in ground) ˈbʊːtas batˈtak bʊsˈlɔt ˈhʊːkaj 152 hot maˈʔɪnɪt naˈpatʊ ˈʔɪnɪt 153 house ˈbaːhaj baˈlaj baˈlaj 154 how paˈʔanɔ kʊnaˈsɪ ˈʔʊnsa 155 how many? ʔɪˈlan pɪˈja ˈpɪla 156 how much? magˈkaːnɔ taˈgɪ pɪˈja tagˈpɪla 157 hungry gʊˈtɔm nabɪˈsɪn gʊˈtɔm 158 husband ʔaˈsaːwa (spouse) ʔaˈtawa ˈbana 159 I ʔaˈkɔ ˈjakan ʔaˈkɔ 160 image laˈrawan ʔɪtˈʧʊra lɪˈtratɔ 161 intestines bɪˈtʊːka bɪtʊˈgal tɪˈnaʔɛ 162 island pʊˈlɔʔ ˈʔɪsla ˈʔɪsla 163 itch kaˈtɪ kaˈtal kaˈtɔl 164 jaw paˈŋa ʔaˈpɔŋɔl paˈŋa 165 kiss haˈlɪk ʔamˈma haˈlʊk 166 knee ˈtʊːhɔd ʔaˈtʊg ˈtʊhɔd 167 lake ˈlaːwaʔ ˈlawa 168 last hʊˈlɪ mɔzˈzan tʊˈmɔj 169 lastborn bʊnˈsɔʔ ʔʊzˈzan pɪnakamaŋˈhʊd 170 later ˈmamajaʔ sɔ ʔaˈbɪt ʔʊnˈja 171 leaf ˈdaːhɔn dɔn ˈdahɔn 172 leak, drip, rain ˈtʊːlɔʔ ˈtʊrʊt ˈtʊlɔʔ 173 left (hand) kalɪˈwaʔ zɪˈraja waˈlaʔ 174 leg bɪnˈtɪʔ bɪnˈtɪ 175 lie (falsehood) kasɪnʊŋaˈlɪːŋan ladˈdʊg baˈkak 176 light magaˈʔaŋ nalamˈpaw gaˈʔan 177 lightning kɪdˈlat kɪlkɪˈlat kɪdˈlat 178 lip ˈlaːbɪ sɪˈmʊk bɪˈbɪg (mɔʊth) 179 liver ʔaˈtaj ʔaˈgal ʔaˈtaj 180 long maˈhaːba ʔapadˈdʊ taˈʔas 181 loose malʊˈwaŋ ʔaˈlawa lʊˈʔag malʊˈwag 182 louse ˈkʊːtɔ ˈkʊtʊ ˈkʊtɔ 183 love charm gaˈjʊːma taˈmaj gaˈjʊma

BOLLAS 29

184 lungs ˈbaːga ˈtagaŋ ˈbagaʔ 185 man (male) laˈlaːkɪ laˈlakɪ laˈlakɪ 186 many maˈramɪ ʔaˈrʊ dagˈhan 187 mat (for floor) baˈnɪg ʔaˈbak baˈnɪg 188 meat (flesh) karˈnɛ ˈkarnɛ karˈnɛ laˈman (also,contents) 189 medicine gaˈmɔt ʔʊˈrʊ tamˈbal 190 melt tʊˈnaw ˈlʊnag tʊˈnaw 191 middle gɪtˈnaʔ taŋˈŋa tʊˈŋaʔ 192 milk ˈgaːtas gatˈtak ˈgatas 193 moon bwan (alsɔ, ˈvʊlan ˈbʊlan month) 194 mosquito laˈmɔk laˈmʊk laˈmɔk 195 moss ˈlʊːmɔt ˈlʊmʊt ˈlʊmɔt 196 mother ʔɪˈna, ˈnaːnaj ʔɪˈna ˈmama 197 mountain bʊnˈdɔk baˈkʊlʊg ˈbʊkɪd 198 mouth bɪˈbɪg bɪˈbɪg baʔbaʔ 199 mud ˈpʊːtɪk vʊˈjʊn ˈlapɔk 200 nail (finger or toe) kʊˈkɔ kʊˈkʊ kʊˈkɔ 201 name paˈŋaːlan ˈŋahan paˈŋalan 202 nape ˈbaːtɔk taŋˈŋag ˈbatɔk 203 narrow maˈkɪːtɪd ʔattazˈzɪt gʊˈʔɔt maˈkɪːpɔt 204 navel ˈpʊːsɔd ˈfʊtag ˈpʊsɔd 205 near maˈlaːpɪt ʔaranˈnɪ dʊˈʔɔl 206 neck lɛˈʔɛg karaˈlɔŋ lɪˈʔɔg 207 necklace kwɪnˈtas kwɪnˈtas 208 needle kaˈraːjɔm ˈdahʊm ˈdagɔm 209 nest (as bird‟s) ˈpʊːgad ˈtʊhʊt ˈpʊgad 210 net (fishing) lamˈbat ʔaˈbʊt ʔaˈbʊt pʊˈkɔt 211 new ˈbaːgɔ baˈhʊ ˈbagɔ 212 night gaˈbɪ gaˈbɪ gaˈbɪʔɪ 213 nine ʃam sʲam ʃam 214 none waˈlaʔ ʔaˈwan waˈlaʔ 215 northeast wind ʔaˈmɪːhan ˈʔaŋɪn ʔaˈmɪhan 216 nose ʔɪˈlɔŋ ˈʔɪjjʊŋ ʔɪˈlɔŋ 217 not hɪnˈdɪ ʔakˈkan dɪˈlɪʔ 218 now ŋaˈjɔn saˈŋaw kaˈrʊn 219 octopus pʊˈgɪːta pʊˈgɪta pʊˈgɪta 220 often madaˈlas kaˈnajʊn pɪrˈmɪ

BOLLAS 30

maˈlɪːmɪt 221 old ˈlʊːma ˈdana ˈdaʔan 222 once ˈmɪːnsan nʊ dʊdˈdʊma talagˈsa 223 one ʔɪˈsa ʔɪˈsa ʔɪˈsa 224 one hundred ʔɪˈsaŋ daˈʔan ʃɛn ʔɪˈsa gaˈtɔs 225 one thousand ʔɪˈsaŋ ˈlɪbɔ mɪl ʔɪˈsaŋ lɪˈbɔ 226 orphan ʔʊˈlɪːla ʔʊˈlɪla 227 other, different ʔɪˈba ˈdʊma ˈlaʔɪn 228 outrigger canoe baŋˈka baraˈŋaj baŋˈka 229 outrigger float ˈkaːtɪg balˈsa ˈkatɪg 230 over there (far) dɔˈʔɔn kanˈnaj dɪdˈtɔ 231 paddle (canoe) sagˈwan sagˈwan 232 pain saˈkɪt (also, taˈkɪt saˈkɪt sickness) 233 palm (hand) ˈpaːlad ˈʔɪma ˈpalad 234 penis ʔaːrɪ naŋ laˈlaːkɪ ˈʔʊsɪn ˈʔʊtɪn ˈtɪːtɪ 235 person ˈtaːʔɔ (also human) ˈtɔlaj ˈtaʔɔ 236 pig ˈbaːbɔj ˈbavɪ ˈbabɔj 237 pillow ˈʔʊːnan fʊˈŋan ʔʊnˈlan 238 plant haˈlaːman ˈmʊla taˈnʊm 239 pound, well ground dɪkˈdɪk dɪkˈdɪk dɪkˈdɪk 240 press with hand or dɪˈʔɪn tʊlˈmag pɪˈsat weight 241 prick, pierce ˈtʊːsɔk ˈtʊbak ˈtʊsɔk 242 pus ˈnaːnaʔ danˈnʊ ˈnanaʔ 243 rat daˈgaʔ balaˈkag ʔɪlaˈgaʔ 244 red pʊˈla ragˈgaŋ pʊˈla 245 rib taˈʤaŋ baˈrat 246 right (correct) ˈtaːmaʔ sakˈtɔ ˈtamaʔ 247 right (hand) ˈkaːnan zɪwaˈnan tʊˈʔʊ 248 rinse banˈlaw barˈnaw banˈlaw 249 river ˈʔɪːlɔg ˈkajan sʊˈbaʔ 250 road daˈʔan ˈdalan ˈdalan 251 rock (or boulder) baˈtɔ baˈtʊ baˈtɔ 252 roof bʊˈbɔŋ sɪm bʊˈbɔŋ 253 root ʔʊˈgat gaˈmʊt ʔʊˈgat 254 rope ˈlʊːbɪd ˈgalʊt ˈpɪsɪʔ 255 rotten (as fruit) sɪˈraʔ nalabˈbag daˈʔɔt 256 rotten (log) bʊˈlɔk bʊˈlɔk 257 rough magasˈpaŋ ˈgɔrdɔ

BOLLAS 31

258 salt ʔaˈsɪn ʔaˈsɪn ʔaˈsɪn 259 salty maˈʔaːlat ˈnasɪn paˈrat 260 same ˈtʊːlad ʔalˈlɛ paˈrɛhas kaˈtʊːlad 261 sand bʊˈhaːŋɪn gɪˈnat baˈlas 262 scratch, carving ˈkaːmɔt kabˈbaŋ kaˈtʊl ˈʔʊːkɪt 263 sea (ocean) ˈdaːgat ˈbɛbaj ˈdagat 264 second ʔɪkalaˈwa mɛkadˈwa paŋdʊˈha paŋalaˈwa 265 seed bʊˈtɔ (alsɔ, bɔnɛ) vʊˈkal ˈlɪsɔ 266 servant kaˈtʊːlɔŋ trabahaˈdɔr tɪgˈtabaŋ ʔaˈlɪːla 267 seven pɪˈtɔ pɪˈtʊ pɪˈtɔ 268 shadow ʔaˈnɪːnɔ ʔaˈnɪnʊ aˈnɪnɔ 269 shallow maˈbaːbaw ʔababˈbaw maˈbaw 270 shark paˈtɪŋ paˈtɪŋ paˈtɪŋ 271 sharp (knife) mataˈlɪm nataˈram haˈʔɪt maˈtaːlas 272 shore taˈbɪŋdaːgat bajˈbajɔn dalampaˈsɪːgan 273 short malɪˈʔɪt bɪtˈtʊt gaˈmaj maʔɪkˈlɪ maʔɪgˈsɪ panˈdak 274 shoulder baˈlɪːkat ʔaˈbaha ʔaˈbaga 275 shrimp ˈhɪːpɔn laˈsɪk ˈhɪpɔn 276 sibling (m/f) kapaˈtɪd waˈhɪ ʔɪgˈsʊʔɔn 277 sibling‟s child (m/f) pamaŋˈkɪn ˈkanakan pagʔʊmaŋˈkɔn 278 singe ˈpasɔʔ lʊˈʃan ˈpasɔʔ 279 sister-in-law ˈhɪːpag ˈʔɪpag ˈhɪpag 280 six ˈʔaːnɪm ʔanˈnam ʔʊˈnʊm 281 skin (person) baˈlat gadˈdaŋ ˈpanɪt 282 skull bʊˈŋɔ ˈʔʊlʊ bʊˈŋɔʔ 283 sky hɪmpapaˈwɪd ˈlaŋɪt ˈlaŋɪt ˈlaːŋɪt (also, heaven) 284 slave ʔaˈlɪːpɪn tagatraˈbahʊ ʔʊlɪˈpɔn 285 sleepy ʔɪˈnaːʔantɔk sɪkkaˈtʊrʊg kaˈtʊlgɔn 286 slow maˈbaːgal nabaˈjag ˈhɪnaj 287 small malɪˈʔɪt bɪtˈtʊt gaˈmaj

BOLLAS 32

288 smoke ˈʔʊːsɔk ʔaˈtʊk ʔaˈsɔ 289 smooth maˈkɪːnɪs nakɪˈkɪnɪs ˈkɪnɪs 290 snake ˈʔaːhas zaˈrɪjan ˈhalas 291 sneeze baˈhɪŋ gabˈbaŋ ʔaˈʧɪŋ 292 soft malamˈbɔt naŋaˈlʊg ˈhʊmɔk 293 sole taːlampaːkan daˈpaŋ laˈpalaˈpa 294 some ʔɪˈlan pɪˈja maʔɪˈhap 295 soul ˈkaːlʊlʊwa karalˈwa kalʊlʊˈwa 296 sour maˈʔaːsɪm ˈnasɪn ʔasˈlʊm 297 southwest wind haˈbaːgat ˈʔaŋɪn haˈbagat 298 spear sɪˈbat ˈsɪhʊg sɪˈbat 299 species of bats ˈpaːnɪkɪ paˈnɪkɪ panɪˈkɪ 300 spider gagamˈba bambaˈlakaj laˈwaʔ 301 spittle(saliva) ˈlaːwaj ˈlʊlʊ laˈwaj dʊˈra 302 squid pʊˈsɪt pʊˈsɪt pʊˈsɪt 303 stairs hagˈdan ʔadˈdan hagdaˈnan 304 stand up, stature tɪnˈdɪg ˈtadag ˈtɪndɔg 305 star bɪtˈwɪn bɪtˈwan bɪˈtʊʔɔn ˈtaːla 306 stick (of wood) patˈpat ˈkajʊ tʊˈkɔg 307 stomach ʧan sɪˈnaj tɪˈjan 308 stone baˈtɔ baˈtʊ baˈtɔ 309 storehouse (food) kaˈmaːlɪg baˈlaj 310 straight tʊˈwɪd, matʊˈwɪd dɪrɛˈʧɔ dɛˈrɛʧɔ 311 stretch ˈʔʊːnat ʔʊˈnat ˈʔɪnat 312 strong malaˈkas masɪˈkan kʊˈsʊg 313 suck sɪpˈsɪp sɪpsɪˈpan sɪpˈsɪp 314 sugarcane tʊˈbɔ ˈtʊbɔ ˈtʊbɔ 315 sun ˈʔaːraw (alsɔ, daj) ʔalˈgaw ʔadˈlaw 316 sweet mataˈmɪs naˈmɪt tamˈʔɪs 317 swollen maˈgaʔ nalatˈtag hʊˈbag 318 tail bʊnˈtɔt ˈʔɪfʊt ʔɪˈkɔg 319 tall mataŋˈkad ʔattanˈnaŋ taˈʔas 320 tear (from crying) ˈlʊːha lʊˈwa ˈlʊha 321 ten samˈpʊʔ maˈfʊlʊ ʤɪs/ pʊlɔ 322 termites ˈʔaːnaj ˈʔanaj ˈʔanaj 323 testicle baˈjag baˈjag ʔɪtˈlɔg / bajag 324 thank you saˈlaːmat mabˈbalat saˈlamat 325 that (far) ʔɪˈjɔn naj kadˈtɔ 326 that (near) ʔɪˈjan jan kaˈnaʔ BOLLAS 33

327 there (near) ʤan kanˈjan dɪˈraʔ 328 they sɪˈla ʔɪˈra sɪˈla 329 thick makaˈpal nakanˈnag baˈgaʔ 330 thigh ˈhɪːta ʔʊfˈfʊ ˈhɪtaʔ 331 thin manɪˈpɪs ˈnɛmpɪt nɪˈpɪs 332 thin (human) paˈjat nakabˈbal paˈjat 333 third ʔɪkatˈlɔ mɛˈka talˈlʊ ʔɪkatʊˈlɔ paŋatˈlɔ 334 thirsty ʔʊˈhaw sɪkkaˈpɛnʊm ˈʔʊhaw 335 this ʔɪˈtɔ jaw kaˈnɪ 336 thorn tɪˈnɪk (also, ʔaˈsɪt tʊˈnɔk fishbone) 337 thou/you ʔɪˈkaw ʔɪˈkaw ʔɪˈkaw 338 three tatˈlɔ talˈlʊ tʊˈlɔ 339 throat lalaˈmʊːnan karaˈlɔŋ tʊtʊnlan 340 thunder kʊˈlɔg ʔadˈdʊg dalʊgˈdɔg 341 tight masɪˈkɪp ʔattazˈzɪt gʊˈʔɔt 342 to ask magtaˈnɔŋ maɲɪˈvʊt maŋʊˈtana 343 to awake maːgɪsɪŋ lʊkaˈran mʊmaˈta 344 to be angry maˈgaːlɪt maggazˈzɪt masʊˈkɔ 345 to bear (child) magbʊnˈtɪs ˈmanak maŋaˈnak 346 to beat (strike) ˈpaˈlʊːʔɪn mamaˈlʊk mʊˈbʊnal palʊk 347 to belch dʊmɪgˈhaj ˈmattalɛgag tʊgˈʔab 348 to bite kagaˈtɪn kassɪˈban paˈʔakɪ 349 to blow (wind) ˈʔɪːhɪp lazˈzɔban hʊˈjɔpɪ 350 to boil (intrans.) kʊmʊˈlɔ ʔɪtalˈlag pabʊˈkalɪ 351 to break (as stick) maˈbaːlɪ kaltʊˈŋan baˈlɪʔɪ 352 to breathe hʊmɪˈŋa maˈŋaŋat ʔɪgɪnˈhawa 353 to bring daˈla ʔɪvʊˈlʊn mʊdaˈla 354 to burn (by itself) sʊˈnʊːgɪn ˈsɪdʊg ʔɪˈsʊnɔg 355 to bury ʔɪbaˈʔɔn ʔɪkɔkˈkɔg ʔɪlʊˈbɔŋ 356 to bury (the dead) ʔɪlɪˈbɪŋ mɛkɔkˈkɔg ʔɪlʊˈbɔŋ 357 to buy bɪˈlɪ maŋˈgatang paˈlɪtɪ 358 to call taˈwaːgɪn ʔakkʊˈlan taˈwagɪ 359 to carry daˈla ʔabbaˈnan daˈlaʔɪ ˈbʊːhat 360 to choose pɪˈlɪːʔɪn maˈmɪlɪ mʊpɪlɪ / pɪlɪʔɪ 361 to clean lɪˈnɪːsɪn mappakaˈrɛnʊ lɪmpjʊhɪ 362 to come dʊmaˈtɪŋ ʔʊˈmaŋ mʊʔaˈbɔt 363 to copulate (human) magˈtaːlɪk kaŋˈkajʊg mʊʔɪjɔt

BOLLAS 34

364 to cough ʔʊmʊˈbɔ ˈmɛkag mʊːˈbɔ 365 to count magbɪˈlaŋ mabˈbɪlaŋ mʊʔɪˈhap 366 to cut pʊˈtʊːlɪn garzɪˈban mʊpʊˈtɔl 367 to dance magsaˈjaw mabbajˈlɛ mʊˈsajaw 368 to defecate dʊmʊˈmɪ makkaˈwɛt mʊˈtaʔɛ magbaˈwas tʊˈmaːʔɛ 369 to desire naˈʔɪːsɪn ˈmajat naˈsaʔ naˈsaːhɪn 370 to die paˈtaj maˈtaj mamaˈtaj 371 to dig hʊˈkaːjɪn kɔkˈkɔg magˈkalɔt 372 to do gaˈwɪn kwan hɪˈmʊʔɔn 373 to drag kaladkaˈrɪn ʔɪkʊdɛsˈdɛs kaladˈkad 374 to drink ʔɪnʊˈmɪn mɪˈnʊm mʊʔɪˈnɔm 375 to drown lʊˈnʊːrɪn malaggabˈban maˈlʊnɔd 376 to eat kaˈʔɪːnɪn maˈŋan mʊˈkaʔɔn 377 to fall (drop) ˈhʊːlɔg maˈtadag maˈhʊlɔg lagˈlag 378 to fear maˈtaːkɔt matˈtalaw maˈhadlɔk 379 to fight luˈmaːban lʊˈmaban maˈŋawaj 380 to find huˈmaːnap taˈfʊlan maŋɪˈta 381 to float luˈmʊːtaŋ mʊlaˈtaŋ 382 to flow ʔʊˈmaːgɔs mɛˈʔanʊg mʊˈʔagʊs 383 to fly lʊmɪˈpad makˈkajag mʊlʊˈpad 384 to forget lɪˈmʊːtɪn malɪppaˈnan makaˈlɪmɔt 385 to give bɪˈgaj maŋɪdˈdan mʊˈhatag 386 to go pʊnˈta ʔʊˈmaŋ mʊˈʔadtɔ 387 to go down baˈbaʔ maggʊˈkag mʊˈnaʔɔg 388 to go in ˈpaːsɔk mattalˈlʊŋ mʊsʊˈlɔd 389 to go out laˈbas mallaˈwan mʊgaˈwas 390 to go up ʔakˈjat makkalanˈtaj mʊˈsaka 391 to hang on, hook ˈsaːbɪt mabˈbɛsɪn mʊkaˈpʊt something 392 to hear kɪˈnɪg magˈgɪna mʊpaˈmɪnaw 393 to hit taˈmaːʔan paˈlʊk mʊˈdapat 394 to hold (in hand) haˈwaːkan manamˈmɪt mʊˈgʊnɪt 395 to hunt (game) maˈŋaːsɔ magˈgafʊt maŋaˈsɔ 396 to jump (esp. up) tʊmaˈlɔn mappatˈtʊ mʊʔamˈbak 397 to kill pataˈjɪn mamaˈtaj mʊpaˈtaj 398 to know (facts) ʔalaˈmɪn ʔamˈmʊ mahɪbaˈlɔ 399 to laugh tʊˈmaːwa gaˈlak mʊkaˈtawa

BOLLAS 35

400 to lie (on side) hʊmɪˈgaʔ ʔɪdˈda mʊhɪgˈda 401 to live maˈbʊːhaj maˈtɔlaj maˈbʊhɪ 402 to look tʊmɪˈŋɪn sɪˈŋan mʊtaˈnaw tanaˈwɪn 403 to love ʔʊˈmɪːbɪg maˈŋajat mʊhɪgʊgˈma mahaˈlɪn 404 to moan ʔʊˈmʊːŋɔl makaˈsag ʔagʊlɔ 405 to open bʊmʊˈkas ˈvʊkat mʊʔabˈrɪ 406 to play maglaˈrɔ ˈgajam mʊˈdʊla 407 to pound baˈjɔ pɔpˈpɔk pʊkˈpɔk pʊkˈpɔk 408 to pull ˈhɪːla ˈgʊŋgʊn bɪˈra 409 to push ˈtʊːlak ˈtʊbaŋ tʊkˈlɔd 410 to put laˈgaj maŋɪkˈwa bʊˈtaŋ 411 to quarrel ˈʔaːwaj ˈgʊŋʊt ˈʔawaj 412 to rain ʔʊmʊˈlan ˈʔʊran ʔʊˈlan 413 to return bumaˈlɪk maŋɪˈtɔlɪ ˈbalɪk 414 to rub kʊsˈkɔs kʊsˈkʊs kʊsˈkɔs 415 to run takˈbɔ palaˈʤaw ˈdaːgan 416 to say ˈsaːbɪ maŋɪkaˈhɪ ʔɪˈŋɔn 417 to scratch (itch) ˈkaːmɔt kabˈbaŋ kaˈtʊl 418 to see ˈkɪːta masɪˈta kɪˈtaʔ 419 to sell bɪˈlɪ maɲɪˈlakʊ paˈlɪt 420 to sew taˈhɪ daˈhɛt taˈhɪʔ 421 to shout sɪˈgaw kaˈʤaw ˈʃagɪt 422 to show paˈkɪta pasɪˈŋan paˈkɪta 423 to shower ʔamˈbɔn ʔaˈfafʊk pɪˈsɪk 424 to sing ˈʔaːwɪt kanˈʃɔn kanˈta kanˈta 425 to sink (intrans.) lʊˈbɔg malʊˈmag lʊˈnɔd 426 to sit ʔʊˈpɔ mattʊtˈtʊg ˈlɪŋkɔd 427 to sleep ˈtʊːlɔg makkaˈtʊrʊg ˈtʊlɔg 428 to smell ʔaˈmɔj ˈdagʊ sɪmˈhɔt 429 to speak salɪˈta ʔɛrˈgɔ sʊlˈtɪ 430 to spit dʊˈra tʊpˈra lʊˈwaʔ 431 to split ˈhaːtɪ gadˈwa tʊˈŋaʔ 432 to squeeze pɪˈga pɪˈgaʔ pɪˈgaʔ 433 to stab (or stick) sakˈsak dʊdˈdʊg sakˈsak 434 to stand taˈjɔʔ ˈtadag tɪnˈdɔg 435 to steal ˈnaːkaw ˈkɔkɔt ˈkawat 436 to string (as leis) ˈtʊːhɔg daˈhɛt ˈtʊhɔg

BOLLAS 36

437 to suck sɪpˈsɪp sʊnˈsʊp sʊpˈsʊp 438 to swallow lʊˈnɔk sɪlˈlʊŋ tʊˈlɔn 439 to sweat ˈpaːwɪs lɪˈŋat sɪˈŋɔt 440 to swell maˈga latˈtag hʊˈbag 441 to swim laˈŋɔj tafˈfʊg ˈlaŋɔj 442 to think ˈʔɪːsɪp paˈnɔnɔt ˈhʊnaʔˈhʊnaʔ 443 to throw ˈtaːpɔn maɲɪlapˈpak ˈlabaj ˈhaːgɪs 444 to tie ˈtaːlɪ ˈgalʊt bʊgˈkɔs 445 to vomit masʊˈka ˈmɔta ˈsʊka 446 to walk ˈlaːkad maˈnalan laˈkaw 447 to wash ˈhʊːgas mabbagˈgʊ ˈhʊgas 448 to weave ˈhaːbɪ maddaˈhɛt habˈla 449 to wipe ˈpaːhɪd mafˈfʊnat ˈpahɪd ˈpʊːnas 450 to wrap up baˈlʊtɪn vʊkkʊˈtan pʊˈtɔs 451 today ŋaˈjɔŋ ˈʔaːraw saˈŋaw ŋa ʔalˈgaw kaˈrʊŋ ʔadˈlaw 452 toe daˈlɪːrɪ sa paˈʔaʔ ˈtaka maˈŋa tʊdˈlɔ 453 tomorrow ˈbʊːkas sɔˈnʊ ʔʊmˈma ʔʊgˈmaʔ the following day kɪnabʊˈkaːsan 454 tooth (front) ˈŋɪːpɪn (all tɛɛth) ˈɲɪpan ˈŋɪpɔn 455 torch, light sʊˈlɔʔ ʔaˈfɪ sʊˈgaʔ 456 tree ˈpʊːnɔŋˈkaːhɔj ˈkajʊ ˈkahɔj 457 trunk (of tree) ˈpʊːnɔʔ ˈkajʊ pʊnʊˈʔan kataˈwan 458 turtle paˈgɔŋ paˈgɔŋ paˈgɔŋ 459 twins kamˈbal kamˈbal kamˈbal 460 two dalaˈwa dwa dʊˈha 461 ugly ˈpaːŋɪt ˈpaɲɪt ˈpaŋɪt 462 upper garment ˈbaːrɔ paŋ ˈʔʊtʊm paŋtaˈʔas 463 upside down, tʊˈwad balɪtˈtag tʊˈwad stooping with the head forward 464 upward pataˈʔas paˈʔʊtʊn pataˈʔas paʔakˈjat 465 urine ˈʔɪːhɪ ˈpasag ˈʔɪhɪʔ 466 vagina ˈpɛːkpɛk ˈpɛpɛt ˈpɛkpɛk ˈpʊːkɪ 467 vegetables ˈgʊːlaj ˈgʊlaj ˈgʊlaj 468 voice ˈtɪːnɪg ˈbɔsɛs tɪˈŋɔg 469 war dɪgˈmaːʔan gjɛˈra ˈgjɛra

BOLLAS 37

470 warm (weather) maˈʔɪːnɪt maˈpatʊ ˈʔɪnɪt maalɪnˈsaːŋan warm and humid 471 water ˈtʊːbɪg daˈnʊm ˈtʊbɪg 472 water buffalo kalaˈbaw nʊˈwaŋ karaˈbaw 473 wave (as surf) ˈʔaːlɔn ʔaraˈpaŋ baˈlɔd 474 we (1st person, pl.) kaˈmɪ ʔɪkaˈmɪ kaˈmɪ 475 we (dual, pl.) ˈtaːjɔ ʔɪtˈta kɪˈta 476 weak maˈhɪːna naˈkafɪ ˈhɪnaj 477 wet baˈsaʔ nabaˈsaʔ baˈsaʔ 478 what ʔaˈnɔ hanˈna ʔʊnˈsa 479 wheel gʊˈlɔŋ ˈpɪlɪg ˈlɪgɪd 480 when ˈkɛːlan sɔˈnʊ hanˈna kanʊsˈʔa 481 where saˈan ʤan na ˈʔaha ˈnaːsan 482 white pʊˈtɪ ˈfʊraw pʊˈtɪʔ 483 who ˈsɪːnɔ ʔɪnˈja kɪnˈsa 484 why ˈbaːkɪt kaˈʔam ˈŋanɔ 485 wide maˈlaːwak ʔaˈlawa daˈkɔʔ / lʊˈʔag 486 wife ʔaˈsaːwa ʔaˈtawa ʔaˈsawa majˈbaːhaj 487 wind (breeze) ˈhaːŋɪn ˈʔaŋɪn ˈhaŋɪn 488 wine ˈʔaːlak maʔɪˈnʊm ˈbɪnɔ 489 wing pakˈpak paˈjak pakˈpak 490 wink kɪnˈdat kɪnˈdat kɪnˈdat 491 woman (female) baˈbaːʔɛ baˈbaj baˈbaʔɛ 492 woods (forest) ˈgʊːbat kakajˈwan kalasaˈŋan kagʊˈbaːtan kakahʊˈjan 493 woody tendril- ˈgʊːgɔ baˈgɔn bearing vine 494 worm ˈʔʊːʔɔd ˈʔʊlag ˈʔʊlɔd bʊˈlaːtɛ 495 wrong maˈlɪʔ maˈlɪʔ maˈlɪ 496 yawn hɪˈkab maŋaˈwawag maˈŋʊjʔab 497 ye kaˈjɔ ʔɪkaˈjʊ kaˈmɔ 498 year taˈʔɔn ˈdahʊn ˈtʊʔɪg 499 yesterday kaˈhaːpɔn katˈtʊ ˈkabɪ gahaˈpɔn 500 welcome waˈlaŋ ʔanʊˈman ʔaˈwan naj waj ˈkasɔ

BOLLAS 38

Appendix 2 - Informant‟s profile

For Cebuano: Name: Neil Mark Enriquez Provincial Address: Iligan City, Age: 23 years old Contact number: 09273149930

Name: Erl Anthony Mendiola Provincial Address: O2-D Bañadero, Ozamis City, Purok 1, Age: 23 years old Contact number: 09071086524

For Itawis: Name: Jane Frances Taguinod Provincial Address: Tuguegarao City, Cagayan Age: 18 years old Contact number: 09261701732

BOLLAS 39