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BANAGA JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES (BAJES)
Volume 1, No. 2, December, 2019
A Publication of School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
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REF NO. TETFUND/DR&D/CE/COE/MARU/2018/ARJ/VOL. 1 Banaga Journal of Educational Studies, ISSN:2714-2736 ii Volume 1, Number 2, December, 2019.
ISSN 2714-2736
ISSN 2714-2736
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EDITORIAL POLICY
About the Journal Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAGES) is a publication of the School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education Maru. It is a bi-annual peer reviewed journal dedicated to publish original research works and critical reviews on a broad range of topics of general interests in the areas of Education and its Allies discipline (science, social science, languages, religion, vocational and technical education). Authors submitting papers for publication must ensure that manuscripts must be original and should not be under consideration for publication elsewhere. Invitation to Contributors BAJES are inviting article for publication for it‘s journal edition, the article can be sent to the Managing Editor, Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES), School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education PMB 1002, Maru, Zamfara State, Nigeria or through the journal Email address [email protected] Equally, authors are required to submit two hardcopies and soft copy of the manuscript along with a Vetting fee of N3000. Any manuscript that is not accompanied with vetting fees will not be sent for peer reviewing. Editorial Review Procedure All articles submitted for publication are sent for peer review by Managing editor to our team of anonymous reviewers, after the end of the review, the Managing Editor will communicate the outcome of the review to the corresponding authors along with the assessment report for effecting necessary correction of the manuscripts and re-submission for second review. Only articles approved by our Team of editors will be published in the Journal. Format and Length of Paper The length of articles should not exceed 15 pages (A4 size) including tables, chart appendices and references. All manuscripts should be readable and Computer typed in Microsoft Word Portrait in Times New Roman, 12 font sizes, double space throughout including tables and charts.
TEMPLATE FOR MANUSCRIPTS Paper Title On top of the first page, the Paper should contain the title in capital letters and shall be bold, Author‘s name(s), and complete addresses including E-mails, mobile phone number and institutions affiliated institutions, while the corresponding author should be spelt out clearly all in small letters.
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Abstract: Abstract should be brief and concise and should not exceed 250 words and in Italic style. Keywords: There should be three to five (3-5) keywords after the abstract 1. Introduction This section should comprise a description of the general framework, definitions and principles, primary issues and controversies, background information and contexts, etc. 2. Literature Review/ Conceptual Framework This section dedicated to the significant literature resources, consulted or employed, that contributed to the study relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a specific topic. 3. Material and Methods A section intended to contain a detailed description of all the methods, materials, collaborators and participants at the study. The protocols used for data acquisition, techniques and procedures, investigated parameters, methods of measurements and apparatus should describe in sufficient detail to allow other researchers to understand, analyse and compare the results. The statistical methods should be described in detail to enable verification of the reported results. 4. Results and Discussion A comparative or descriptive analysis of the study based on results, on previous studies, etc. The results should be presented in a logical sequence, given the most important findings first and addressing the stated objectives. The number of tables and figures should be limited to those absolutely needed to confirm or contest the premise of the study. The authors should deal only with new or important aspects of the results obtained. The relevance of the findings in the context of existing literature or contemporary practice should be addressed. 5. Conclusion In this final section, the main findings are concisely reiterated. Only conclusions supported by the study findings should be included. 6. Recommendations This section contains theoretical and practical recommendations, further research ideas, new approaches, suggestions and concerns regarding potential social and cultural impacts, etc. References All citations and references style should conform to the publication guideline of the latest American Psychological Association (APA) format.
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Publication Charges All papers/articles accepted for publication will be supported by TETFUND Nigeria under the Zamfara State College of Education Academic Research Journal (ARJ) Intervention. Copyright The copyright of the articles accepted for publication belong to Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES). Note: The articles published in this journal do not in any way reflect the views nor positions of the Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES). Authors individually are responsible for all issues relating to their articles except for publication and copyright, any issue a raising from an article in this journal should be addressed directly to the author.
Correspondence and Mailing Procedure All correspondence should be channelled to the Managing Editor, Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES), School of General Education, Zamfara State College of Education, P. M. B 1002, Maru. Zamfara State, Nigeria E-mails; [email protected]
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MEMBERS OF EDITORIAL BOARD
Mal. Sadi Musa Gusau Dr Tukur Hussani Nahuche The School Dean Department of Psychology Chairman Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Malam Atiku Mukhtar Dr Muhammad S. Abdullahi Department of General Studies Department of Curriculum and Instruction Member Member Muhammad Ahmad Sada Bello Hassan Department of General Studies Department of Curriculum and Instruction Member Managing Editor
EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS 1. Prof. M. G Maitafsir 2. Prof. A. A Salawu Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
3. Prof. Muhd Lawal Mayanchi 4. Dr Abbas Sani Dahiru Federal University, Gusau Federal University, Gusau
5. Dr A. A Dada 6. Dr M. O Ibrahim Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
7. Dr Jamilu Garba 8. Dr Murtala Musa Kaura Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
9. Dr Mamman Ahmad Argungu 10. Dr Rabi‘atu Musa Mafara FCET Gusau Federal University, Gusau
11. Dr Ali Musa 12. Dr Muhammad N. I. Na‘ala National Open University, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Gusau Study Centre
13. Dr Kasimu Lolo 14. Dr Mas‘ud Bello Shehu Shagari College of Education, Sokoto Federal University, Gusau
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FOREWORD
I am delighted to write a foreword of this maiden edition of Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES) Volume 1, issue No 2. It is published at a very important time that the attention of our Nation are shifting on academic research which now considered as engine for sustaining national development. Consequently, it is in realization of the relevance of this research to our nation building that one will consider this journal as timely effort and significant contribution in dissemination of new knowledge on current issues in our educational system. The mission of Banaga Journal is to provide a common platform for season academia and researchers to publish research and set the pace of its application to policy makers so as to achieve a major breakthorough and build new research directions within the wide range area of educational sectors. Therefore, in view of the comprehensive insight of research given by scholarly authors, I obliged to recommend the journal to everyone that is interested in understanding the current trends in our educational system. It is indeed a significant journal and aid to academic per-excellence. Finally, I congratulate the Editorial Board for their tireless efforts in making this journal successful. I cannot conclude this foreword without appreciating the effort and commitment of all contributors for a job well done. Thank you
Ibrahim Usman Gusau Provost
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PREFACE
Due to the growing academic demands among the old and the new breeds in our tertiary institutions. the School of Education has rigorously created a way as a challenging vehicle to move the modern academics to the highest academic standard and level. Thus, Banaga Journal of Educational Studies (BAJES) has pave the way and set the pace for the modern scholars to exhibit their talents in the field of academic writings. Indeed, our intent is to help concerned academics and scholars to meet their needs to grow and progress academically. This second edition of Banaga Journal Volume 1, No. 2 has (24) numbers of articles that were rigorously assessed and selected by our team of competent and reputable scholars from different field of knowledge in an effort to observe standards and quality. However, the School of Education wishes to thank the Editorial Board, other members of staff who tirelessly sacrifice their time and other resources at different levels to make this Journal a reality. Finally, we also wish to thank the College management team for its support logistically. The support of the TETFUND will not be forsaken for her financial bearing in the production of this Journal. I wish to assure the supporting pillars that the School of Education will continue to observe and adhere to TETFUND conditions to the expectations as well as developing all stakeholders in the academics towards academic writing. I am wholeheartedly confident that, the journal will be of great importance to all in all aspects of academic development of our mother country, Nigeria.
Tukur Husaini Nahuche Editor-in-Chief
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NOTE ON CONTRIBUTIONS
Abdullahi Saminu, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education Maru. Abubakar Musa, Department of History, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Abubakar Rilwanu Z., Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru, e-mail: [email protected] Abubakar S A, Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Abubakar Umar B. Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, College of Education, Maru Adamu Muhammad D. Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Ahmad Abubakar M. Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. , Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Aminu I.K, Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria Attahiru Muhammad S., Biology Department, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru. :[email protected] Auwal A A., Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Bello Hassan, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru, [email protected] Dahiru M., Department of Chemistry, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria Ganiyatu Aliyu, Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Halliru Yahaya, Department of Geaography, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru. E-mail: [email protected] Ibrahim Garba, Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education, Ibrahim Muhammad G., Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
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Ibrahim Mustapha, Department of Primary Education Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru: [email protected] Ibrahim Usman G., Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Kanoma H.A, Department of Curriculum and Instruction Zamfara State College of Education, Maru: [email protected] Lawal Musa, Department of Primary Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru: [email protected] Mohammad Ahmed S., Department of General Studies Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Muhammad Nura U., Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education Maru Zamfara State. E-mail: [email protected] Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D., Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education Maru. Muhammad Sirajo B., Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Mukhtar Ibrahim F., Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education, Musa Muhammad, Department of Education Foundation, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Musa, U.T, Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Mustapha Muhammad Alkali, Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Nasiru Garba G., Department of General Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Richard Gyasi, Department English Language and Literacy, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru. E-mail: [email protected] Sadi Musa, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Saidu Abarshi K., Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru, E-mail: [email protected] Samaila A, Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria Samaila Yahaya, Department of English Language and Literary Studies, Zamfara State Collegeof Education, Maru,: [email protected]
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Sani M.G, Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria Sanusi Abdullahi M., Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Sanusi Garba G., Department of Mass Communication Abdu Gusau Polytechnic Talata-Mafara Saratu Kabir, Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Suwaiba Suleiman, Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Arts and Science (ZACAS) Tukur Husaini Nahuche, Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Umar, Babangida, Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru: [email protected] Zainab Ibrahim, Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial board Foreword Preface
Note on Contributions
Table of Contents
1 Bullying: A School Insecurity Factor Affecting Students‘ Psychosocial 1 Adjustment in Nigerian Schools Tukur Husaini Nahuche, Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. and Adamu Muhammad D. 2 The Roles of Religious Education in Resolving Conflicts for Economic 10 Recovery and Sustainable Development in Nigeria Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D. and Abdullahi Saminu 3 Citizenship Education: a Tool for National Unity and Integration 15 Sadi Musa 4 Accountability in Secondary School Education in Zamfara State, Nigeria 22 Kanoma H.A 5 Sports, Education and Politics in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects 30 Saratu Kabir and Lawal Musa 6 Managerial Practice of Head-Teachers and Qualty Assurance in Public 38 Primary Schools in Zamfara State, as Strategy for Sustainable Development in Nigeria Muhammad, Nura U. and Umar, Babangida 7 The Impact of Classroom Teachers Participation in the Curriculum Planning 48 in Nigeria Mohammad Ahmed S. And Nasiru Garba G. 8 Synopsis Analysis of the Factors Affecting Girls Access to Education at 53 Basic School Level in Zamafara State, Nigeria Bello Hassan, Musa Muhammad and Abubakar Umar B. 9 An Investigation of Teachers Attitude Towards Effective Teaching of 64 Practical Lessons in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Gusau Educational Zone, Zamfara State Samaila A, Aminu I.K, Sani M. G & Dahiru M.
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10 Relationship of Integrated Science Students‘ First Year Performance and 72 Their Final Year Performance in Physics Related Courses in Integrated Science Sanusi Abdullahi M. 11 Information and Communication Technology as a Change Agent for 77 Effective Teaching of Biology Education Attahiru Muhammad S. 12 The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian 93 Colleges of Education Muhammad Sirajo B., Ibrahim Muhammad G. and Sanusi Garba G. 13 The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Teaching 102 and Learning of Mathematics Education Programme in Tertiary Institutions in Zamfara State Saidu Abarshi K., Ganiyatu Aliyu and Ibrahim Usman G. 14 Zakah and Hibah under Bakolori Irrigation Project: as a means of Poverty 113 Reduction and National Development Mustapha Muhammad Alkali 15 The Relevance of Railways to the Development of Colonial Economy in 126 West Africa Abubakar Musa 16 English Language an Agent for National Development in Nigeria: Issues, 132 Challenges and the Way Forward Richard Gyasi 17 Teachers Utilization of Instructional Materials in Promoting Students 145 Performance in Agricultural Science in some selected Secondary Schools in Gummi Local Government Area-Zamfara State Musa, U T, Abubakar S A, Auwal A A. 18 Monetization of Fringe Benefit in Public Service for Sustainable National 154 Development Zainab Ibrahim 19 Secondary Education Curriculum and Community Development: Problems 164 and Prospects Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf 20 An Overview of Memory Retention and Problem Solving Ability on College 176 of Education Science Students in Nigeria Ibrahim Mustapha
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21 Early Childhood Education: a Remedy for Corruption and the Realization of 188 Change in Nigeria Abubakar Rilwanu Z., Suwaiba Suleiman and Ahmad Abubakar M. 22 Reducing Unemployment through Entrepreneurial Development in Nigeria 196 Ibrahim Garba, Ibrahim U.G.& Mukhtar Ibrahim F.
23 The Role of Essay Writing in Resolving National Conflicts for Economic 205 Recovery and Educational Development In Nigeria Samaila Yahaya 24 Field Study in Geography: Understuding Urban Morphology, Agriculture, 215 Water and Energy Supplies in Desert City of Agadez, Niger Republic HalliruYahaya
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Bullying: A School Insecurity Factor Affecting Students‘ Psychosocial Adjustment in Nigerian Schools 1Tukur Husaini Nahuche, 2Alhaji Sani Abdullahi T. and 3Adamu Muhammad D. 1Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 3Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding author: [email protected] 08032844887, 09020674115.
Abstract Millions of children attend schools in Nigeria with majority facing the challenges of insecurity humiliations. School environment as an important aspect within the context of environment need to be secured, safe and protective from all dangers that can cause havoc in the adjustment and learning of the learner. Violence against children has indeed became an endemic factor in and around schools emanating from the threats of rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, physical beatings, verbal abuse and one great bullying, as one major factor of humiliations. However, this paper will discuss bullying as an insecurity agent against the psychosocial adjustment of the learners in our schools, the concept, the causes and the effect as well as solutions. However, parents, teachers, and other stakeholders should join hands to convert this menace by employing the most effective measures for keeping Schools safe and secured and by creating proper school safety plans and prevention programmes and interventions that can support students’ healthy social and emotional development so that they can adjust and achieve throughout their school career. Keywords: Bullying, School insecurity factor, Students‘ Psychosocial adjustment, Nigerian Schools.
Introduction Environment in education generally occupies a very important position. It is indeed, one of the strongest pillars in the educational process. However, environment covers both the social, psychological and physical environment. Which has its origin right from home environment through school. The interactional experience a child has right from home, has great influence on the school life experiences. Indeed, the school environment is more than the curriculum implementation that occurs in the form of instruction in the classroom. The psychosocial environment according to the Scandinavian Schools of Brussels (SSB) refers to the interpersonal relationships in the school, the social environment and how the students and staff interact with each other (2013). Thus, this type of environment also involves the students‘ experiences of the learning situation. Therefore, the relationship that is going on between students and their teachers,
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how teachers relate to them and to the authority and how the authority relate to the entire school community all have impact on the students‘ adjustment in the school. Moreover, students‘ adjustment and learning depend on the type of environment school provides. Because it will be very difficult for the learner to adjust and learn at the fullest if there is fear for the safety. Perhaps, the long term effect of bad school environment can have a very devastating effect on the students‘ adjustment and learning. In a school where there is always good social relationship, good understanding as well as respect for views and differences for all. This is the type of school where security is provided for all members of the school community. The quality of school social climate has an immediate impact of on the students‘ sense of safety and wellbeing and on students‘ behaviour. According to Hynes (1991) psychosocial environment refers to the quality and consistency of interpersonal interactions within the school community that influence students‘ cognitive, social and psychological development. The interactions include those among staff, between staff and students, among students, and between home and school. In essence the child in the school is heavily influenced by the psychosocial environment especially on adjustment and learning. Poor psychosocial environment always negate safety, wellbeing, and good behaviour which lead to maladjustment in the school in the total learning career. In a secured school environment, students would be able to cope with the social environment by having the capacity to relate well with other members of the school community. Having a well firmed relations warrant good adaptation and conform to the environmental challenges. Adjustment according to Okpara and Onyekuru (2013) mean ―process of maintaining harmonious relationship between living organisms and its environment‖. By this definition we must acknowledge that accommodation and adaptation are the determinants for individual struggle to survive in the environment. Parmanik, Saha and Mandal (2014) opined that, ―adjustment in psychology refers to the behavioural process by which human and other animals maintain equilibrium among their various needs and the obstacles of their environment. Human beings are able to adjust to the social, physical and psychological environmental demands that arise from having inter dependability with other individuals in the environment. Adjustment is an organizational behaviour in life situations for example, at home, at school, at work, and in growing up and ageing. A lot of benefits are derived from it, because it helps one to keep out basic impulses at tolerable level, to believe in one‘s own ability and achieve desired goals. It also helps for self-initiated growth and development in line with intellectual, emotional, social, physical and vocational dimension. It is psychological in nature a process through which people cope and manage with the demands and challenges of everyday life. However, adjustment counts in conformity as well as adaptability to one‘s environment and the demands of life. These involve relation to others, dealing to one‘s
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responsibility and inner feelings and perhaps coping with the demands of outside world, desires, and conflicts experiences from within. In the in secured school environment students usually experience a lot of bad situation problems like offensive words and behaviour. Which include bullying, discrimination, racism, violence, exclusion, and sexual harassment are certainly, sort of unwanted behaviours and activities that count to destroy school environment thereby producing insecurity for student to adjust and achieve. Good psychosocial school environment is always attaching a good blue prints of routines in all segments of the school that are very important so that students themselves can have a good psychosocial environment which safeguard safety welfare and learning. This will actively safeguard good cooperation between student and teacher, and between school and home. This type of environment will create good social climate thereby establishing good codial relationship among the school community members. But in contrast an environment full of unwanted behaviours and actions create chaos and disorganization within the mind of the learner which lead him/her towards maladjusted behaviour. Parents, teachers, school administrators are aware that, bullying is by far the biggest violence school can experience and which became an endemic factor causing insecurity towards the child‘s psychosocial adjustment. Comer et al (1981) relate in one study that, school climate plays a significant role in the child‘s adjustment to school and the ability to perform well. In another similar Benton Harbor study conducted by Hynes, Comer &Hamilton Ice (1988) found that, many students relate the conditions of their schools they attend as characterized by high level of distrust and disrespect among and between students and teachers, and the sense that, students do not care about one another. Widespread favouritism diminishes any sense of fairness and highten feelings of distrust. More detrimental it puts students into low self-concept and feeling of inadequacy and anxiety. This climate also is not conducive for good mental health of the entire members of the school general environment. Furtherly, the environment is characterized by conflicts and distrust and hence members cannot cope within the environment thus, became maladjusted.
The Concept of Bullying Bullying is a widespread menace at home or at schools and in communities. The behaviour is a great challenge for parents, school administrators, teacher psychologist. Because it encompasses physical aggression, threats, teasing and harassment. Indeed, in whatever bullying is presented it is an ant- social behaviour causing great damage to social, physical and psychological set up of students in the school. This can undermine the quality of school environment at the same time affect students social and academic outcomes. Causing the victims social and psychological trauma and in extreme lead to serious violence. Under any circumstance adults should not tolerate bullying at home and in schools. Though we know bullying is not inevitable part of growing but is learned through peer
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groups and media which also can be unlearn and prevented. Certainly, bullying is the most common form of violence in our society and in schools. Then what is bullying? As defined by mental health in schools that, ―bullying is repeated harassment, abuse, oppressive or intimidation of another individual physically or psychologically. Accordingly, the centre, take the form of teasing, threatening, taunting, rejecting, (socially isolating someone), hitting, stealing and so forth (2001). In this regard bullying occurs at home, in the community and school in such a way that the bully attack the bullied continuously without considering the impact of the behaviour. While the bullied develop some certain fears and unsafe within himself/herself. In another definition by American institute of research (2015) bullying is a form of unwanted aggressive behaviour among school aged children that involve a real or perceived power in balance and that is repeated or has the potential to be repeated over time. This involve the use of physical strength as well as access to embarrassing information to hurt or control another person for the sake of power control. Which in essence occurs in repeated times which might be more than one. Sometimes it occurs more frequently. Bullies do operate different types of bullying behaviour depending on the conditions and situations they found themselves with those they bullied. Psychologists are of the opinion that, bullies operate in three broad categories of their behaviour and even more. Because with the advent of information communication technology they offer what is called cyber bullying.
Types of Bullying American institute for research have found four categories of bullying as thus; physical, form of intentional aggression that include injuring someone or damaging their property. This happens through hitting, kicking, or punching, spitting, tripping, pushing, taking or breaking someone‘s belongings. The second type is verbal bullying which came in form of intentional aggression that involve saying or writing things that are mean or hurtful to others. Example of this include teasing, name calling, taunting, inappropriate sexual comments or threatening to cause harm to another person. The next type of bullying is the social one. Which is also intentional aggression that is used to damage someone‘s reputation or relationships. This type includes leaving someone out of purpose, telling other children not to be friend with someone, spreading rumours about someone, embarrassing someone in public. The last of them is the cyber bullying which operates through the use of electronic devices like cell phones, computers and tablets or other means of communications, such like social media sites, text messages, chat rooms and websites.
The Causes of Bullying A bully individual is someone who directs either of the bullying behaviour aggressively towards others. Indeed, it is interesting that once you can detect the genesis of one problem the next step is to attack it once and for all so that thing
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work well. A lot of factors having generated as the causative agents for bullying behaviour. These factors are organizational in the sense that, it involves the family, school and the peer groups. However, one has to be assured that bullying behaviour is not caused by only one factor but many. Then we look at them one after the other. The Family Factors: as the first social unit an individual came to have contact with has very great to offer to all members in shaping the behaviour. It is in the family that the child from social learning in which he observed, model and sometimes he imitates. As puts by the National Association of school psychologists (2002) that, ―the frequency and severity of bullying is related to the amount of Adults supervision that children receive bullying behaviour is reinforced when it has no or inconsistent consequences. Therefore, for children who are learning bullying behaviour learn it through observation. Especially. When they observe parents and siblings exhibiting such behaviour or else they have long been victims of this circumstances. For this reason, they are likely to become bullies. More importantly, when children experience negative messages or corporal punishment they tend to develop bad self-concept and expectations. And they can possibly attack before they are attacked. The bully is always having the feeling of power, dominance and importance to those he/she bullied. School Factors: Schools are usually collections of different individuals with variety of backgrounds. However, children may carry along with them some bulling behaviours right from home through schools and thus it may rightly escalate unnoticed. One dangerous situation is that, bullying grow very greatly in a school when there is no proper attention on the students themselves than in a positive school climate which encourage concerns on respect of differences, views and set high standards for interpersonal behaviour. Peer Group Factors: children often relate with their age group members in the school or the neighbourhood peer group that advocate, support, and promote bullying behaviour. Sometime children find it very difficult to join a peer group due to power dominance he/she operates. Children become victims of bullying behaviour when they are weaker than their colleagues. Henceforth, they may display some signs and symptoms of poor social skills in which they cannot relate well and have difficulty in adjusting to the school environment as well as achieving academically. When children feel victims of bullying they also have feeling of insecurity, passiveness, and unable to retaliate because of feeling of inferiority complexes. Children who appear timid are those bullies attack often.
The Effects of Bullying on Students’ Psycho Social Adjustment Bullying behaviour has greatly influenced millions of children in our schools negatively. O‘ Connell explained that, ―victims of such circumstance a lot of emotions, fear, anxiety, anger, frustration, helplessness, humiliation, loneliness and feeling of isolation and persecution‖ (2003). He explained that, the emotions the
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victims of bullying experienced can be detected by the student sudden or ongoing illness, mood swings, withdrawal, inability to concentrate, loss of interest in school, argumentativeness, increased involvement in fights, change in friends and social groups, avoidance of lunch and recess areas, display of suspicious bruises and scratches and frequent loss of money and property‖ (2003). Frankly speaking, other bad experiences can be generated out of bullying among children in our schools. Because if victims of bullying are unattended they may probably develop problem behaviours, fail at school, and one mighty problem commit suicide. One surprising thing with the bullying is that victims can rightly withdraw their families and friends and blame to other than themselves. Another problem is that they may run away from home, being hopeless, and discouraged because they lost hope of telling their problem to peers, parents, teachers, thinking that they cannot do anything possible to remedy the situation. On the side of it if there is no intervention coming from the school, bully will continue to be bully and practice unwanted behaviour like, dropping out of school, shop lifting, vandalism or using drugs and alcohol and worst of it is the practice of criminal behaviours. A lot of researches have been conducted regarding the effects of bullying behaviour on the students‘ on the students‘ security towards achievement and adjustment. For example, Tonja (2001) led a team of researchers on nation- wide study to address the prevalence of bullying in the united states. Conclusively, the study suggests that, ―bullying is a serious problem and should not be treated as normal youth behaviour, students involved in bullying had poorer psycho social adjustment scores than other youths. The study also suggested that students who both bully others and are targets of bullying might be at particularly high risk for long term negative outcomes. Nansel (2001) also made important findings which shows that bullying is widespread and is not limited to certain groups. However, it was found with similar prevalence in rural, urban, sub-urban and town areas and across races. The antisocial behaviour is more common among boys, but occurred in both genders. More relatively, bullying occurred significantly more frequently among males than females. The most different scenario is that males are more involved in physical bullying while females reported instances of bullying through rumours and sexual comments/gestures. The research show that, smoking, poorer academic achievement, fighting, alcohol use, greater difficulty in making friends, poorer relationships with other students are related to bullying behaviour. The authors further suggest that, ―considering the combination of social isolation, lack of success in school and involvement in problem behaviours, youth who both bully and are bullied may represent an especially high-risk group‖ (2001).
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The Solutions to Bullying Behaviour As said earlier that, once a scenario manifests the only active measure is to diagnose the genesis to it. Once the genesis has been identified the next step is to attack the genesis and the situation will be free from the problem. The case of bullying has not been receiving attention seriously from the stakeholders thus, this may be due to the fact that, researches were not so heavenly undertaken in the area, especially on its devastating effects it has on our school children‘s academic achievement and school adjustment. Concerns must be shown right from home through school so that this problem is converted. Because when children found it difficult to relate right from home through school hardly they adjust and learn effectively. As puts by O‘ Connell that ―the experience of being in the family helps children to feel connected, and other important opportunity for connections happens at school. The social experience of belonging at school becomes the foundations for children to assume future social roles and responsibilities‖ (2003). Indeed, a fundamental aspect that build the school environment is the respect and trust from other members of the school environment like peers and adults. We must therefore, realise that, curriculum implementation is also another important aspect of educational process which must be carried with care for anger management, conflict resolution, and leadership training. Perhaps the personal and social skills training which is expected to begin at home are also very important which are also articulated in the school can help to establish a holistic and integrated foundation for building trust and mutual respect and preventing social alienation. It is understood that, when a positive, safe, and clean psycho social environment is established a sound child development is also established. This happens when bullying behaviour is wiped away from the school environment. As stated by the School safety (2011) that, feeling unsafe, adversely impacts students‘ motivation, attitude, behaviour and over all functioning in school. While also producing lower levels of academic achievement. Its high time that we take into consideration of the bullying incidence in our schools. In cooperation is made necessary among education stakeholders, families, the school and the peers themselves who are the actors and victims of the circumstance to come together to fight this problem. The Family: The family comprises the parents and their children is the first to react to bullying behaviour. Parents should always keep close contact and kept aware of their children‘s behaviour and attitude change. For example, children withdrawing or reluctant to go to school or experiencing physical symptoms like headache, stomach ache, and problem sleeping. As a parent one should response by reassuring children that you‘ll work with the school to end up the bullying behaviour. The school also should be made known if a child is bully or bullied. So that the has a first-hand information on which to act on. Families and school should also foster proper relationships among students. In a situation whereby students keep bad company should instantly be broken away
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and accept positive friends. Children can be guided on team work, for team work is a product of discipline. So encourage among them team work like in study, lunch, home to school, assignments, projects and many other means. And lastly use other alternatives other than physical punishment, withdrawal of privileges. If it happens Parent see any bullying behaviour among Children, they instantly stop it. The School: The school as a community and a collection of different individuals with different backgrounds must have concern to create a safe and secure psycho social environment where children can adjust and achieve academically. National Association of School Psychologists (NASP 2002) stated that, ―school advocate wide prevention programmes that, promote a positive school and community climate‖ these would seduce the bullying behaviour in our schools. Schools should provide early intervention programme in which content should there be social skills training counselling and aggression intervention for the bullies. Equal treatment should be given to all students by balancing discipline with behavioural support. This can happen by establishing clear consistent consequences for bullying behaviour. The school counsellor, teachers, and other stakeholders support parents in their effort to teach social skills and managing bullying. There is the provision of skills for all concern in the school to carry out their prevention and intervention activities. Positive actions should be taken against bullying by the school for not ignoring the behaviour. This can happen by changing attitudes towards bullying. Another important aspect is to encourage students to support one another so that team work can be stimulated. The Peers: as proposed by O‘Connell (2003) that, ―students are the key to shaping peer norms. Students bystanders (not the bully or the target of bullying) make up the majority of the student body of the school‖. However, students claim the high position in the school community and hence the most authentic voice for the cause and would be capable of helping in the school for any tailor and refine prevention and intervention programme in the school. The Adults: the adults also have some roles to play in managing and controlling the antisocial behaviour of bullying among children. Therefore, adults should be involved and engaged in restructuring an effective environment full of safety and safety and comfort. Staff members, both academics and should select and deliver the right curriculum content to help a sound education. Encourage student- to- student relationships as a well cooperative learning and participation in other school activities. More fascinating they would have an overall mood and tone of the interface throughout the workdays.
Conclusion Most interestingly, creating a conducive and positive school learning environment will user good social relationships among students. And will reduce bullying and victimization. A good social, physical and psychological environment would help improve the emotional climate of the learners for adjustment. But, it is clear that,
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bullying is one big factor that destroy school psychosocial environment towards adjustment and academic achievement for learners in our schools.
Recommendations The following are the recommendations for the stakeholders to use for converting bullying in our schools.so that students can adjust and achieve academically. 1. Families should employ the use of proper parenting style especially the authoritative type so that children could be placed at the right behaviour from home through school. 2. Schools should also draw the best and proper blue print containing the school‘s rules and regulations stating offences and penalties in which also bullying be part of it. 3. Teachers should in their dealings with students as good models, enhance teacher-child relationships, student-student relations so that social skills can be improved and also create an atmosphere for understanding and respect for each other. 4. Students should be made to adhere to binding family and school‘s rules and regulations so that respect for others‘ right is maintained within the school environment. 5. All other stakeholders collaborate with the communities, the school and other agencies for campaign in advocacy and sensitization on the detrimental effects of bullying behaviour throughout life so that the menace is curved.
References Hynes, M. N., Emmons, C & Ben Avie. M. (1991). Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultations (1991) 8 (3) 321-329. Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla. R.M et al (2011). Bullying behaviours among U.S Youths prevalence and Association with Psycho Social Adjustment. The Journal of the American Medical Association. (2011), 285:2094-2100. National Association of School Psychologists (2002). Bullying: www.nasponline.org O‘Connell, J (2003) Bullying at School. California Department of Education. Opera. I. M., and Onyekuru, B.U.D. (2013). Psychosocial Predictors of Secondary Students‘ Adjustment to School. Paramanik, J., Birbal, S., and Bhim Chandra, M. (2014) Adjustment of Secondary School Students with Respect to Gender and Residence. American Journal of Educational Research. 2. 12, 1138-1143. http://www.nea.org/tools/16364.htm School safety. www.supportive.com Safe supportive Learning
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The Roles of Religious Education in Resolving Conflicts for Economic Recovery and Sustainable Development in Nigeria
1Muhammad Saidu A. Ph.D. and 2Abdullahi Saminu Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education Maru. Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract Religious education certainly can be served as a backbone to moral education and enhancing peaceful co-existence among the members of a society that will enable economic growth and developments. This paper however, intends to look at religious concept of peace and security. Likewise, the paper highlights the role of religious education in resolving conflicts, economic growth for sustainable development in Nigeria. It’s also pointed out that, the prominence of religious education will instill values and high morals on the citizenry to bring about expected sustainable development. The principal religions recognized in Nigeria are Islam, Christianity and African Traditional Religion. Each of these has deep roles to play in resolving conflicts and enhance economic growth for national developments. The role of religious education in conflicts resolutions, economic recovery and sustainable development in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized. The Federal Government of Nigeria owes it a duty to re-introduce the teaching and learning of religious education in Nigerian schools and make it compulsory for all students. However, religious bigotry should be stamped out and proper tenets of religions should be taught and practiced. Knowing that today religious education is an elective subject at secondary schools, it’s should be reviewed, and make it compulsory to all students from secondary to undergraduate level to be offer in respective of carrier choices. Effective teaching of religious studies and uplifting of moral and spiritual values by the religious leaders will go a long way to bring about peace and economic recovery in Nigeria. Islam and Christianity are religions of harmony, unity, security and peace which Nigeria would need for its conflicts resolution and economic recovery for sustainable development. Keywords: Religious Education, Conflict Resolution, Economic Recovery, Sustainable Development
Introduction Over the years, Nigeria had been seen as ―security risk nation‖ to which many international communities have warned their nationals not to live or even travel to Nigeria. Taking cursory look at the happenings in and around Country, one may be tempted to agree with these international communities that their fears justified.
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This is because Nigeria has been experiencing a number of crises, social-vices and lack of cordial relationship among her citizens since independence. There have been constant conflicts among the inhabitants of one village, town, city and the other; one state and another or inhabitants of the same town or the same state based on tribal, religions or ideological differences. Also violent conflict has developed a pervasive phenomenon in most Nigerian communities. The various political party crises that finally led to the 1967-1970 civil war have had devastating, effects on unity and peaceful co-existence in Nigeria. More so, the intensity frequency and rapid spread of crises in recent times is an issue of intense public concern. In most states of the federation, one hears stories of violent conflict involving individuals or groups. For instances, some conflicts are in the forms of communal clashes in the quest of political superiority or relevance, insurgency, cattle rustling and the like Ukiwo and Chukuma (2012: P8) had this to say ―While no region in Nigeria can be said to be immune from violence and crime, political and security governance has continued to be a major source of concern to many stake holders. However, in North Western States of Nigeria, there has been an escalation of cattle rustling attacks, which has been fuelled by the increase in small arms. These illegal arms normally originate from neighboring countries which have been experience internal strife, including Libya, Uganda Somalia and Ethiopia cheserek (2007) this has led to the formation of heavily armed and militarized group. It has also further led to the rise of criminal gangs forcing a serious challenge to the Human security. The presence of illegal arms has also led to commercialization of cattle rustling and those who‘s engage in this practice act purely on self-enrichment basis. This menace had seriously affected development and provision of essential services in the areas through disruption of communities‘ livelihood system by restricting economic development. In addition to loss of lives it also led to destruction of social amenities already put in place. Hence, the education system is affected, when teachers are forced to withdraw from conflicting stricken areas and the communities re-locate their settlements for fear of being invaded. Education for children and youth is affected and interrupted both in the short and long run. In these conflicts, people are displaced, properties are destroyed and lives are lost. For instance, the Booko Haram disturbance in northern Nigeria claimed at least 60,000 persons with over 3,000 residents displaced (Orulu, 2009). In Delta State, the Gbaramatu Kingdom Genocide witnessed several losses of innocent and helpless children, women and the aged were lost, property belonging to individuals and group worth billions of Naira were destroyed by the joint task force. Therefore, communities in Nigeria are in a crisis situation devoid of peace and as such, there is need for quick solution before it degenerates in to a full blown civil war. The challenge before Nigeria is to develop the needed institutional capacity that will sustain development, transformation and reconciliation through social enlightment, peace and Religious Education.
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Concepts of Religion Religion can be defined from different perspectives based on the angle which one understands it. However, according to Webster‘s Dictionary of English Language, Religion refers to man‘s expression of his acknowledgement of the divine or a system of belief and practices relating to the sacred and uniting its adherents in communities. This shows that religion focuses on what is ultimate or absolute and taught of worship. Therefore, relationships between the transcendent and men demands total submission and an absolute obedience. According to James (2007) an important dimension to the definition of religion, which is essential for the search for peace, is the often forgotten fact that religious relationship is in fact two dimensional. It is not only vertical but also horizontal; it does not only refer to the relationship between man and God, but also the relationship between man and the society. Therefore, Religious education can be seen as a process through which a person learns something which his society believed is related to God. According to Lawal (2003) Religious education can also be described as those processes designed to induct each new generation into the attitudes, beliefs as well as the practices of a religions or faith in order to promote the religion and at the same time provide for the individual a unifying center for his life.
Sustainable Development Sustainable Development means improving the living condition of the people by integrating social Development, economic development and environmental conservation and protection (Olayode, 2006). Essentially, it is about the welfare of all. Hence, sustainable Development is also defined as a development that meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their needs (WCED, cf, Olayode, 2006). It also means capacity to continue into the future (Barbier 1959, David 1986, cited in Olayode, 2006). It is to be noted that, this concept applies not only to environmental issues, but also incorporated into economic and social issues. The concept of Sustainable Development is related to the need for the institutionalization of best business practices by companies, corporations and sundry business concerns as well as governments in the processes of production, distribution and consumption, vis-à-vis their economic, socio-political and environmental spheres of activity. According to World Development Report (2003), Sustainability is an evolving framework. Societies will continue to transform over time and since significant social stress and crisis is likely to lead to a breakdown in the development and preservation of all assets, inter-generational well-being is bound to be jeopardized
The Role of Religious Education No religion preaches violence and conflict or militancy. Every religion advocates and preaches peace and peaceful co-existence of all citizens. Islam calls for the quest for peace, tolerance and kindness which is a state of physical, mental, spiritual and social harmony of every society. Other virtues of Islam are that Muslims were urged to imbibe the spirit of kindness and forgiveness. (Q3:124) and
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further enjoined to live in harmony and peace with fellow human beings, Repel evil with that which is better and show perseverance with patience (Q 3: 200). These values and virtues were practically demonstrated by the Holy Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). He used non-violent methods to resist those who persecuted him. He never resorted to violence or force unless as defensive mechanism. Conflicts resolution through making, negotiation and dialogue are considered more effective than aggression and violent confrontations. For instance, the virtue of tolerance and forgiveness as demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) can be seen vividly when there was famine in Mecca and he helped them despite the fact that they had driven him out of his home. Similarly, after the conquest of Mecca, the people of Mecca expected Prophet Muhammad (SAW) either executes to them in retaliation, take them as slaves or at least confiscate their properties and belongings. They were extremely worried and wondered what declaration he was going to make at his historic occasion. However, he began his address by saying to the pagans of Mecca: ―Today there will be no blame on you for anything and no one will harm you in anyway‖ Such example of rear nobility and humanness is rear in human history. These are the type of behavior expected from Muslims, as exemplified by the Prophet of Islam. In fact, there are several examples of this nature in the life of the Holy prophet. In Christianity Jesus Christ is known and referred to as the prince of peace. He taught, commanded and demonstrated the significance of peace and ―his is name will be called wonderful, counselor, mighty God, everlasting father, prince of peace‖ (Isaiah 9: 6-7). ―Salt is good; but if the salt has lost its saltiness, how will you season it? Have salt in yourselves and be at peace with one another (Mark 9: 50). Furthermore, the Bible says: ―Let us then pursue what makes for peace and for mutual up building‖. (Romans 14:19) Throughout Jesus‟ earthly ministry, he demonstrated his to love and maintained peace with all men. Despite stiff opposition from the Pharisees and religious leaders, he never said any rude or insulting word to them. Even when he was arrested and Peter had to draw his sword to cut off the ear of the slave of the High Priest, Jesus cautioned Peter and replaced the ear. He was led to be crucified like a lamb that is dumb, for he said no word, to show the level to which he pursued peace. Having examined the major religions, it could be seen that peace is of paramount importance to any meaningful development and religious teachings can provide the needed peaceful atmosphere if used in the right perspective.
Recommendations Religious institution are to be encourage against deliberate and mutual use of arms in resolving conflicts and disputes arising from the question of inter- religious relation. The school curriculum should be restructured to include comparative religion to inculcate the doctrine of the two religions.
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The religious Teachers should preach and teach the word of God in its true meaning to the students and not to mislead them through negative indoctrination and zealotry Professional body for the study of religion can be set up as part of curriculum restructuring in the Nigerian schools. All obstacle that may hinder practical implementation of the moral value taught through religious education should removed At home, parents and siblings are to encourage folk stories that stressed tolerance, endurances, justice and peaceful coexistence among mankind. Respect and loyalty that members have on their religion should transfer to that of the nation. The above mention recommendation will definitely help in maintaining peace, security and sustainable development in Nigerian society, since the majority of the populace belong either Islam or Christianity.
Conclusion Religious education played a very vital role in bringing peace, security and sustainable development in Nigeria. The federal government of Nigeria should restructure the school‘s curriculum and make it mandatory for the Teaching and learning of religious education at all levels of education and to all students in respective of their career choices. Religious education will change the country in to virile society where peace, security and sustainable development will reigns. Moreover, religious bigotry should be stamped out and proper basic tenets of religious teaching are to be taught and practice.
References Ambi P.M. (2005). Resources Conflicts and Security in Africa. Journal for Promotion of Studies in Religion, Educationa and Language. Vol 4, No 1, pg 69. James T, G. (2007). Problems of Religion. The Way Out for Peace Developments in Nigeria Olayode K. (2006) Globalization, sustainable development and State Capacity in Africa. Nigeria Journal of International Affairs Vol. 32 No 1, Lagos Nigeria. Orudu P. (2009) Bloody Talibans Saturday Sun August, 1 Vol. I, No 341, pg 41 The World Encyclopedia Britain Micropedia, Knowledge in Depth (1480) Vol. 16. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. U.S.A.
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Citizenship Education: A Tool for National Unity and Integration
Sadi Musa Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract From the global perspective of the roles of citizenship education, is to prepare new citizens ta fit well in their new environment and also an avenue for the government to provide people with the understanding of the political, legal and economic functions of a wider society. Citizenship education is aimed at training responsible citizens who will help in the development of a united and developed society, a society where people live in peace and harmony, a society where people work together for purposeful progress and development. Having this as an opportunity provided by citizenship education, it is assume that national unity and integration will certainly be achieved. This paper aims at discussing the roles played by citizenship education in fostering unity and integration which are fundamental tools for national growth and development. According to the paper, one of the ways through which citizenship education helps to that effect is by uniting the diverse Nigerian ethnics group and provides knowledge that will help in assimilating and integrating citizens from different ethnic groups with different cultural background. Keywords: Citizenship Education, National Unity, Integration
Introduction There is no doubt that the knowledge of citizenship education has a vital role in bringing Nigerian citizen together. Through the teaching and learning of citizen education people are made to understand and play their roles for the unity and development of the nation. Citizens, irrespective of their tribal, religious, ethnic or regional belongings are treated equally, enjoy equal rights and are required to perform duties for the unity and progress of the country. Through the knowledge of citizenship people are exposed to different Nigerian cultures and tribes. Citizenship education taught respect for all, restriction against utterances that pose threats to national unity, regarding and treating people equally. This makes citizenship education a strong means for positive national unity and integration.
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Concept of Citizen The term citizen is seen as any person officially recognized by the constitution or the law of the land as a permanent member of a given country. Dibie (2003) sees citizen as a legal member of a state with full constitutional or legal rights in which he or she resides. Chapter III of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution outlines ways through which one can become a Nigerian citizen, the place of dual citizenship and perhaps the renunciation of citizenship in the country. A Nigerian citizen can also be deprived of citizenship under certain condition. (Constitution of the Fed. Rep. of Nigeria, 1999)
Citizenship Defined This is an act of being a legitimate member of a given country which involves permanent allegiance to the country. Complete and total allegiance to the country involves rendering certain responsibilities and enjoying certain rights. Iyela and Audu (2006) indicated that, citizenship is a relationship between an individual and state (nation), involving the individual‘s full political membership in the state and his permanent allegiance to it. Of course, when one is connected with a state or nation as its citizen, he is tied with two central issues, that is one is what he is expected to do to his nation and what the country is expected to do to him in returned.
Citizenship Education Odunukwe (2010) posits that, Citizenship education is viewed as the processes of inculcating in the minds of individuals the relationship between him/her and the state or country. It simply implies teaching the said individuals what he or she can do for the state as well as what the state expects from him/her for the good of a particular society and the society in general. He elaborated that, such citizen owes total and permanent allegiance to the state which is seen as a duty. These duties invariably consist of being supporting the state and rendering loyalty to the leader and government of the state or country. Argungu (2012) discusses citizenship education from global aspect of the word, he cited two kinds of citizenship, one, ―The education that is intended to prepare to become legally and socially accepted citizens, which is developed in countries like Netherland, United States and United Kingdom. The second type of citizenship is normally taught in schools and colleges as an academic subject. In this type, people are made to understand the political, legal and economic functions of their society.
The Need for Citizenship Education in our Institutions of Learning Citizenship education as a program offered in Nigerian schools is aimed at equipping Nigerian students with the basic knowledge, skills, values, ideas and the necessary things which will make them good, active and effective citizens. Citizenship education in schools covers wide area of concern that will develop a high sense of unity and integration.
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Citizenship education consists of both formal and non-formal ways through which students are exposed and made to contribute to the effective development of the nation. The citizen is exposed and enlightened to the need for i. National feelings national development, national unity, national integration, national building ii. Religious tolerance, respect for other ethnics‘ groups iii. Nigerian government, Nigerian constitution philosophy.
The Philosophy and Objectives of Citizenship Education Argungu (2012) outlined ways on which citizenship education is built upon in Nigeria, these includes: 1. Awareness of and sensitization of Nigerians to the rules and regulations governing all Nigerians as contained in the Nigerian constitution. 2. Awareness of rights and obligations of citizen to government and society and the reciprocal government responsibilities.
The objectives According to him, the objectives of citizenship education are as follows: i. To create an awareness of provision of the Nigerian constitution and the need for democracy in Nigeria. ii. To create adequate and functional political literacy among Nigerians. iii. To sensitize Nigerians to the functions and obligations of government. iv. To make Nigerians fully aware of their rights and duties and to respects the rights and duties and to respects the rights of others. v. To assist in the production of responsible, well-informed and self-reliance Nigerian citizens. vi. To inculcate right values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society.
Unity and National Integration The terms unity and integration are interwoven, while unity is referring to state or fact of being one undivided entity, integration as a concept in citizenship education implies the coming together of the Nigerians as one indivisible and indissoluble nation with people of different cultural and religious background there by accepting and respecting each other as Nigerian. National integration also deals with ability to of Nigeria to from perhaps different geo-political, religious and ethnic groups come together, stay, work and above all tolerates each other. Argungu 2012). Argungu further advanced the factors that are responsible for the promotion of national integration, and they are:
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1. Religious tolerance 2. Political tolerance 3. Appreciation and respect for each other‘s culture 4. Ethnic marriages 5. Positive use of mass media 6. Sporting activities Working as federal civil servant where one can be posted to any part of the country to stay and work
Citizenship Education: A Tool for National Unity and Integration This implies that the knowledge of citizenship education provides a citizen with the necessary attitudes in line with the provision of Nigerian constitution to play their parts, roles and responsibilities for the unity and development of the country. Citizenship education is aimed at uniting the diverse Nigerian ethnics group and provides knowledge that will help in assimilating and integrating citizens from different ethnic groups with different civil culture. It also equips foreigners or newly admitted members with the required knowledge that will enable them fit well into their new environment. Proper provision of necessary knowledge for national building and development is an aspect of citizenship education. Through citizenship education people are made to their rights as citizens and the roles they are expected to play for the unity and development of the country. Citizenship education will help in the integration of diverse Nigerian ethnics, tribes and cultures by making people understand these different ethnic groups, tribes and cultures and developing respect for each group. Ethnic, tribes or cultural differences can pose a threat to national unity, integration and development if not handle carefully, citizenship education provides ways of handling different people and bringing them together as one. The knowledge of citizenship education helps in preparing and grooming of future leaders by providing citizens with the required behavioral orientation for patriotic leaders, citizens will be provided with the right attitudes such as patriotism, honesty, dedication to duties, respect for the Nigerian constitution, abiding with constitutional provision, respect for elders and constituted authority which are ingredients for patriotic future leaders. For the maintenance of peace, national stability, national unity and integration, there is need for every citizen to play those parts, roles and duties demanded of him/her. These duties, roles and responsibilities are assigned to every citizen after which certain rights are given to the citizen for a stable national development. Chapter IV of the 1999 Nigerian constitution outlines those rights that are given to Nigerian citizens unless denied by law. Rights are given to citizens so as to make
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them enjoy freedom and contribute to the national development and some of these rights are: Right to life Right to personal liberty Right to fair hearing Right to freedom of movement Right of freedom from discrimination etc. Right to dignity of human persons Right to private and family life Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Right to freedom of expression and the press Right to peaceful assembly and association Right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria Rights are given to every citizen so as to develop in them a sense of national belonging leading to national unity and integration. Citizens have the right to move to any part of the country and to live peacefully anywhere irrespective of ethnic or tribal differences. Every citizen has right to fair hearing and cannot be judged based on ethnic, tribal or religious inclination and can acquire properly legally in any part of the country. These and many other rights are given to citizen in order to develop a high sense level of unity and integration, to live and relate peacefully with people of different religion and cultural background. Every citizen after given these rights, freedom and protection need to reciprocate the government gesture by rendering certain duties and obligations for a balance in having a national unity and integration, such duties expected from a Nigerian citizen includes: Displaying a high sense of national feeling of love and pride, which will make him/her ready to identify with his/her wherever one finds him/herself, ready to sacrifice personal interest for national interest. This national identity and feeling bring and unite citizens irrespective of their regions, tribes or religions. Good citizens must be ready to speak against bad leadership and policies, correct a citizen who wants to tarnish the image of the country depend the nation against bad leaders. For the Nigerian citizens to live in unity, harmony peace and stability, its citizens must display a high sense of honesty and accountability. Nigerians should share a high level of moral standard and avoid all forms of cheating and misappropriation. For a nation to develop both politically, socially, economically, educationally and for its people to live in peace and harmony, its citizens must resist bad leadership and leaders who have no national feeling and consciousness.
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Good citizens should endevour to get rid of and expose unpatriotic and bad elements such as drug dealers, kidnapers and corrupt officers so as to have a developed, united and strong country. No nation can develop while its citizens are not united, indolence and lazies, there is need for the Nigerian citizens to be focused and hardworking for a sustainable national development. For the maintenance of unity, citizens should avoid utterance and acts that will threaten national unity, integration and national development such as tribalism, regionalism, nepotism etc because no nation can survive the unity of its people with such attitudes and behaviuors. No nation can survive and prevent itself from external threat when its citizen are not united and perhaps when citizens are in conflict. It is our duty to respect one another irrespective of tribal or geographical area. Citizenship education play a vital role in bringing citizens together, by providing them with an insight into their positions, rights and duties to be performed irrespective of their ethnic or tribal background. Through the knowledge of citizenship education, citizens are made to develop a high sense of brotherhood. Nigerian citizens are made aware of the importance of national symbol such as National flag, National Pledge, National Anthem, Coat of Arms etc. irrespective of their tribal or regional association. Through citizenship education also, citizens are exposed to equal treatment; states are represented equally at the national (federal) legislature arm of the Federal Government irrespective of their size or population. For Nigeria to be united, integrated and for its citizens to see and regard themselves as one, there is need for all to come together, display a high sense of national feelings, see ourselves as Nigerian first before any regional or tribal loyalty. Its citizens need to be hardworking, accountable, patriotic, resist bad leaders, fight corruption and corruption be discipline etc.
Conclusion From the foregoing discussion, one can assert without any fear of contradictions that, citizenship education is a fundamental tool for building and solidifying unity in the nation. Nation like Nigeria that comprises over 360 different tribes inevitably needs citizenship education as its vehicle to move the nation forward for the fact that, nations that attained certain levels of unity in the world have prosper considerably.
Recommendations This paper has the following recommendations to offer which will help the country to attain certain/reasonable level of unity and integration viz: - Just like what happened to history education in the country recently by the Federal government, citizenship education should also be introduced to all levels of education starting from primary so that the spirit of nationalism, unity
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and national integration will be planted in the minds of pupils right from primary schools. - Trainings/workshops should be regularly organized to lecturers and teachers at all levels on citizenship education for the inculcation and promotion of unity and integration in their minds so that it can be extended to their pupils and students. - Posters and pictures that carry messages of the importance of unity, solidarity and integration should be made available to Nigerian populace so that Nigerians will be enlightened on the importance attached to the unity and integration. - Media houses (Television, Radio etc) should be used in sending messages on the usefulness of unity in the country. - Non-Governmental organizations should equally give their helping hands in any possible way towards national unity and integration of the country for national development. - The institutions of traditional rulers nationwide should be supported by the Federal, states and local Governments to play their own roles of sensitizing their followers on the roles/importance of unity and solidarity in the country for development.
References Alake, A.A. et al, (2000), Citizenship Education for Tertiary Institution, Adlak and Associates, Lagos, Nigeria. Argungu M. (2012) Citizenship Education for School and Colleges in Nigeria, OL- Faith Prints, Gusau. Dibie, C.C. (2003), Essential Government for Senior Secondary School, Ikeja Tonad Publishers. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria; Lagos, Federal Government Press Iyela A and Audu F. U., (ed) (2006) Social Studies for Higher Education Students, Sunjo Publishing Company, Kaduna, Nigeria. Khadiri Y. et al (2011). Fundamentals of Social Studies Education, Vol. 1, Jaleyemi Graphics and General Enterprises, Kano, Nigeria. Khadiri, K, et al, (2010). Dynamics of Social Studies Education, Volume 2, Jaleyemi Graphics and General Enterprises Kano Nigeria. Odunukwe, J. (2010). Nigerian Citizenship Education, Academic Publishing Company Enugu Nigeria.
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Accountability in Secondary School Education in Zamfara State, Nigeria
Kanoma H.A Department of Curriculum and Instruction Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract The fundamental aim of education is to serve as instrument for attaining sustainable development, the ideal of national consciousness and awareness, may not be achieved if there is no proper checks and balances in our education system. Thus; achievement of the goals of education at different levels that is (Primary, secondary and tertiary) will remain elusive. This paper therefore analyses the concept of accountability and how it relates to education, the paper tries to answer the questions is there accountability in education? To whom and for what the teacher is accountable? It is the duty bound all institutional administrators that is, principals, to give account of human and material resources invested in their institutions. Accountability in education plays a significant role in the practice of education, it is means through which proper checks and balances are ensured. It is also means through which teaching are enhanced and other misconduct are reduced. The paper also examined the effect of lack of proper accountability in secondary education in Zamfara state. So also obstacle to accountability in Nigeria Education system! To include poor record keeping and poor mode of release of fund to schools among others based on this therefore the paper recommended among other things that allocation of funds, equipment, instructional materials and staff to schools should not be done haphazardly instead there should be proper mode of doing such. Keywords: Education, Accountability, Secondary School, Resources, Zamfara State
Introduction Education is one of the social systems that enable a particular society to function. Education is defined Mahuta (2007) as simply one aspect of socialization which includes the acquisition of knowledge and learning of skills. Another scholar also Adeyinka (2000) defined education as ―the process of transmitting the culture of a society from one generation to the other, the process by which the adult members of a society bring up the younger ones. One of the main concerns of education is to make an individual useful to himself and contribute to the continuity and ‗up keep of his society. It is a social institution and of course an investment. Education as an investment in human capital has
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become a matter of priority for both government and individuals. The general belief is that, education helps to enhance the wellbeing of the individual and the society education in Nigeria is seen as a big industry with large investment. This sector is considered as an instrument per excellence in nation building and to aid the control of this institution, the Government handed down a national policy on education, which specifies the structure, curricula, goals, and objectives of the various levels (that is primary, secondary, and tertiary levels). Similarly, substantial amount of funds are allocated in especially every annual budget for management of both human and material resources. This is an input- output process because desired results are expected -from the investment. However, in Nigeria, many scholars are of the opinion that educational system is depicting a negative trend when compared with the huge direct and indirect costs vested into it. As noted by Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) there are a lot of wastages in Nigeria‘s educational system. Wastage of real resources, human, fiscal and materials, is now rampant in the system, some resources are misallocated and misused. Huge direct and indirect loss involved, is of great concern to investors. Thus, over the years calls for accountability in education have become imperative because of the demand for constructive changes in our education system. Accountability in education implies that those main actors in the curriculum implementation that is (the teacher, head of the school, and statutory organs among others) should constantly evaluate and demonstrate that the resources devoted to education are being properly utilized to accomplish the target objectives. Going by all the definitions given by the cited scholars one will come to realized that accountability in secondary schools in Zamfara state does not make any difference even if there is, because principals are no more accounting officers of their respective schools due to external forces teachers may not give account of their classroom teaching but they go with impunity, there was a report of a principal who was removed because he removed his continuous assessment officer and examination officer, and his reason of removing them was so simple that they refused to give account of their respective offices.
The Concept of Accountability ―Accountability‖ stems from a Latin accomptare (to account), a prefixed form of computare (to calculate), which in turn derived from putare (to reckon). While the word itself does not appear in English until its use in 13th century Norman England, the concept of account-giving has ancient roots in record keeping activities related to governance and money-lending systems that first developed in Ancient (Durosaro, ud). Accountability could simply be viewed as the recording and reporting of the activities and events affecting personnel, facilities, material or money of an organization. Different scholars however use different words to explain what the word accountability means.
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For instance, one of them, Helm (1995) maintain that sometimes the word ―accountability‖ is used synonymously with ―responsibility.‖ Other times, the term appears to refers to reporting to those with oversight authority or, more globally, to the general public; or to demonstrating compliance with established laws, rules, regulations, or standards; or to distributing rewards and sanctions tied to results. In other words, it involves responsibility, authority, evaluation and control. The term accountability according to Goetz (1988) in gron1and (l974 simply means having responsibility for or reporting to others on something, usually fund, material or personnel utilized in an organization. This definition connotes that anyone managing an organization should be responsible and ready to give periodic account of how effective and efficient the system had performed over a given period of time. Another scholar Hultt (2000) simply put the concept of accountability as setting of goals for action and ensuring that they are achieved. From the opinion of the scholars above one can deduce that there is no place that accountability is needed most better than schools because education activities everywhere in the world they affect and they are also affected by the society because of that need for accountability cannot be overemphasize, but in our secondary school today you will find a teacher that does not care to write lesson plan, lesson note and even if there is, is scanty he will not fill diaries and registers and with these the teacher will go with impunity.
Accountability in Education There are divergent views of scholars concerning accountability in education. For instance, according to Adams et als (1967) in durosaro (ud) acountability in education is specifically concerned with determining what records are to be kept, how such records will be maintained in terms of the procedures, methodology and forms to be used, recording, classification and summarization of activities of events, analyzing and interpreting the recorded data, preparing and issuing reports and statements which reflect conditions as of a given time. While Kokach (2006) maintain that the concept of Accountability in education is closely related with the concept of Management. While management is the Process of coordinating variety of resources, human and nonhuman to produce desired result, on the other hand, Accountability implies a measure of the extent to which all available resources in a productive system are used for greater efficiency and productivity. Similarly, Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) are of the view that in any organization, (school inclusive) there must be a delegation of power and authority by the superior to the personnel on the lower level and lower level personnel will be answerable to the superior by being held accountable. Therefore, Accountability in education tends to ascertain that performance is related to the stated goals. It is a goal oriental activity when viewed from the input perspectives. It is measures of how well resources are integrated to produce high output.
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Durosaro (ud) maintains that educational activities in most countries affect or are affected by almost every individual in the nation in one way or another, therefore in the process of accounting for the progress of educational system each person has a place in the scheme of things. Each individual is responsible to or for someone else and for specific activities towards goal achievement. In addition, taking Nigeria educational system as an example, to him accountability in education follows this chain;
Classroom Teacher Accountability Classroom teacher is accountable for the expected outcome of his teachings and other classroom interaction with the students within the framework of the overall national educational objectives. Some of the schedule of work which the teacher carries out in school can be used as means through to ensure his accountability. Example of such are: Through filling of lesson plan, lesson note, diaries, and other school records. The teacher is accountable directly to the institutional administrator. In Nigerian education system especially at primary level, classroom teacher is sometimes confronting by the team of supervisors or inspectors to give account of his task. In Zamfara state education sector constitute ministry of education science and technology the ministry is charge with responsibility of formulating and implementing educational policies. They also oversee and coordinate the activities of all boards and agencies concerned with education, these are teacher‘s service board female education board and Arabic and Islamic education board but it appeared that both the ministry boards an agencies are not being accountable to the people of Zamfara state despite the fact that their statutory function is stated clearly. 1. Teacher‘s service board: the functions of this board are essentially recruitment, appointment, promotion, and posting, transfer discipline of teaching and non-teaching staff of the schools under the board. 2. Science and technical teachers board: the board was established to among other functions develop policies strategies for the development science and technical education in the state it recruits appoint, post and promote teaching and non-teaching staff of the board. 3. Female education board: the board was established in 2001 to supervise and control all female secondary schools‘ other functions of the board was provided by law included. Recruitment training, payment of salaries promotion of staff and feeding all female student in Focal primary schools. To ensure public accountability that is the essence of quality assurance in education sector for the system to meet set standard, to improve teaching and learning, the process involved monitoring assessing evaluation at communicating the outcome to all concern in order to ensure quality with integrity, in Zamfara state today ensuring quality in secondary education is generally lacking because there is little or no supervision of schools, schools inspectors are supposed to visit, school 3 times per term and 9 times per session, but sometimes once or none at all.
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Dimensions of Accountability in Education Accountability in education is both highly complex and highly sensitive it takes so many dimensions as follows: 1. Procedural accountability which refers to form of accountability in school organization that is directed toward process (how something was done). For example, If one has been delegated the authority to engage in some activity, then one is responsible, at the least, for conducting the activity ―properly‖— that is, in accord with prevailing expectations that guide how the activity should be conducted. 2. Consequential accountability. This implies consequences or results of one‘s actions—whether positive or negative, and whether intended or not. 3. Helm (1995) also added that there are both internal and external dimension of accountability in education That is, some accountability relationships occur among providers and recipients located within the same organization (internal), while other accountability relationships involve recipients of accountability located outside the organization (external). 4. In Nigerian, primary education at the state level provides a clear example. For instance, Education officials at state ministry of education account for funding, supply of materials to schools‘ supervision of schools while Principals account for the materials supplied to school. The classroom teacher on the other hand takes account for the maintaining of students grades and attendance records. 5. Similarly, Durosaro (ud) observes that accountability in education can be of four types. These include: 6. Product Accountability. This relates to the evaluation of teaching effectiveness and the extent to which the teacher achieves the expected outcome of teaching and the classroom interaction. 7. Input Accountability. This is concerns the evaluation of the extent of adequacy of supervision, monitoring and evaluation of the operation of the system. 8. Goal Accountability. This relates to the evaluation of the selection, definition and prioritization of the goals and objectives of education. 9. Accountability for means and enabling environment. This refers to the evaluation of the extent to which the general public had cooperated in providing the required resources for education and for creating the right atmosphere for the pursuit of education in their state.
Roles of Accountability in Education From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that Accountability play a number of roles in the practice of education. Some of these roles include; 1. Accountability is means through which proper checks and balances in education are ensured.
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2. It is also a means through which teaching is enhanced and other school misconduct are reduced. 3. Through the process of product accountability, the effectiveness or otherwise of teaching learning process could assessed and the extent to which objectives are achieved could be ascertained. 4. Accountability in education can also be considered as a means through teaching learning process can be improve for the benefit of learners.
Effects of Lack of proper Accountability in Nigerian Education Despite huge amount of resources invest in Nigeria educational sector; it is obvious that there is deficiency with the outputs or products that many educationists attributed to improper accountability. For instance, Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) observe that, the products of the three levels of the nation‘s educational system are seen as showing a negative trend when compared with the huge direct and indirect costs vested into it. In other words, the standard is falling and this is a thought provoking issue. Similarly, Lessing (1974) an accountability- leading proponent in Nakpodia & Okiemute (2011) said that our schools have failed to educate our children because not every child has competencies in the basic skills. Another scholar, Okobiah (1999) in Kokach (2006) believed that there is problem inherent in the process and the product of the education system. Schools are not making any noticeable impact in achieving the set goals and objectives as well as on the nation‘s socio-economic development. Thus, most parents and other benefactors of education products are disenchanted with the outcome of the school to the extent that they now seek substitute for their children‘s education even in the face of free education programme. In fact, citizens are fast losing some of their blind faith in education as an instrument for achieving social awareness, political astuteness and economic prosperity. Billions of naira is budgeted and directed into our education system without corresponding outcome. The much-needed quantitative, qualitative, productive, efficient and functional graduates in line with national goals seen elusive. It appears that the system has failed to live up to expectation. In addition, the decline in the rate returns amidst high cost of education also shows the administrative inefficiency and incompetence in the management of schools. Nakpodia & okiemute (2011) also added that, over the years there is problem of lack of accountability in Nigeria‘s education sector and the effect is that there are neglect and wastages in the system. Wastage of real resources, human, fiscal and materials, is now rampant in the system, some resources are misallocated and misused. Huge direct and indirect loss involved, is of great concern to investors. Obviously, administrators are confronted with enormous challenges as regards matter of accountability during their managerial function. They ought to ensure that they account for their teachers‘ performance in the course of discharging their duties.
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Obstacle to Accountability in Nigerian Education There many factors in Nigerian educational system in specific that are working against ensuring proper accountability. Durosaro (ud) highlight the following: 1. Poor record keeping in the educational system particularly in the schools. 2. Fraudulent practices owing to the existing poverty syndrome in the country coupled with our poor value system. 3. Poor mode of release of funds to the school system and Other obstacles include: 4. Inadequate qualified and trained supervisors or inspectors. 5. Poor value system
Conclusion Until recently, the issue of accountability is more peculiar to political and economic institutions but now Education as an investment in human capital has become a matter of priority for both government and individuals, thus receive a lots of investment. Accountability in education is therefore requiring for proper utilization of both human and material resources involves for the attainment of objectives.
Recommendations 1. Based on the findings from this paper on the obstacles to proper accountability in education, the following are some the suggestions: 2. Adequate record keeping materials and equipment should be provided to schools by the authorities responsible. Head teachers have to ensure that teachers give proper account of instructional process since it is the centre of all educational process. 3. Allocation of funds, equipment, instructional materials, and staff to schools should not be done hazardily, instead there should be proper mode of doing such: This will provide a basis for holding those involve accountable. 4. Supervisors especially at primary level need to undergo proper training either through on job training or workshops organize for them by reputable professionals like resource persons from faculties of education from the universities. This will expose them to techniques of effective supervision. 5. Transparent measures need to be taken to discourage fraudulent practices in our schools. 6. Adequate punishment and measures need to be taken against those involved in fraudulent practices. 7. Proper enlightenment including preaching for people to imbibe good value system
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References Accountability in Education: an Imperative or Service Delivery in Nigerian School System. Retrieved online on 4/12/2019 from http;//file:eric.ed gov Adeyinka, A.A. (2000). Basic Concepts in Education. (ed) Selected Topics in Philosophy and Education. Lusaka: University of Zambia Press, pp. 18-23. Durosa, D.O (tid) Accountability in education: The case of Nigeria (ed) Olagboye, A.A & Fadiye, J.O Management of Nigerian education: project monitoring and school maintenance. Ondo, National Institute for Educational Planning & Administration Publishers (NIEPA). FME (2008). Training Manual for Stake holders of School Based Management Committee (SBMC). Ondo, Akinsolu & Unibon publication. Gronfand, N.E., (1974). Determining Accountability for Classroom Instruction, New York, McMillan Publishing Co. Helm, M. (1995). Accountability in Education. Hawai‘i (U.S), A Paper prepared for Hawai School Leadership Academy. Kokach R. (2006). ―The Validity and Reliability of the Teachers‘ Performance Evaluation Skills‖, Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 6(3): 799- 808 Mahuta, M.G (2007). An Introduction to Sociological Foundation of Education. But Bass Publishers Nakpodia, E.D arid A. R. Okiemute (2011). Teacher‘s Accountability in Nigerian Education System: Perceptions of Teachers and Administrators in Delta State. International NGO Journal vol. 6(7), pp. 152-158 retrieved online on 15/7/2012 from available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/ingoj Zamfara state government education sector medium term strategy 2015 – 2017 retrieved online on 4/12/2019 from www.sparc-nigeria.com
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Sports, Education and Politics in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects
1Saratu Kabir and 2Lawal Musa 1Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Primary Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract Today, the recent political changes provide Nigeria with the opportunity for a fundamental review of policies that will prepare the country to meet the challenges of the new century. Nowhere is this more than in the sports and education sectors. Sports and education have served various purposes for different nations at different times as it concerns Nation Building and Democracy. The valuable role of the two in the politics of a nation cannot be over-emphasized. The country needs to re-examine its past and focus on sports and education in politics development plans that will meet the challenges of the future. This paper reviewed the concepts of sports and education, challenges affecting politics are also discussed; this include high level corruption, basing of political activity on greed, selfishness and domination, lawlessness, and jungle justice among others. The paper also noted the impact of sports and education. Approaches to reduce and manage these challenges were suggested among others; Government should encourage seminar, conference, workshop where related issues on the values of sports and education in politics should be discussed mostly among the Nigerian youths. Keywords: Sports, Education and Politics
Introduction Sports and education are seriously interwoven; one promotes the other. One is also embedded in the other as sports forms parts of education, so also education provides forum by which different aspects of sports manifest its practices and activities. Sports and education is vital and dependable weapon for all kinds of battles; it is today‘s greater marketing instrument for political mass mobilization and for direct governance and anchorage for national and international unity. Sports has become an important aspect of Nigerian culture so much that the interest in and popularity of sports have affected the political, social, security, economic and educational fabrics of the nation; the review become imperative as the nation is gearing towards rebranding and reviewing its sports development policy. The review will go a long way in assisting and bringing to light some silent issues that have been overlooked over the years
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Education is a process devised by society for its own perpetual and continuity. It is the most important catalyst to political development. Since the independence of Nigeria in October 1, I960, problems have been disturbing the nation and her leaders so much other than the national unity and political democracy. In Nigeria today, even the most myopic observers are aware that competitive sports and education have been connected with the social turbulence of our time and has become a part and parcel of political struggles. Notably, sports and education are closely related with man‘s existence, economy and politics (Park, 2003). To the whole world, sports and education has become an effective instrument of international politics and one of the easiest ways of promoting the image of a nation.
Concepts of Sports and Education Sports are the various activities which man engages in from childhood to adulthood which promotes the acquisition of mental, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, emotional and educational well-being to make the individual contribute meaningfully to the development of the society. Aspects of sports are designed and translated into subject as Physical and Health Education which forms part of education curriculum in Nigeria. The following are the objectives of sports: physical fitness, social efficiency, skill acquisition, emotional stability, life career, cultural development and mental development. The concept of education on the other hand is the systematic process of acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities and information through informal formal and non-formal teaching and learning. In order for the body of knowledge to be acquired to be properly organized, synthesized and formalized, educational contents are divided into subjects who are in turn developed into curriculum for ease of teaching and learning at various educational levels. (Okediji, 2015). Education is knowledge acquisition, its process and means which a society evolves for the purposes of impacting its values and morals, and in pursuance and attainment of its collective vision aspirations and goals (Kolawole, 2006). According to Eze (2004) education is the transmission of what is worthwhile to individuals to make them knowledgeable and contributing members of the society. Amuchie, (1999) states that sport is a mirror of the society; that provides a touch stone for understanding how people live, work, think and play as well as serving as a barometer of a nation‘s progress and civilization. It is understood that sports are one of the social services that nations of the world provide for their citizens and for such service (sport) to flourish, there must be a laid down philosophy and policy. Sport is a social phenomenon that has grown from its humble beginning of being an entertainment and recreation pastime to become a visible and prominent business phenomenon that could no more be ignored in the political and economic environment of any nation. (Morakinyo, 2000). Finally, one could see that the two concepts sports and education are interwoven and closely related. This is because sports translated into Physical and health
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education in the curriculum, forms part of the content for systematic process of teaching and learning which develops a child to adult and builds him or her up to become a responsible member of the society.
Challenges in Sports and Education in Politics Over the past decade, Nigeria has been plagued by frequent political unrest. This political instability has generated negative effects on the sports and education system. These difficulties have been most pronounced at the foundation levels of sports and education. Although the sectors had been in crisis for many years, the situation has recently been made worse by frequent strikes staged by different government sectors. Much of the difficulty lies in the fact that the sectors are poorly funded. This result in shortages of materials and human resources for education and sports: a brain drain from the public sector; few instructional inputs, and a host of other problems. These endangering factors include: 1. The financing of education in Nigeria since the colonial era has been a major problem, because the budget allocation for it was usually small compared to the amount needed to fund it. Most states in Nigeria up till date have not been able to meet up with the minimum of 26 percent that the United Nations organization recommended for education vote in the budget. It is based on this under estimation of education in the yearly budget that sporting activities suffer at all levels of education in Nigeria. The case even becomes worse during economic recession. The revenue from sports is no longer adequate to run sports in Nigeria and that the era of enough grants has gone. Onifade (1992) comments on the above and said, ―Government subventions are not enough anymore to run sports successfully. Financing sports has become a big problem to the agencies responsible for it in Nigeria.‖ 2. The basic problems confronting Nigeria‘s political system today is lack of effective participation of the people in matters affecting them. Participation is a factor of multiple variables comprising involvement in decision-making process, implementation of made decisions, sharing in the benefits of made and implemented decisions and monitoring the entire process. Compared with the past, particularly the immediate post-independent Nigeria, there appears today to be a sudden withdrawal of the people from political life. Indeed, there is today a culture of every man to himself, which pervades the entire society including those who occupy public positions thereby hindering the necessary development. (Nwankwo, 2003 & 2012). 3. Most Nigerians are often misinformed or completely uninformed about the workings, actions and policies of government. Some assert of the people who participate in elections and other programmes do not clearly understand the issues involved; some vote wrongly because they were told to do so or because they were disinterested in the electioneering process
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while others stay away from the entire electioneering process completely (Vincent 2011) 4. Another problem is that of a general feeling of despondency on the part of many Nigerians. A general feeling of alienation permeates the entire political terrain of Nigeria. Nwankwo (2012) asserts that apathy and powerlessness are key factors that can best be used to describe citizens‘ political life in Nigeria. It is this apathy of the people that stood in the way of massive citizens‘ consciousness while powerlessness is indicated by the fact that most Nigerians do not seem to have any means of participating in politics other than during elections which on many occasions are fraught with challenges. As such, there is the belief that there‘s little or no control over what elected officials do as representatives of the people in between elections to the extent that many have lost confidence in politics and associated activities and therefore spent incalculable efforts in fruitless sectional, ethnic and religious quarrels (Obasanjo, 1999). Explaining the concept of powerlessness, Nwankwo (2012) notes that it has multiple negative ramifications: the breakdown of trust in indifference and even hostility to government and its activities. Others include high level corruption, basing of political activity on greed, selfishness and domination, lawlessness, jungle justice, etc, rather than the awareness of the inherent requirement of peace and mutual coexistence. All these are issues of concern endangering developmental processes. 5. Lack of political awareness is greatly associated with the predominance of illiterates that constitute the electorate. Consequently, the uninformed electorate tends to ignore character or issues such as infrastructure, unemployment, corruption, insecurity, and living conditions. Their voting decisions are rather based on trivial considerations like party loyalty, social ties, ethnic and religious affiliations among others 6. Poor administration of sports and education at the three tiers of government, frequent changes in the machinery and administrative structure of sports and education as well as in the leadership and membership of the governing also affect sports and education in political process in Nigeria 7. Another pitfall is the disagreements about the sharing of the country‘s resources by privileged elite with access to the handles of political power. The vast majorities do not even know what is going on, nor do they really care who rules them, provided they can live well within the geographical space called Nigeria no matter its structural arrangement. 8. The country still languishes as Third World where corruption thrives, the misguided youths, jobless, idle, poorly educated, dehumanized by the corruption and brazen looting in the country, are now angling for a ‗war‘
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when there is nothing else for them to do than be spoilt brats! (Odegbami 2017).
Roles of Sports and Education in Politics in Nigeria Sports, education and political democracy are social institutions. There are obvious lessons that the political democratic process can learn from sports and education for its good and credibility as spelt out by some authors below: 1. The first thing every player or athlete internalizes, to ensure successful participation, is the rules of the game. By playing in adherence to rules, sports impacts discipline and good conduct on players. Political democracy can be very successful if the politicians play it according to laid down rules as sports people do on the field. 2. Second, in a sport situation or contest, only one team takes the gold medal or wins. There are usually winners and losers. Both losers and winners shake hands and embrace one another as they look forward to a future opportunity of engagement. This value system is something politicians must learn from the sports institution. Given that the umpire has done his/her job well without bias and outcome is objectively reached, then, we must accept the result of any election as sports teams accept the outcome of games. In order to win a sports contest, no coach can risk not fielding his/her first eleven or best performers. Political parties must in the same vein ensure that as they select their flag bearer, they will be objective enough to pick the best candidates for the different levels of the political contests, as sports teams do 3. Integrating sports into a political manifesto is a means of achieving social cohesion and an activity that evokes great passion among the people. Therefore, using it as a campaign issue can draw the sports adherents to political contenders, a candidate that makes sports a campaign issue portrays himself or herself as a lover of young people, who is ready to protect their interests. (Isiguzo, 2011). 4. Sporting events tend to bring different people with different cultures and works of life together. Mere contact with sporting events has a contagious fascination even among the most improbable participants and spectators. That a richly diverse group of spectators-doctors, lawyers, merchants, and women become an ordinary devoted gathering with nothing in common, except sports that reduce idleness and encourage the enjoyment and entertainment they are able to make more contacts, more friends and even more money. Sports help them have the tendency to broaden, spread, diversify and helps to assume a greater role in the general security in political strategies of any Nation if properly maximized mostly in Nigeria to reduce the tension and anxiety 5. Character in children and youth can be enhanced in sports and education settings towards political system ―when fair play, sportsmanship and moral development information is systematically and consistently taught.‖ In
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other words, given that sports and education are a powerful social experience in the lives of children and youth, positive character development may occur under the right circumstances. (Awoyinfa & Adebayo, 2016). 6. There are many situations that globally promote Political war. which pull countries, states, town even villages apart, but sports and education values have been identified as a unifying force that bring States, Towns and Countries together irrespective of religion, language, tribe and cultural differences.
Conclusion The politics of 2019 in some states in Nigeria is already on the starting blocks and the starters‘ gun is up for the race to commence, it is the concern of all Nigerians that this political process should run well according to the rules. We can learn from sports and education where friendship is the bedrock of competition and participation, where the human spirit and physicality are tested to the limit in search for excellence, experience, patience, the dedication, the team work and team spirit, the hard work, the personal sacrifices without guarantees, the selflessness, the patriotic spirit and zeal, and the unity embedded in the fabric of sports and education. Sports and education are mirrors of a society because they mirror or show the fundamental values of any given society. Therefore, a developing nation like Nigeria can utilize education and sports to achieve a political democracy. With the hope that credible and performance – driven winners will emerge for the overall good of our nation. From all of these analyses; we can glaringly see that political engineering has much to learn from the sports and education system, modeling the political process after the sports and education institution is a sure strategy for political success. Therefore, we all have a role to play in ensuring its success.
Recommendations Nigeria as a reconstituted democracy needs to re-examine its past and focus on sports and education in politics development plans that will meet the challenges of the future. In the light of the above, the following recommendations are suggested: 1. Government should encourage seminar, conference, workshop where related issues on the values of sports and education in politics should be discussed mostly among the Nigerian youth. 2. Real political education added to lessons and verbal arguments must also be action and model-based. That has to be a slow, systematic and continuous process of orientation and re-orientation in premise and goal in the family, the school, Mosques, Churches and other relevant institutions. 3. Sports and education can make a modest contribution to politics resolution and peaceful coexistence in regions of violence. Therefore, focused projects should be locally grounded, carefully thought out, and professionally managed at all levels.
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4. Following recent political changes which saw the reintroduction of democracy in the country, the government should acknowledge the need to revise and update the National Policy on Education once more to ensure that the education and sports system meets the needs of a new democracy. 5. Government, private school owners, school heads, parents, NGOs, sports and education administrators/managers and coaches are joint collaborators in the decline observed in the educational and sports standard in the country today, therefore, government should play a leading role.
References Amuchie FA (1999). The Role of Napher S.D towards the Growth and Development of Sports in Nigeria. Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow; Journal of the Nigeria Association for Physical Health Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance; Special Edition Awoyinfa, J. O & Adebayo, O. S. (2016). The Contribution of Sports, Physical Education and Recreational Indices in Promoting Health and Peace among the Youth in Nigeria. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 7, Issue 3, Eze, W.U. (2004). Eradication of poverty in Nigeria through physical education and sports Nigerian J. Unity Dev.(NIJIJD) 3(1). Eze, W.U. (2004). Physical Education: a veritable instrument for quality education for all Nigerians. Science Teacher Today J. School Sci., Federal College of Education, Eha-Amufu, Enugu State. 2(1). Eze, W.V.J. (2002). Achieving Sustainable Development in Nigeria through Physical Education and Sports. Eastern COHASU J. Teacher Edu ('OJOTE) I, Okediji, H. (2015). The Relevance of Sports to the Development of Education in Nigeria, 1904 till date. History Research, Vol. 5, No. 3, 188-196 Isiguzo, I. (2011) Sports Politics. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2010/10/sports- politics-of-2011 Kolawole, C. O. O. (2006). ―Curriculum Design Implementation & Innovation, Ibadan Cultural Studies Group (ICSG), Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, pp. 7, 50-54. Morakinyo, E.O. (2000). Sport Management Structure. 21st Century and Sport Development in Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Sport and Social Development. Nwankwo, B.O. (2003). Institutional Designs and Functionality of African Democracies. Berlin: Tenea.
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Nwankwo, B. O. (2012). The challenges of political education in contemporary Nigeria: Re-thinking mission and re-planning strategies. Retrieved 2013, March 16 from http://www. resjournals.com/ERJ Obasanjo, O. (1999). Ethnic Violence-the way out. An Address Presented to Ijaw Leader, Port Harcourt. Odegbami (2017) Looking At Nigerian Politics through Sports! Retrieved: September 24, 2017 10:34 am Onifade , A(1992). Funding Amateur Sport in Nigeria. Journal of Nigeria Academy of Sports Administration 1(2). PP.31-35 Park, S. J. (2003). Future Direction and Challenges of Leaders in Physical Education and Sports Toward the Millennium 21st century, DAEGU Universidad Conference, pp 78-82.
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Managerial Practice of Head-Teachers and Qualty Assurance in Public Primary Schools in Zamfara State, as Strategy for Sustainable Development in Nigeria
1Muhammad Nura U. and 2Umar Babangida 1Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract This study examined the managerial practices of primary school head- teachers and quality assurance in selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Zamfara State of Nigeria. The ex-post factor descriptive design was employed for this study. The sample comprised 215, out of 305 primary schools head-teachers in Anka and Bungudu Local Governments‘ area LGAs in Zamfara state. Stratified random sampling method was used for the selection of the sample for the research subjects. Stratification was based on the dimensions of Senatorial Districts. 2 instruments tagged primary school managerial practice questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary school record keeping questionnaire (PSRKQ) were used for data collection. The instruments were validated by experts in Test and Measurement, while they had reliability index of 0.5 each through test-retest at 3 weeks‘ intervals, using Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The data collected were tested against 3 objectives, and 3 research questions. It was found among other things that there is significant positive relationship between managerial practices of primary school head teachers and quality assurance; head- teachers in most of the schools adopted a centralized record keeping. Therefore, the study recommendations include, that there was need for education stake- holders should inspire head teachers‘ record keeping and commitment to quality assurance in our primary schools for sustainable development, primary education has been identified as the most sensitive stratum, it determines the success or failure of the entire education system. Keywords: Managerial Practices, Head-Teachers, Quality Assurance and Sustainable Development
Introduction The Ministry of Education has the responsibility to manage education through the head-teachers‘ supervisory skills and practices. The head teachers are responsible for supervising the entire primary school activities towards achieving quality education. Primary schools are unique organizations designed to achieve specific goals of preparing good citizens. This makes it mandatory to emphasize that the
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head teachers‘ responsibilities on managerial practices and quality assurance should not be under estimated. Yusuf (2016) opined that for effective realization of school policies, the administrative responsibilities should not be exclusively for head teachers. However, they will be held responsible for whatever happens in their schools. Lena (2015) stated that the roles and responsibilities of school head-teachers/ principals are vital to the function of individual schools. There is therefore need to have policies that actually result in school environment in terms of performance. Kilanga (2013) noted that the school principals need to be well prepared in leading organizational changes which address the performance gaps of students. The development of the education sector has been a long standing objective of the government of Kenya since independence in 1963 to date. Managerial practice can be regarded as a measure of the success in school administration, because it is the extent to which the set goals and objectives of a school programme is accomplished, taken into consideration some specific management functions, such as planning, organising and coordinating (Yusuf, 2016). Quality has always been measured by financial and other inputs. With time, the term quality relates to educational output (Ogundele & Adelabu, 2009). As education faces new challenges, new concept of quality develops. Although the universal concept of quality relates to what is being taught and how well it fits present and future needs of the learners but in line with UNESCO concept, another way of looking at quality is in relation to its input and one of such inputs is the learners. Specifically, UNESCO views quality in six dimensions that is: learners, environment, content, processes, outcomes and responsiveness, (UNESCO, 2000). National Policy on Education (2013) states that among the strata of the education system, primary education has been identified as the most sensitive stratum, the reason being that it determines the success or failure of the entire system. At this level, children are prepared for a broad-based education which emphasizes the attainment of permanent and functional literacy, numeracy and effective communication skills. This calls for qualitative service delivery in primary schools‘ system and quality assurance is required to ensure sustainable quality education at this level. Government‘s shall establish efficient and effective quality assurance agencies at Federal, States/FCT and Local Government levels for monitoring and maintaining set standards at all levels of education below the tertiary level. Quality assurance agencies in both State and Ministries of Education/FCT Education Secretariat and Local Government Education Authorities in collaboration with the Federal Quality Assurance Agency shall be responsible for the organization of supervision and inspection of all educational institution under their jurisdiction. Adebowale & Osuji (200) state that records do not only enable school administrators to have a clear picture of what is available and what is required, they provide justification for certain needs and seem to extend the memory by
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which persons and/or organizations can pass on their culture and achievement to the future generation. In fact, the content and quality of school record (such as lesson plans, report cards, etc.) can serve as a direct reflection of the amount of work that has been expended on the school enterprise. Also, records help school administrators and parents to keep a concise and accurate timeline of events in the life of the pupils. Individuals may think they will be able to recollect past events, but it is easier to use a written record.
Managerial Practices Managerial practices are all that a manager does with regard to carrying out one‘s stipulated job-related duties. In a school situation, these are the various tasks designated to be effected by head teacher of the school and others by way of having been delegated to attend to them by the school head (Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development, 1999 in Mathuva, 2013). Such managerial functions are a vital ingredient for improved pupil learning and academic performance, and go a long way towards the creation of child friendly school, (Mathuva, 2013).
Quality Assurance Ogundele & Adelabu, (2009) defines Quality Assurance as ―the preventing of quality problems through planned and systematic activities. This will include the establishment of a good quality management system and the assessment of its adequacy, the audit of the operation of the system, and the review of the system itself. Basically, Quality Assurance involves setting attainable standards for a process, organizing work so that objectives are achieved as well as ensuring the documenting of procedures required, communicating them to all concerned, and monitoring in order to review the attainment of standards. Its goals are the anticipation and avoidance of faults or mistakes. Drawing from the above definitions, Quality Assurance in education can be regarded as the systematic management, monitoring and evaluation procedures adopted to measure the performance of school headmasters, teachers and pupils against educational objectives towards ensuring best practices in instructional inputs, through-put, outputs and improvement drives. Therefore, capacity development and curriculum delivery system become important for attention when seeking achievement of set standards in primary schools. A critical look at the definitions shows that quality assurance is evidence-based and directed at efficient and effective resource utilization in institutional management by headmasters and curriculum delivery by teachers in primary schools. In relating quality assurance to primary education, therefore, it is obvious that the systematic practice of verifying or determining whether the products of primary schools i.e pupils, actually acquired the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values expected of them at that level via the curriculum offerings i.e both curricular and co-curricular activities. Quality assurance, viewed from this perspective would result in qualitative primary education because it is a monitoring and evaluation
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mechanism put in place to ensure that curriculum and instructional practices are consistent with and leading to the attainment of the set objectives of primary education. Therefore, quality assurance is a total and holistic process concerned with ensuring the integrity of an outcome (UBE, 2015).
Sustainable Development The concept entails developmental strategy that manage all assets, natural resources as well as financial and physical assets for increasing long-term wealth and well- being (Repetto, 1996). Sustainable development could be seen to encompass all attempts to ensure meeting the needs of the existing inhabitant of a community without jeopardizing the ability of its future generation.
Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the managerial practices of head- teachers in Zamfara state public primary schools for sustainable development. The study attempted to: examine whether head-teachers‘ effective managerial practice of record keeping in quality assurance can lead to the attainment of basic education for sustainable development in the state under study.
Statement of the problem The problem of poor performance in secondary schools in national examinations has been a great concern of all stakeholders in Zamfara central senatorial Zone, the situation has been worse due to the continuous students‗ poor academic performance every year. Very few students qualify to join tertiary institution from the zone. And this problem is linked to the attainment of proper basic education which is the foundational stage. The Departments of Quality Assurance through the primary school- head teachers has the responsibility of the improvement of the standards of education in our primary schools. The supervisors are responsible to give feedback by reporting what they have seen to relevant stakeholders. They should therefore have acquired special skills and knowledge to the job such as human resource, report writing and good communication skills.
Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to: 1). Investigate influence of Quality Assurance and managerial practices of head-teachers in public primary schools in Zamfara state. 2). Ascertain the level of managerial practices on record keeping among head- teachers in Zamfara state. 3). Investigate the relationship between managerial practices and record keeping in quality assurance among the primary schools‘ head-teachers in Zamfara state.
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Research Questions In order to achieve the objectives stated above, the following questions were posed: 1. How effective are the primary school head-teacher‘s in discharging their managerial responsibilities? 2. What is the level of managerial practices on record keeping among primary school head-teachers in Zamfara State? 3. What is the effect of the independent variables (managerial practice) on the dependent variables (quality assurance)?
Significance to the Study The study addressed the managerial practices of head-teachers‘ in public primary schools in Zamfara Central Senatorial Zone. It highlights the managerial practices on record keeping among the head- teachers which can result to improved performance in attainment of basic education in the zone. The study will also help Quality Assurance and Standards Officers to change attitudes and be committed to their duties in schools, strengthen Quality Assurance Standards Officers and the teachers to work in a more cooperate way to enhance their relationship to promote educational standards in the country.
Methodology The ex-post factor descriptive design was employed for this study. The sample comprised 215, out of 305 primary schools head-teachers in Anka and Bungudu Local Governments‘ area (LGAs) in Zamfara state. Stratified random sampling method was used for the selection of the sample for the research subjects. Stratification was based on the dimensions of Senatorial Districts. 2 instruments tagged primary school managerial practice questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary school record keeping questionnaire (PSRKQ) were used for data collection. The instruments were validated by experts in Test and Measurement, while they had reliability index of 0.5 each through test-retest at 3 weeks‘ intervals, using Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The state contained three senatorial districts (Zamfara central, Zamfara North and Zamfara West) and 14 Local Governments areas. Two Local Government areas were randomly selected from central and western senatorial districts. Only 200 returned questionnaires were found usable, representing 93% usable rate. The researcher conducted the research in Zamfara Central and Western Senatorial Zones because at the time of this study he is a resident in the area.
Instrumentation Two researcher developed instrument tagged primary school managerial practice questionnaire (PSMPQ) and primary school record keeping questionnaire (PSRKQ), they were used for data collection. PSMPQ sought information on the areas of primary school head teacher‘s administrative practice, effectiveness in teaching and learning process, government and community relationship, SBMC
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and CBO relationship, while PSMPQ concerned with information on primary school head teachers record keeping practice. The instrument was structured on a four point likert type rating scale that ranges from Strongly Agree (SA) =4, Agree (A) =3, Disagree (D) =2 and Strongly Disagreed (SD) =1. The instruments were validated by expert in the Faculty of Education and Extension Services of Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto and experts in Test and Measurement in the Faculty of Education and Extension Services of Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. The instrument contained 8 items. The instrument reliability was ensured by pilot testing it in schools outside the scope of the study through test-retest at three weeks‘ interval. The Regression Analysis and Pearson Product Movement Correlation formula was used to get a reliability index of 0.5 for the instrument. The instrument was administered on the subjects with little assistance from colleagues.
Research Question 1: How effective are the primary school head- teachers in discharging their managerial duties? Table 1: Descriptive statistic of Primary Schools’ Managerial duties Primary school managerial Frequency Percentage (%) Effectiveness Very Effective 140 70% Effective 40 20% Moderately Effective 15 7.5% Not Effective 05 2.5% Total 200 100 Table 1, shows the response of primary school teachers on primary school managerial practice. The results reveals that 70% of the primary school teachers responded that their primary schools‘ management were very effective, 20% reported that the school administrators were effective, 7.5% indicated that the administrators were moderately effective, however, 2.5% respondents agreed that the primary schools managerial practice were not effective. This analysis established that the primary school head teachers in Zamfara state are very effective in discharging their managerial duties. Research Question 2, what is the level of primary school head teacher‘s record keeping practice in Zamfara state?
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Table 2: Descriptive statistic of primary schools’ head- teachers record keeping practice Level of Record Keeping Frequency Percentage (%) Very High 145 72.5% High 45 22.5% Low 07 3.5% Very Low 03 1.5% Total 200 100
Table 2, shows that 72.5% indicated the level of primary schools‘ record keeping is very high, 22.5% are of the opinion that the level primary schools record keeping is high, 3.5% responded that the is low, while 1.5% indicated that the level is very low. This implies that the level of primary schools‘ record keeping among primary school head teachers in Zamfara state is very high. Research Question 3, what is the effect of managerial practice on quality assurance?
Table 3: What is the effect of managerial practice on quality assurance?
Multiple R R2 Adjusted R- Standard of the Estimate Square .988 .976 .964 32.40489
ANOVA Sum of Df Mean square F-ratio Remark (sig) Model Square Regression 85524.596 1 85524.596 81.446 .012b Residual 2100.154 2 1050.077 Total 87624.750 3
Significant at 0.5
Table 3 shows the joint effect of the independent variable to the dependent variables. That is, managerial practices correlate positively with the predicted variable (statistic of primary schools‘ head teachers‘ record keeping practice), Table 3 shows a coefficient of multiple correlation (R) of 0.988, and multiple R- square of 0.976. This means that 97 % of the variance in managerial practices is accounted for by the predicted variable when in use, and other omitted or not included in this model may be accounted for the remaining variance. The
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significance of the composite contribution resulted in P=0.012, at the degree of (df=1/2), yield ratio factor of 81.446 (Significant at 0.05 Level). This implies that the joint contribution of the independent variable (managerial practices) is significant. Summary of Major Findings: 1. Head teachers in most of the schools are very effective in discharging their managerial duties. 2. It was also found that head teachers do not keep separate records for each pupil, in many of the schools; records of all their pupils are kept in one single ledger, although this can be attributed to the economic state of the schools. 3. The independent variables significantly contribute to dependent variables (managerial practice of head-teacher and quality assurance)
Discussion Results from the tables shows that primary school head-teachers were very effective in the discharge of their managerial duties and reveals they have realised that records are one of the school most valuable assets, and believe that through proper record keeping they will be able to meet with the quality assurance, and the importance associated to record keeping have assisted them greatly in their managerial duties. The major reason adduced to this, is that records support decision making, demonstrate quality assurance compliance and importantly enable primary schools head teachers in discharging their managerial duties. Result from table 3, indicates a significant and positive association between record keeping and quality assurance, which implies that keeping of record impacts quality assurance. This finding is line with Mbiti, (2006) who mentioned that proper record keeping is a strong determinant of managerial effectiveness in our schools‘ system. The head- teachers are responsible for maintaining and retrieving items of records when needed, which adds to his duty in terms of the day-to-day running of the school and supervision of instruction, knowledge of record keeping via computerization was found to be very scanty. It is the view of the researcher that centralized record centers like the ones the respondents claim to be operating in basic education schools can only be effective where such centers are properly and periodically maintained and as such, are free from dangers of fire, extremes of weather conditions, insect infestation, etc. In fact, Chifwepa (2001) described record maintenance and retrieval as a serious task and recommended that an official (store keeper or clerk) should be solely designated to carry out these duties while Hrach (2006) asserted that records must be kept in a locked file, withdrawn only by those staff privileged to the information therein, and returned to the locked file at the end of each working day. The results also shows a significant relationship between pupils records and quality assurance, this means that information at the entry point would go a long way in guiding the teachers on the pupil‘s performance, which is a strong source of
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information about the efficiency and effectiveness of the teachers on discharging their duties.
Conclusion No meaningful development can be achieved without good education; therefore, sustainable development and education are intertwined. Record keeping occupies a strategic position in the efficient and effective management of the primary school education. Proper implementation of record keeping practices improves efficiency and access to information, meets compliance with obligations and minimizes risks posed by inadequate records management. Hence, the paper concludes that for effective primary education and quality assurance, record keeping is indispensable.
Recommendations 1. There is need to inspire quality consciousness in school operators and managers for the attainment of total quality assurance in schools, and a turnaround in educational effectiveness. 2. Primary school head teachers must ensure adequate manual classification, security, improved storage facilities and periodical checking of records, in order to make it easier to find information and records whenever needed. 3. Record management system in our primary school is still conventionally paper- based and manually operated. There is need for frantic effort to improve the situation through computerization of the system, policy enlighten as well as development of database management system. Not only that, primary school administrators should cultivate the habit of safely store or electronically scan and save certain essential documents such as; pupil‘s admission record, bank record, bills, receipts and others. 4. Review current maintenance culture on our primary schools‘ storage facilities arrangement and conduct maintenance needs assessment. 5. Recommended for further research
References Adebowale, O.F. and Osuji, S.N (2008). Record Keeping of Primary School Teachers in Ondo State: Implications for Successful Implementation of UBE Programme in Nigeria. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Press Chifwepa, V. (2001). Managing Records at School Level. Retrieved December 5, 2018 from: http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/adea/downloadcenter/NESIS/E-records- 021065.pdf Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy on Education, Abuja: NERDC Press.
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Hrach, D. (2006). Record Keeping and Confidentiality for Able Administrators. From www.pde.state.pa.us/able/lib/fieldnotes06/fn06records.pdf accessed 5/11/18 Iwhiwhu, E.B (2007). Management of Records in Nigerian Universities: Problems and Prospects. The Journal of Electronic Library, 3: 345-550. Mathuva, P.M (2013). Determinants of Deputy Head Teachers‘ Managerial Practices in Public Primary Schools in Kisau Division, Mbooni East District, Kenya. A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Education in Educational Administration University of Nairobi Mbiti, D. (2006). Foundations of School Administration and Book Keeping. Nairobi, Kenya: Published by Oxford University Press. Ogundele, J.A & Adelabu, M.A (2009) Improving Pupil‘s Quality Through Advocacy: The Role of School-Based Management Committee (SBMC), Uluslararasi Sosyal Arastimalar Dergisi, The Journal of International Social Research, Vol 2/8 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (7th Edition). Oxford University Press. Reppo, R. (1996) World Enough and Time, Yale University Press, New Haven UNESCO (2000). Focusing Resources on Effective School Health: A fresh Start to Enhancing the quality and equity of education. Final report to the World Education Forum. Paris/NewYork//Geneva/ Washington DC/UNESCO/UNICEF/WHO/World bank. UBEC (2015). Roadmap: 2015-2020, Government Printer Yusuf, L.A. (2016). Record Keeping and Administrative Effectiveness among Public Secondary Schools in Oyo State, Sokoto International Journal of Counselling Psychology.
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The Impact of Classroom Teachers Participation in the Curriculum Planning in Nigeria
1Mohammad Ahmed S. And 2Nasiru Garba G. Department of General Studies Education Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract Teacher wants to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests and skills in subject area. Teacher involvement in the process of curriculum planning is important to align content of curriculum with students needs in the classroom. Since teachers hold the key to the curriculum process by using a wide variety of techniques, encourage learning by delivering content in creative and impactful ways, using different methods for the purpose of instruction, the paper is of the opinion that the practice of given benchmarks and developing curricular framework for teachers does not only affect teachers’ performance and effectiveness but also the wide educational system. The paper therefore, attempts to explores the role teachers can play in the curriculum planning since engaging teachers in the process will help students develop and engaged relationship with the content, promote active learning, increase focus and retention of the curriculum thereby resulting in an exciting learning environment. Key words: Curriculum, Planning, Teacher Participation, Curriculum planning.
Introduction Premises and equipment are needed in the education enterprise but persons are vital to them and a teacher is the supreme factor. There is no exaggeration that a spacious building, costly equipment and sound syllabus will serve some useful purpose only when there are teachers who are fully alive to the nobility of the profession and its accompanying responsibilities. The teacher plays an important role in molding and shaping the attitudes, habits, manners and above all, the character and personality of the students. It has often been said, ―if a nation‘s teachers are C, a nation itself cannot but be C, and let there be no doubt about this - if we wish to be A, nation, our teachers will have to be A.‖ But unfortunately, in Nigeria today, the question of who makes curriculum decision and processes has not been answered very consistently or successfully. Over the years whoever makes the decisions has great power over what students will and will not learn at school. Teachers with the great power has been reduced to mere receivers of the curriculum, even though, the curriculum is formulated according to the needs of students, their individual differences, ages and stages.
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And of course, the teacher and the students are the main consumers of the curriculum. This being the case, the formation of the curriculum should be a joint enterprise in which teachers should play a dominant role, there is the urgent need for a shift in the curriculum process in Nigeria where teachers are not adequately in the scheme of curriculum planning and implementing by so doing the nation will have achieved the desired education outcome.
Contextual Definitions Meaning and Definition of Curriculum: Curriculum has been defined in various ways by scholars, educators and administrators. It is however believed to be the sum total of the schools‘ efforts to influence learning whether in the classroom, on the playground or out of schools. In fact, curriculum has been described as, ‗the environment in motion.‖ It includes the totality of experiences that a learner receives through the manifold activities that go on in the school – in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, and playground and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and students. In this case the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all points and help in the evaluation balanced personality, curriculum is considered as a tool in the hands of the teacher to mould his students in accordance with his ideal in the school. Blond‘s encyclopedia of education (1969) defines ―curriculum as the experience which a pupil has under the guidance of the school.‖ Good‘s dictionary of education considers s curriculum as ―a body of prescribed educative experience under school supervision, designed to provide an individual with the best possible training and experience to fit him for society of which he is a part or to qualify him for a trade or professional.‖ From the above, the concept of curriculum may be explained as: 1. A curriculum includes all the subjects, activities and experiences for the development of the child. 2. All these subject, activities and experiences are under the guidance and supervision of teachers. 3. All these subjects, activities and experiences are offered in the school include the classroom, in the farm, the laboratory, in the workshop, in the playground etc.
Curriculum Planning Curriculum planning is a complex process; it however refers to the creation of a curriculum. Curriculum planning focuses primarily on content and areas related to it. It encompasses the macro or broadly based activities that impact on a wide range of programs, courses, and student experiences. In fact, the curriculum should define the schools mission and goals. Thus, the way in which the curriculum is structured and delivered is determined by individual schools or government agency. However, curriculum should reflect the vision, direction and purpose of the school, learners and the entire community.
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Teacher’s Participation in Curriculum Planning Teachers over the years and till today are mandated to follow already developed curriculum and instruction. For these teachers, it is hard to imagine that teachers in other times had primary, ongoing, and comprehensive control over curriculum decisions in their own classroom settings. Having become accustomed to a more centralized system where in curriculum content, mode of presentation, and methods of evaluation are decided at the state or federal level, they find it difficult to conceive of a set of teaching conditions that would not only condone but also promote the classroom or school as the locus of important decisions about educational purposes, learning opportunities, organization, and evaluation. However, in recognition of the fact that no real progress can take place without the teachers‘ involvement in curriculum process, it necessitated even the so called advanced countries to include teachers in the planning of when, how and what to teach, to revise courses, select content, plan units and produce teaching aids. As Aggarmal (2010) observed, several curriculum development studies have clearly shown that a significant improvement has taken place where the participation of teachers was both more extensive and more inclusive and where more teachers were involved in decision making and in the production of materials. This led Ghosh (2004) to conclude that ―teacher participation in curriculum planning today is to be regarded not as a pleasant gesture to the teachers, but rather as an indispensable part of the process‖. Similarly, cole (1975) maintained that during curriculum process, teachers use a prescribed curriculum to build lessons that suit the cultural background of the learners in the classroom that have national impact. For example, according to him, teachers integrate examples of diverse people who have made significant contributions in the content area as such the inclusion of teachers in the curriculum planning cannot be overstated. Ajuzie (2017) also is of the view that the inclusion of teachers in curriculum planning helps dispet stereotypes and encourage students to look favorably upon diverse groups, teachers can provide supplemental materials during the curriculum process. He further argued that the teacher participation in the curriculum process enables them to consider how they can best deliver lessons that will reach learners from diverse cultural background. Fagbemi (2016) opined that well intended curriculum cannot always meet the needs of all learners in the classroom. He noted that teachers are the experts, when it comes to understanding the individualized needs of each student. Accordingly, differentiated or adaptive instruction is critical as it ensures that each student will maximize their potential that is why the inclusion of teacher in the curriculum process has becomes obvious. It was also stated by fagbemi (2016) that during the curriculum process, teacher consider how they can incorporate student choice into classroom learning. He observed that teachers can help students connect content to an individualized plan that reflects a career interest. The current unemployment in Nigeria according to him may be attributed due to poor career foundation during school days, if teachers are involved in curriculum process; the project based learning will be a dynamic option that teachers must plan in advance. This hands on technique immerses
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student in a practical project that brings alive the classroom curriculum. It was generally agreed that teachers use the curriculum process to plan and coordinate student choice options that is why their participation to curriculum planning is necessary.
The Teacher Factor Challenges in the Planning of the Curriculum The teacher‘s involvement in the curriculum process is essential in meeting the needs of society. However, their approach of participation in the process is not well defined and very difficult on teachers, so they face many challenges regarding their involvement in curriculum planning. Some of these unfortunate challenges ranges from the corruption that has eaten up the educational system to such an extent that the system has collapsed, monies meant for teachers involvement, training and retraining in educational policies has been diverted into private product resulting into non application of plan educational activities. Similarly, the quality of education in Nigeria has dropped to an alarming rate. Recently, the federal government reported that, the fallen standard of education among primary and secondary school students is attributed to unqualified teachers more disturbing about the report is that about 23 percent of over 400,000 teachers employed in the nation primary schools do not possess the teachers Grade two certificate, even when the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) is the minimum educational requirement one should possess to teach in the nation‘s primary schools (Ogbeifum and Olisa, 2001). These invariably shows that the teachers themselves do not understand the content of the curriculum, how then on earth can these be part of the planning. Teachers are supposed to have their own firm beliefs regarding what the curriculum ought to be for their own specific group of students. These therefore, posed a serious curriculum planning challenge as Dike (2001) has observed half-baked teachers employed to teach in the nation schools will significantly produce half-baked secondary school learners. Another challenge facing the teachers is the pair attitude and non-commitment in the discharge of their work. Many teachers today consider teaching as a part time job waiting for a greener opportunity. For these reasons teachers‘ pay little attention to the teaching career and remained resolute in bringing the desire results of the curriculum expectations. These teachers care less about the job regardless of participating in the planning of the curriculum. This is a fact, when teachers‘ attitude toward his work is of indifference and nonchalance; it always shows on the child‘s performance especially in primary and secondary schools.
Conclusion As it has been said no nation can rise above the quality of it teachers. And since teachers build lessons that include improvisation, experiments, case studies and activities to deliver the curriculum and by extension effective teaching and learning. There is the urgent need to give teachers every opportunity to be part and parcel in the process of curriculum planning and its subsequent monitoring and evaluation to ensure adequate supervision of the curriculum.
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Recommendations The paper makes the following suggestions to derive the needed result in teacher participation to curriculum process: 1. Teachers should be creative by improving the instructional contents, skills, method for the purpose of learning, in order to meet with the expected learning outcomes. 2. Teachers should endeavor to maintained effective monitoring and evaluation of their subject to ensure a wide coverage of the curriculum. 3. Teachers should be equipped academically and professionally confidence to contribute to a manageable curriculum that will suit the classroom need. 4. Teachers should be sensitive to change, and capable of effecting innovative practices to meet with global standard for practicable curriculum. 5. Government should make resources available to prepare teachers, through publications and staff development programmes to meet the expectations by implicating curriculum decisions at all levels.
References Aggarmal, J.C (2010). Teacher and Education in a Developing Society, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd. Ajuzie, M.V. (2017). A Concise History of Education in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges, Lagos, DMM Publishers Carter, V.G (1973). Good’s Dictionary of Education (4th ed.) (1973) McGraw – Hill, New York. Cole, J.A. (1975) Science Teaching and Science Curriculum Development in Supposedly Non-scientific Culture, W.A.J.E, XIX, 2. Edward, B. (1969). Curriculum in Encyclopedia of Education, (197–199). Washington, DC: Amazon Book. Fagbemi, S.K. (2006) ―Consolidating the Gains of Technology Education: Reviewing science education curriculum for sustenance of National Development. ―Journal of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT), 2 2(2)422. Ghosh, P.P. (2004) Effective Curriculum Construction, India: Pointer Publishers. Marlow E., and Digumarh B.R. (2014). Issues in School Curriculum, New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. Promila, S. (2014) Curriculum Development, New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.
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Synopsis Analysis of the Factors Affecting Girls Access to Education at Basic School Level in Zamafara State, Nigeria
1Bello Hassan, 2Musa Muhammad and 3Abubakar Umar B. 1Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Education Foundation, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 3Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, College of Education, Maru Corresponding author(s) [email protected]
Abstract The study examined the factors that affect girls’ access to education at basic school level in northern Nigeria. The research review available related literature on current state of girls’ education in Northern Nigeria, However, reasons why girls’ education is important and what constitute the factors that affect girls’ access to education at basic school level ranging from the socio-economic status of parents, parental attitudes on girls’ education, parental level of education, school accessibility problems, corporal punishment and discrimination against girls’ and child marriage etc. Finally, the researcher makes 10-point strategies to improve girls’ enrolment and access to quality education for overall national development. Keywords: Factors, Affecting, Girls‘ Education, Basic School, Educational Access, Zamfara State
Introduction Education is a powerful catalyzing agent of personal, social and economic development of the nation. It provides mental, as well as the material accomplishment of human needs and requirements for achieving Physical, philosophical and moral training and guidance to individuals, so as to enable them to have full consciousness of their purpose in life and equip them for the achievement of this goals (Suleman, et al, 2015). It also helps individuals to acquire knowledge and skills through teaching, learning, training and research. According to Grace, (2009) having education means that the individual has acquired adequate and appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes and values, known as cognitive, psychomotor and affective behaviours to be able to function optimally as a citizen. These behaviours are the focus of training individuals in institutions of learning. The planned and systematic training given in an institution of learning is formal education. However, within the context of Nigerian system, basic education is the foundation to which a strong and prosperous nation is build and also a stable ground to raise and develop an upright and productive citizen that is useful to the nation in terms
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of economic and all round development (Victor, 2019). Basic education is an important sub-sector of the entire education system as it provides middle level workers of the economy and on the other it acts as a feeder for the higher levels of education. Subsequently, the quality of higher education, which is expected to produce quality professionals in different fields of social, economic and political life of the country, depends mostly on the quality of basic education. This level of education, therefore, needs to be organized in such a way that it should prepare young men and women for the pursuit of higher education, as well as make them able to adjust with their practical lives meaningfully and productivity. It is in this background that on International Day of the Girl Child (11 October, 2019), UNESCO highlighted the role of education in empowering girls for them to be a force for lasting change, so as to empower them to reached their full potential through education (UNESCO, 2019). According to the report of the Pan African Conference as cited in UNESCO (2012) Africans have been behind other continents in girl‘s participation in education and this was attributed to the belief in male superiority and female subordination. For this reason, Kabira (1992) explains that discrimination of girls in education persists in many African societies due to customary attitude; gender biased and prioritized child education systems. Also, Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2013) explain that Slow education progress for children today will have lifelong effects: Almost a quarter of young women aged 15-24 today (116 million) in developing countries have never completed basic school and so lack skills for work. Young women make up 58% of those not completing primary school. Accordingly, in an effort to enable girls participated actively in education, stakeholders in education are expected to provide adequate teaching and learning facilities, protect girls against early pregnancy and marriages, supply materials like sanitary pads and encourage less house work for girls. This will enable them have ample time for school/homework (Asamoah, 2019). But unfortunately, in Zamfara State, Nigeria girls are not provided with equal opportunities like their males‘ counter fact. Majority of the parents in rural communities have negative attitudes about the girl‘s education. They consider girl‘s education worthless and insignificant. Our girl‘s education is affected by numerous factors. Thus, the literacy rate of our girl‘s education is very low. That is why it is an obstacle to the development of the nation. In addition, there are several factors that act as barriers toward girl‘s education at basic school level especially in the rural areas. These factors are classifying into six major classifications. Socio-economic status of parent‘s, parent‘s attitude towards girls‘ education, parent‘s level of education, school accessibility, corporate punishment and discrimination against girls‘ child, early marriage and Pregnancy and Gender norms and stereotypes and Religion.
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Thus these mentioned factors make so many families keep their girls children‘s at home for caring of their siblings so as to help work with their mothers. In most of the rural communities‘ girls are not attending school, so they take participation in agricultural practices, street hawking and house maid. If families cannot afford and fulfil the basic requirements of life, then it is impossible for them to educate girls up to secondary level. This paper therefore, intention is to makes an appraisal analysis of the factors affecting girls‘ education at basic school level in Zamfara State Nigeria. The study will be highly beneficial to policy maker in promoting and strengthening girls‘ education at basic school level as it has explored the factors affecting girl‘s education and also presented proper recommendations on major ways how girls education will be improving for the betterment of society.
Brief Overview of Girls Child Access to Education in Northern Nigeria Educating girls is fundamental to the development of society. Despite many global declarations and development goals, and also significant effort by the international community, gender disparity in education continues to exist (Tabreek,, 2017). Historically, North Western and Eastern State of Nigeria of which Zamfara State is inclusive has long decade ago focused mainly on men education until recently when Universal Basic Education in Nigeria was introduced in the year 1999 by Obasanjo government, which establishes six years of free primary schooling and three years of free junior secondary schooling on the basis of non-discrimination. According to UNICEF Communications Specialist, Geoffrey N. (2018) only 45 per cent of girls in northern Nigeria are enrolled in schools with North-East and the North-West states had a female primary attendance ratio of 44 per cent and 47 per cent, respectively. So also British Council Report (2014) that discovered Girls are less likely to attend primary school than boys, on average in the academic ye 2009- 2010, using a sample of households, 58% girls attended primary school compared to 64% boys aged 4-16 years. While this becomes truth, the enrolments data collected by Universal Basic Education shows that only one third of girls in the North Western state attended primary school at all. Not only that, many girls fail to make the transition to junior secondary school for a range of educational, economic and socio-cultural reasons. An over-age starts to school, the onset of puberty or increased costs of secondary education may all put an early end to girls‘ education. Girls‘ low levels of transition and retention in junior secondary schools is becoming an increasing concern because it implies that girls will continue to fail to acquire fundamental life skills, including literacy and numeracy.
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Figure 1: Adapted from Nigeria Education Data Survey (2015)
The above table show the percentage of children aged 6–11 years attending primary school increased from 1990 to 2015. • In 2015, 68% of school-aged children in Nigeria attended primary school, a steady increase from 51% in 1990. School-aged males continue to be somewhat more likely than females to attend primary school, but the gender gap has narrowed. However, the rate of primary school attendance among school-aged males in 2015 was 68% compared with 67% for school-aged females for the same period. The gap of 1% is smaller than the 7% gap in 2003 and similar to the 4% gap observed in 1990.
Why Girl-Child Education is Important? According to UNESCO, (2014) cited in British Council, (2014) Women account for almost two-thirds of the world‘s 774 million illiterate adults and there has been no change in reducing this share since 1990. The gender parity index for the youth literacy rate in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2011 was 0.84 – a significant disparity in youth literacy. While these become true, Gender disparities in education are compounded by additional deep-rooted forms of inequality based on wealth, ethnicity, residence and disability. Wealth disparities are striking in many countries. Children from the poorest households are much less likely to ever enrol in school. Living in a rural area where long distances to school are compounded by poverty and traditional practices increases the risk. Similarly, the gender gaps in literacy rates reflect historic and on-going gaps in enrolment and completion of basic school education. Girls have a high risk of dropping out of primary and junior secondary school and overall they are less
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likely than boys to make the transition to secondary schooling and complete secondary education. Poverty, gender, culture and traditional practices, including early marriage, increase the risk of premature school dropout. A famous African proverb apprises us, if you educate a man, you educate an individual, but if you educate a woman you educate a family (nation) so also Islamic teaching reveal that seeking of knowledge is the duty of every man and woman. It clearly shows that Islam has given equal importance on education for man and woman. But unfortunately, the Muslim society has neglected the girl‘s education. For this reasons, educating a girl is a concern of every stakeholder within the society. It means that no girls should be excluded from schooling do its culture, religion and economic status of her parents. Educating girls is its best investment for societal development. Education for all Global Monitoring Report (2013) itemizes the huge impact of girls‘ education these included: 1. Educated women are less likely to die in childbirth: If all mothers completed primary education, maternal deaths would be reduced by two- thirds, saving 98,000 lives in sub-Saharan Africa, if all women completed primary education, maternal deaths would be reduced by 70%, saving almost 50,000 lives. 2. Educating girls can save millions of lives: If all women had a primary education, there would be 15% fewer child deaths. If all women had a secondary education, child deaths would be cut in half, saving 3 million lives. 3. Mothers‘ education improves child nutrition If all women had a primary education, 1.7 million children would be saved from stunting from malnutrition. If all women had a secondary education, 12 million children would be saved from stunting from malnutrition. 4. Educating girls is a key factor in hastening the demographic transition to lower birth rates. In sub-Saharan Africa, women with no education have 6.7 births, on average. The figure falls to 5.8 for those with primary education and more than halves, to 3.9, for those with secondary education. 5. Girls with higher levels of education are less likely to get married at an early age If all girls had a primary education, there would be 14% fewer child marriages If all girls had a secondary education, there would be two- thirds fewer child marriages. Ideally, think of a ten-year-old girl peddling in the street, in two or three years‘ time she would be married off, in another one year, she is probably going to be a mother. What kind of family would this girl who had been denied right to education raise? Going to school would have transformed her life, it would have offer her learning and expanded sense of her own potentials, increasing her self- confidence, her social and negotiation skills, her earning power and her ability to
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protect herself against violence and ill health. In short, education would have opened the world to her.
Factors that Affect Girls Access to Education at Basic School Level Several Studies have shown a lot of factors that affect girls‘ access to education. These studies have examined why do girls in Northern Nigeria enrol and stay in school less than their southern colleagues? There are many impediments factors, within and beyond schools, to girls‘ participation in a full basic school system. Distance to school and perceptions of school security may hinder parents from encouraging their daughter to attend school (British Council, 2014). More are self-esteem, availability of school plant, location of the school and teachers‘ attitude toward s female students in the school (Asamoah, et ails 2019). Also many families cannot afford the costs of schooling, for uniforms or books. Other families prefer to send their children to Qur‘anic schools or to keep them at home to help with domestic work or street hawking to generate additional income. Thus, in the context of Northern Nigeria to which Zamfara State are integral part, six dominant categories of factors prevent or shorten girls‘ schooling which include: (i) socio economic status of parents; (ii) parental attitude towards girls education; (iii) parental level of education; (iv) school accessibility; (v) corporate punishment and discrimination against girls; (vi) early marriage and pregnancy, While these are true, Suleman, E tail, (2015) mentioned poverty; parent‘s education; culture and tradition; parent‘s attitudes; long distance to school; teachers‘ absenteeism; lack of basic school facilities; lack of facilities for teachers; political inference; and lack of communication between teachers and parents as discussed below: 1. Socio-economic status of Parents Parental economic status of parents plays a very key role in allowing or enrolling girls to attend formal school system in northern Nigeria. According to Imran and Rizwana (2004), cited in Suleman, E tail, (2015) poor families cannot afford the expenditures of the books, uniforms, and transportation to school. Underprivileged and poor families are also more likely to detain their girls at home to look after younger siblings or to perform street hawking for family upkeep. If these poor families have to make decisions in order to educate son or a daughter, they select their sons because of poor financial status. Consequently, girl‘s education is badly affected. Many parents especially in large families with financial restrictions enroll boys in school instead of or before girls. Consequently, due to poverty, majority of the girls belongs to underprivileged and deprived parents which are why they do not afford the expenditures of their children. So, they do not enrol their girls in school as compared to the boys. Majority of the girls perform their duties in home i.e. cooking; washing; cleaning; caring the siblings. World Bank (2017) opined that Poverty remains the most important factor for determining whether a girl can access an education. For example, in Nigeria, only 4 percent of poor young women in the North West zone
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can read, compared with 99 percent of rich young women in the South East. Studies consistently reinforce those girls who face multiple disadvantages. According to British Council (2014), costs of schooling may push children out of school, poverty and employment expectations simultaneously curb parents‘ demand for education, pulling children into various forms of work. With over 60% of Nigerians (almost 100 million people) living in poverty, on less than US$1 per day, girls are often sent to work in markets or hawk wares on the street. 2. Parental Attitudes toward Girls’ Education Parent‘s attitudes on girls‘ education negatively affect their access to basic education. In most of the rural communities in northern Nigeria, parents have negative perception about the girl‘s education. They considered Girl‘s education as something that has no importance for them. They consider girl‘s education is only the waste of time and money because they will not benefit from educating their girls. Similarly, In Northern tradition and culture, women are expected to entirely assume the responsibilities of mothers and wives. Females are seen as nurturing beings and they are expected to be the homemakers and caring of the children. In addition, they are also expected to be obedient. Thus, many parents and community members think that girls‘ education is a waste of time and money, as the girls will sooner or later be married off and their education will benefit only their husbands and the families they marry into. That is why investment on girls‘ education is considered meaningless and lost for their parents and families. Parents believe that their sons will become the main source of income of their future families that is why they provide them every possible facility enabling to fulfil these responsibilities. That is why they educate their sons as far as possible. Conversely, it is expected that the husbands of the girls will provide them and therefore education is not essential for them. Furthermore, the fear of fear of pregnancy outside of marriage by parents intensifies when girls reach puberty, sometimes inducing early marriage. Marriage may be viewed as a protective mechanism, shielding girls‘ honour from the potential shame of an early, unwanted pregnancy. Marriage may also be seen as a way to accumulate cash or goods through bride wealth payments, given by the groom or his family to the bride‘s family during the marital union. These can be of significant economic value to a girl‘s family. The significance of marriage relationships for social networks and developing social capital is also important. These trends are reflected in girls‘ fears for their education. Among girls surveyed in six Northern States in 2008, 43% cited early marriage as a major obstacle that would prevent them from continuing their schooling and 32% cited pregnancy (ActionAid, 2011 in British Council, 2014). In Gombe and Adamawa States, 60% of girls‘ withdrawals from primary school were linked to early marriages, which parents considered a religious obligation (Abdulkarim, 2009 in British Council, 2014).
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3. Parental Level of Education Parents‘ education is one of the essential factors which affect girls‘ basic education. In most of the rural areas in Northern Nigeria, people are often uneducated. Parent‘s education has significant effect on girls‘ education. The parents who are educated to some extent are more likely to enrol their ward to school. The children of parents that have completed basic school are more likely to enrol their Girls to school compared to those whose parents have never been attained any school. This difference is much more prominent in rural areas compared to urban, and for girls relative to boys. In case of poor illiterate families, there is lack of parent-teacher communication which is a crucial factor for lower learning attainments as identified by head teachers and teachers. Research by Teachman‘s (1987) in study reported that there is positive effect of both mother‘s and father‘s education on the educational attainment levels of their children. King and Bellew (1990) noted that there is a positive impact of parent‘s education on ‗completed years of schooling‘ of their daughters. In the same study, they found that mother‘s education had significant positive effects for daughter‘s education as compared to the son‘s education. 4. School Accessibility The accessibility of schools can be a significant factor affecting girls‘ enrolment and retention in school. In rural communities, girls‘ may have to walk considerable distances to reach the nearest school. In recent research British Council (2014), 14% girls‘ tracked over six kilometres to school every day, taking them over an hour each way. The majority of girls (61%) walked between 1 to 3 kilometres. Results of a baseline survey conducted in 2008 in Northern states (TEGINT, 2011) also in British Council (2014), revealed that 21% girls viewed distance to school as a major obstacle that would prevent them from achieving their desired level of education. 5. Corporal Punishment and Discrimination against Girls Corporal punishment and discrimination in and around schools have serious negative impacts on girls‘ education. Unequal gendered relations of power are a root cause of safety and security problems. Girls complain of sexual and psychological harassment and physical punishments, including caning, from male teachers and boys in school. Inadequate school infrastructure, such as a lack of school fences and remote, unsuitable toilets, can contribute to increasing the risk of violence for girls. Research by ActionAid (2011) emphasises that: ―Corporal punishment is entrenched in school systems and was discussed most by girls in Nigeria. 6. Early Marriage and Pregnancy Child Marriage also a critical challenge. Child brides are much more likely to drop out of school and complete fewer years of education than their peers who marry later. This affects the education and health of their children, as well as their ability to earn a living. According to Economic Impact of Child Marriage Report (2017), more than 41,000 girls under the age of 18 marry every day and putting an end to
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the practice would increase women‘s expected educational attainment, and with it, their potential earnings. According to estimates, ending child marriage could generate more than $500 billion in benefits annually each year. Hence, Young girls who marry usually drop out of school and do not gain the knowledge and skills that can sustain life in the future. They also cannot participate in decision-making in the family because of the unequal bargaining position and they are at risk of becoming victims of domestic violence.
Strategic Ways to Improve Girls’ Education in Northern Nigeria Many programmed have been developed and delivered in the last decade to address the obstacles and urgent need for action on girls‘ education in Northern Nigeria. Northern States have much ground to cover to enroll all girls in primary school and keep girls in school until they complete junior secondary school. Federal, States and local government authorities have been engaged with all of the programmed described below in order to generate ownership, leadership and sustainability around girls‘ education. Civil society organizations and the media have also been informal partners in some programmed to deliver public information campaigns to tackle gender stereotypes and harmful traditional practices. A selection of major programmed is presented here to highlight various strategies, interventions and successes in girls‘ basic education. 1. Raising national awareness in girl-child education and increase political and financial commitments through advocacy and sensitization of policy makers at all levels, parents, school authorities, other leaders and girls‘ themselves. 2. Developing schools‘ technical capacity and pedagogical skills to create a girl-friendly school environment that enhances the participation of girls‘ and improves learning outcomes. 3. Establishing child-friendly school principals as minimum benchmarks for effective schools linked to community empowerment and development. 4. Creating school management committees with community involvement and participation. 5. Collaborating with Government and other stakeholders in reviewing existing curricula and teaching materials for gender sensitivity. 6. Promoting the employment of more female teachers to serve as role models and mentoring out-of-school girls. 7. Monitoring and evaluating of girls‘ education programmed and mobilizing and strengthening inspectorate. 8. Promoting synergy between girls‘ education and poverty alleviation programmed. 9. Service delivery on a partnership basis with all stakeholders providing more girl-only schools and improved facilities) for the promotion of quality education. 10. Developing School-based Teacher Development Programmed to build teachers‘ capacities and skills to improve pupils‘ learning outcomes.
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Conclusion In conclusion, this paper investigates the remote and immediate factors that affects girls access to education at basic school level in Zamfara Zamfara State, Nigeria. The finding observes that the Zamfara State Government and Non-Governmental Organizations recognize basic education as the foundation for economic and social development. However, more action is urgently needed to enable and empower every girl across the state to partake in a full cycle of basic education so as to bridge the gender gap, so that the poorest girls living in rural areas will most likely the most attend and completed the basic school level, while Traditional practices believes and discrimination against girls, including the marriage of young alleviated.
Recommendations In meeting the challenges factors that affect girls‘ access to education at basic school level in Zamfara state, Nigeria. The following recommendation were make as a way to increase Girls‘ enrolment at basic school level. 1. Poverty is considered one of the major impediments to the girls‘ access to basic education. The parents cannot pay for everyday expenditures of stationery, school funds and other expenditures. So, it is strongly recommended should be make free from all the expenses. In addition, stationary, uniform and books should be provided free. Poor students should be supported with financial assistance so as to improve the enrolment rate. 2. As it was discussed earlier school accessibility negatively affects girls‘ education at basic level in community therefore, the research strongly suggested that schools building should be constructed on feasible and suitable places so that majority of the girls may fall victim of circumstances. therefore, it is necessary to construct more new basic schools so as to provide educational opportunities to rural females near to their homes. In this way attendance of female teachers will also be ensured. 3. As it was explored that majority of the parents have negative attitudes about the girls‘ education consequently it is strongly suggested that parents should be oriented on the benefits and importance of education through community stakeholder (Traditional Leaders). In this way they will be able to motivate their daughters to acquire education. 4. Another important aspect that affect girls‘ education badly at basic school level is Marriage at early age. Majority of the parents consider the marriage of their daughters as their prime duty. Thus, it is strongly suggested that parents should be convinced to not arrange marriage of their daughters before at least secondary level education which is very imperative for a girl. Social workers and other non-governmental organizations should play their role to reduce the rate of early marriage of girls. The government should design and implement the laws of minimum age of marriage for females.
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References British Council, (2014). Girls Education in Nigeria: Issues Influencers and Actions Daniel, A., Bejamin, S., Eric, Q.J. and Derkye, C. (2019). School-Related Factors That Affect Girls‘ Access to Education at the Basic School Level in The Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality of the Western Region Of Ghana. International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS) 6, (1) Education for All Global Monitoring Report, (2013) Girls‘ Education – the Facts Global Synthesis Report, (2017) Economic Impacts of Child Marriage Global Education Monitoring Report, (2018) Gender Review. Kabira, W., (1992). Gender Ideology: The Cultural Context. A paper presented at the award seminars on women and democratization in Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya: University of Nairobi Press NEDS Report, (2015). Nigeria Education Data Survey (NEDS) Education Profile. Punch, November, 2, 2018) only 45% of Girls in Northern Nigeria attend School. UNICEF, https://punchng.com/only-45-of-girls-in-northern-nigeria-attend- school-unicef/ Saleh, M.J., and Kwache, P.Z. (2012). An Investigation into the Girl-Child Enrolment and Completion in Senior Secondary School in Bauchi state, Nigeria. International Research Journal of Library, Information and Archival Studies, 2, (2) Suleman, Q., Hassan, D.A., Muhammad, B.H, Kausar Y., Mehrdad, J., Zaitoon, A. and Zaitoon, A. (2015) Exploring Factors Affecting Girls‘ Education at Secondary Level: A Case of Karak District, Pakistan. Journal of Education and Practice, 6, (19) World Bank, (2017) Girls Education. Accessed at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/girlseducation
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An Investigation of Teachers Attitude Towards Effective Teaching of Practical Lessons in Some Selected Secondary Schools in Gusau Educational Zone, Zamfara State
1Samaila A, 2Aminu I.K, 3Sani M. G and 4Dahiru M. 1 and 2Department of Biology, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria 3Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria 4Department of Chemistry, Zamfara State College of Education Maru, Nigeria
Abstract This paper investigated the attitude of biology teachers toward effective teaching of practical lesson in selected secondary schools in Gusau educational zone. Descriptive survey research design was used for the study 20 secondary school were selected with a population 120 Biology Teachers. A sample of 85 teachers was used in the study. The instrument used for data collection was researchers made questionnaire contained 20 items on the attitude of Biology Teachers toward practical lesson. The instrument was standardized by expert in the field research. Spearman Brown coefficient formula was used to determine the reliability with the coefficient of 0.72. Data was analysed using frequency counts and percentage responses. The research reveals that inadequate background and teaching materials/equipment, lack of proper fundings, poor motivation and training among other things are the major causes of poor attitude towards practical aspect of biology. The research recommended that the government of Zamfara state should provide funds for the purchase of materials, equipment and other consumables for proper conduct of practical in schools and that teachers and students should engage in the provision of improvised materials especially where the materials are either in shortage or absent. Keywords: Investigation, Teachers, Attitude, Practical, School
Introduction It is a well know fact that student systematic study of science usually begins only at secondary school level while acquiring the basic skills start right at primary level. Good quality, appropriate biology experiment play a vital role in teaching and learning. They can be used to enhance learning and clarify the aspect of theory. Practical activities add to the fun in biology and allow the student to apply their knowledge and understanding their experiences. Infact practical activities means to a biologist what water means to life (Bashir 2015). The promotion of positive attitude toward science is always seen as a major aim of science education. Teachers contribute enormously or positive social climate in
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biology classes, particularly through their communication with the students. With this therefore teachers should make a contribution in creating positive attitude toward biology. A change in teaching method which brings with it simplicity of understanding and economy should appeal to all (Lawal, 2006). The importance of practical work in biology cannot be overstressed. In fact, practical work is the backbone of biology teaching and learning and must therefore have some justification like screening of lesson content against the objective of science teaching (Isola, 2010). Practical work in biology, apart from leading to the acquisition of basic science skills such as enquiry, measuring, observing, hypothesizing inferring and reporting also involve the acquisition of certain unique skills such as correct manipulation of scientific tools such as and equipment such as dissection of biological specimens and drawing of diagrams. It is however unfortunate that practical biology seems to be the area most teachers neglect and therefore, presents the most serious problem during senior school certificate examination (SSCE) as shown by chief examiners report for May/June 2016 practical biology (WAEC 2016).
Factors Considered in the Research Area Teacher‘s attitude Teacher‘s teaching methods Teacher‘s qualification Teacher‘s personality/experience Relating Teachers Attitude to Science Teaching Science is seen to many as a body of knowledge and on-going process of enquiry. This definition of science revealed to us that, it is an activity that aim at gathering and classifying information and acquiring more knowledge so as to discarder new ways and ideas of doing things. (Oguleye, 2000). Nwachuku (2008) describe science as a body dealing with human understanding of the real world around them, the inherent properties of space, matter, energy and their interaction. Biology is define as a science of living organism involves practical manipulation of apparatus and equipment to study living matters around us, the interaction between them and the results of such interactions. On the other hand attitude is defined as mental and natural representation organized through experience, excerting a directive or dynamic influence or behavior (Nwachuku 2008). Most attitudes are as a result of either direct experience or observational learning from the environment. Hereditary variables also effect attitude albelt indirectly. Attitude are generally positive or negative or both at the same time. In the later case, it is said to be ambivalent or complicated attitude when people exhibit both negative and positive attitude on the same matter at the same time. A number of researchers found that although most Biology teachers are qualified to teach at secondary school level, their attitude hiders the performance students.
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This was prove by a research conducted by Kamar (2007) who reveals that teachers who proper and good relationship with their students tends to produce high quality students.
Aim of Practical works in Biology The laboratory is a room or building where chemicals, apparatus and other facilities are kept for scientific activities (Kamar 2007). The design of schools‘ science laboratory has architectural, space planning, environmental control and safety requirement that are not generally required for most other types of buildings. The primary and major aims of practical works in biology can be summarized as thus to: i. Enable student have insight knowledge and evaluation of their experiences ii. Enable students approach solution of problem through proposed strategy and active involvement in the pursuit of knowledge iii. Make science interesting iv. Encourage individual and groups to work among learners with little or no direction from the teachers. v. Verify scientific theories and laws. vi. Solve student day-to-day problems vii. Acquire skills and processes viii. Give student first and knowledge (Gill 2008)
Importance of Practical Lesson in Biology A long adage says that which I see I forget but which do I remember. This directly or indirectly points to the importance of students‘ participation in science and biology in particular. For this reason, practical work in science subjects especially biology has been emphatically applauded and included secondary school curriculum. Practical work also broadens the horizon of the subject matter and helps them develop skills in biology. Discussions about this miller (2004) enumerated some activities that teachers and student engage in during practical‘s which forms a basis for their mastery of the subject and these are: i. Observation ii. Dissection iii. Drawing iv. Experimentation v. Culturing e.t.c
Effect of Practical Lessons in Biology As a science subject, practical are very much essential part of biology teaching and learning. It enables learners to gain positive self-concept. Confidences in the subject enhance transfer of knowledge from temporary to permanent or long term memory. Practical always seems to improve students‘ achievement in the learning
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tasks and also furnish cordial relationship between the teacher and student (Abubakar, 2014). A research by George (2006) revealed that practical work is the backbone of effective teaching and learning of biology. It has been repeatedly by emphasized that scientific enterprise is an activity based involving continuous exploration and verification of facts. Science is learning by doing, so the different school curriculum should adequate provide for practicals at all stage of learning. He (George) further stressed that various studies on the methodology of science teaching such as enquiry, discovery and process approach have shown that student learn more from science by doing rather than by observation. Better understanding of products and process of science cannot be over stressed and also added that the practical nature of biology is commonly regarded as an important source of motivation.
Methodology A survey of 85 Biology teacher‘s opinion in 20 selected secondary schools in Gusau educational zone was carried with administration of questionnaires to the biology teachers. The questionnaire addresses the teachers‘ qualifications experiences, teachers interest, adequacy of materials, the reasons why teachers run away from practical‘s and the like. Seven factors were extracted and converted to percentages.
Result and Discussions Result The data comprises data collected using the research instrument. The instrument was administered to biology teachers in all the 20 sampled schools. Results are presented as obtained from the data collected and analyzed electronically on SPSS software using simple percentages to compute the result. The table below shows the responses of the biology teachers in Gusau educational zone in Zamfara state, Nigeria. The responses are meant on their (teachers) attitude towards the teaching of practical biology.
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Table 1: Responses of the questionnaire administered to biology teachers Item Percentage of responses Qualification BSc/BSc Ed NCE 60% 40% Practical teaching experience 1-5 years 5-10yrs 10yrs above 45% School management readiness Adequately funded Poorly funded of funding biology practical 25% 75% Teachers interest toward Interested Not interested teaching practical biology 38% 62% Adequacy of teaching Adequate Inadequate materials/apparatus reagents 30% 70% Difficulty in teaching biology Difficult Not difficult practicals 65% 35% Possession of laboratory Available Not available attendants/Assistant technician 15% 85% Source: Field work 2019
From the table above the result shows that teacher‘s attitude toward biology laboratory work/practical was found to be negative. It appears that only 38% of the biology teachers shows interest in teaching practical‘s, 62% of the teachers lacks, interest on the issue of adequacy of teaching materials, the research revealed that 30% of the schools possesses adequate materials while 70% proved to be inadequate on the possession of the materials. It is clear also from the table above that 65% of the respondent found biology. Practical to be difficult while 35% enjoyed practical‘s and found it not difficult.
Discussions Biology teachers need to display attributes that will make them effective models, they must be friendly, have cheerful disposition, emotionally matured, sincere and caring about the students as individuals, in the sense, therefore, attitude of teachers can be modified only by individual when he/she becomes aware, via elements and evidence that new posture would be better to deal with the innovations and initiations around them. While it is true that there are teachers whose attitudes are positive towards the promotion of good biology teaching and learning, for most students the reality of the classroom consists of lesson where biology is transmitted by their teachers, at best as a set of facts and laws. According to Nwagbo (2006) teachers go through three stages when they start teaching: adequacy, mastery and impact awareness of the effect of their teaching on the students.
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Teachers are therefore advise to put their best to impact what they master adequately and always seek the assistance and advises from senior colleagues where they are in dilemma or where they don‘t understand very well. It is said that the problems shared is the problem solved. The findings of this research is line with Okebukola (2005) who noted that one of the major weakness of science teachers is poor attitude to work. Most of these biology teachers only teach their students practical when instruction from external examination bodies was received. Consequently, most of the student fails to grasp the necessary concepts and theoretical background. Conducting a similar research Chuku (2007) identified some of the solution to the problems of teaching practical lesson. Some of these include that teachers must take time to plan, rehearse the experiment to see it work and improve on it before facilitating the students. In the same vein, he further lamented that teachers must carry out consistent evaluation of student work so as to improve upon it and come up with best performance of excellence. Looking at the result of the responses of the Biology teachers it was revealed that teachers are qualified (100%) to teach at secondary school level. It also shows that; most teachers have reasonable working experiences. Part of the finding of the research indicated that only 38% of the respondent shows interest in teaching Biology practical. In the same vein, 65% of the teachers found practical lesson in Biology to be difficult while only 35% indicated that Biology practical is never difficult for them.
Conclusion The following conclusions were drown from the findings of this study i. Material resources are in short supply in the study area. ii. Irregular training of biology teachers is one of the major cause of teachers‘ attitude toward practical‘s iii. There is acute shortage of laboratory attendants/technician
Recommendations Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from this study the following recommendations are made: i. The government of Zamfara state should provide funds for the purchase of necessary biology laboratory equipment, chemicals and other consumables, which should be evenly distributed according to need, to schools of the state for proper conduct of biology practicals not only for external examinations. ii. Teachers and students should engage in the provision of improvised materials, especially where and when the material are either in short supply or absent. iii. Attitudinal change is highly needed on the part of biology teachers towards practical teaching.
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iv. The government of Zamfara state is hereby advice to produce and provide trained laboratory attendant and technicians as they are found to be lacking in almost all the schools of the study area.
References Abubakar S. (2014). Effects of Availability and Utilization of Instructional Resources on Students‘ Performance in Senior Secondary School in Sokoto State, unpublished M.Ed Dissertation, UDU Sokoto, Nigeria. Bashir M.K (2015). Relationship between Availability of Human and Materials Resources and Academic Performance in Biology among Students in Jigawa State, Nigeria. Unpublished M.Ed thesis, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. Chuku, F.A (2007). Model Manual for Teaching Practicals. STAN Panel, Gombe, 8th- 12th May, 2007. George, R. (2006). A Cross Domain Analysis of Change in Students Attitude Toward Science and Attitude Toward Science and Attitude about the Utility of Science. International Journal of Science Education http://dx.doi.org//0.080.09500338755. Gill, M.C (2008). Laboratory Safety Orientation, University Press Ibadan Isola, O.M. (2010). Effect of Standardized and Improvised Instructional Materials and Student Academic Achievement in Secondary School Physics. M.Ed thesis, University of Ibadan. Kamar, Y.M. (2007). Development of an Instrument for the Assessment of Biology Laboratory Psychomotor Skills of Senior Secondary Schools Students in Sokoto. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Usmanu Danfidio University, Sokoto. Lawal, F.K (2006). Availability and Impact of Material Resources on Archievement in Biology in Selected Secondary Schools in Katsina metropolis. 47 STAN proceeding =s 27 August, 2006 Miller, R. (2004). The Role of Practical Work in Teaching and Learning of Science. A paper prepared for meeting on High School Science Laboratories: Role and Vision, held at National Academic of Science, Washington D.C 3rd to 4th June, 2004 Nwachuku G.O (2008). Survey of the Resources for the Teaching and Learning of Biology in Some New Secondary Schools. Unpublished Ph.d thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nwagbo C.R. (2006). The Relative Efficacy of Guided Inquiry and Oppository Methods on Achievement in Biology Students of Different Levels of Scientific Literacy. Journal of Science Teachers’ Associations of Nigeria.
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Ogunleye, O.A (2000). An Introduction to Research Method in Education and Social Sciences. Sunshine Publishers (Nig) ltd, Lagos. Okebukola, P. (2005). The Race against Obsolescence Enhancing the Relevance of STAN to National Development STAN Memorial. West African Examination Council (2016). Senior Secondary School Examination May/June, Chief Examiners Report, Nigeria.
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Relationship of Integrated Science Students‘ First Year Performance and Their Final Year Performance in Physics Related Courses in Integrated Science
Sanusi Abdullahi M. Department of Integrated Science, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract The study analyzed students’ performance in the physics aspect of integrated science with a view of finding out the relationship between the first year and final year performance of students. Expo factor design was used as the design of the study. The moderated results of integrated science students in ISC 123 (Man and Energy I) and ISC 321 (Man and Energy II) from set of 2013 and 2015 were used as sample of the study. Findings revealed that the performance of the students in both courses were above average. Similarly, there was a positive and significant relationship between the first year performance and the final year performance. It has been recommended that teachers teaching the courses to be friendly and adapt methods that promote students’ interest and group interaction using learner centre approaches. Keywords: Science Education, integrated Science, physics education, academic performance
Introduction The role of science in this modern era of science and technology is wide. In view of this Olagunju, Adesoji, Iroegbu and Ige (2003) in Varuwa, Sheikh and Kefas (2018) emphasized the importance of scientific knowledge in boosting national income, prestige might and international rating of any country. Science education plays a united role in the lives of individuals as well as the development of a nation both scientifically and technologically. It is a well known fact that the gate way to the survival of any nation scientifically and technologically is scientific literacy which can only be achieved through scientific education (Oladipo, 2011). Thus, scientific advancement enhances human standards of living. In order to make her citizen show interest in science Education the Nigerian government came up with an admission policy of 60% in favor of science and science related courses and 40% for Arts and Social Science (Ajibola, 2008).
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Despite this effort by government, the dwelling nature of students seeking admission into science oriented courses in the country‘s tertiary institutions have not yet yielded much fruitful result (Idowu, 2002). College of Education are teachers training institution in Nigeria. As Aina (2015) pointed out the objective of government in establishment these institutions were to produce Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates who will be teaching Primary and Junior Secondary Schools. The academic programme of these institutions was designed to combine two teaching subjects with education, and the minimum duration of the programme leading to the award of NCE is three (3) years. Integrated Science as a subject that teaches uniified nature of science without showing different demarcations or limitation imposed by the separate subjects or discipline (Abdullah, 2009; NCCE, 2012). The subject emphasized those concepts which are common to all sciences, the process of science and the skills associated with them. The subject prepares students for core science subject (Biology, Chemistry and Physics) at Senior Secondary School Level (Abdullahi, 2009; NCCE, 2012). There is no doubt that a good knowledge of the science is derived from the principles of Physics. Surely, the knowledge of Physics has led to so many inventions such as the production, application and utilization of integrated circuits among others. The invention of modern technologies such as Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is also a part of the benefit of physics and its application are found in engineering, Agriculture, Medicine and military among others. The study analyzed students‘ first year performance as a predictor of their final year examination in physics. Academic performance is a measure of the ability of learners to appropriate learned facts and information at a particular time (Okwele and Wali, 2011). Thus, this study intends to find out integrated science students performance in physics courses of the department and find out the predictive power of the first year performance on their final year performance.
Methodology The study used expo facto/casual design because the data has already occurred before this study. Moderated scores for students of integrated science in ISC 123 (Man and Energy I) and ISC 321 (Man and Energy II) from set of 2013 and 2015 were collected and used for data analysis.
Research Question The following research question was raised to guide the study. Research Question: - What are the first year and final year integrated science students‘ performance in physics related courses?
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Hypothesis The following hypothesis was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significant.
H01: There is no significant relationship between the first year academic performance and the final year performance in physics related courses in integrated science.
Result Research Question: What are the first year and final year integrated science students‘ performance in physics related courses? Table 1: Integrated Science Students Performance in first and final year Courses Mean (X) Standard Deviation (SD) ISC 123 55.86 9.82 ISC 321 63.33 10.52
Table 1: Indicated the mean performance of integrated science students in Physics related courses ISC 123 (Man and Energy I) to be 55.86 and that of ISC 321 (Man and Energy II) to be 63.33 with a mean difference of 7.47 this shows that there is an improvement between the first year performance and final year performance. The mean score of students in their final year is higher.
Hypothesis One
H01: There is no significant relationship between the first year and final year academic performance in physics related courses in integrated science.
Table 2: Relationship between the Students’ First Year and Final Year Performance Courses R First Year Course ISC 123 0.501* Final Year Course ISC 321 0.486** ** Correlate and significant
Table 2: Show that ISC 321 correlates positively and significantly with the first year course ISC 123 performance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Discussion This study examines the relationship between the first year integrated science students‘ performance and their final year performance in physics courses of the department in Zamfara State College of Education, Maru. Findings of this research work revealed that the performance of students both in their first and final year courses were above average. Finding also shows that there was a positive correlation between the two courses thus, the first year courses ISC
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123 may influence the final year courses ISC 321 performance. This shown in table one where the means score in ISC 123 was 55.86 and that of ISC 321 was 63.33. While the coefficient of correlation R for ISC 123 and ISC 323 were 0.501 and 0.486 respectively
Conclusion The study investigated the relationship between the first year physics aspect of integrated science and the final year academic performance of the integrated science students. Result shows that the students‘ performance was above average in both courses and there no exist a positive relationship between first year at final year performance
Recommendations Based on the findings, the following recommendations were raised. i. Teachers teaching the courses should be more friendly in order to boost students interest. ii. Teachers teaching the courses should adapt learners centre approaches and promote group interaction.
References Abdullahi, S.M (2009). Effective Teaching Methods of Basics Science at JSS Level as means of Resuscitating Qualitative Education in Nigeria, Kabai Journal of Multi-Disciplinary studies 1 (1) 67 -74. Aina, J.K (2015). Analysis of Integrated Science and Computer Science Students Academic Performance in Physics in Colleges of Education Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Practices 3 (1) 38-35. Ajibola, M.A (2008). Innovation and Curriculum Development for Basic Education in Nigeria Policy, Practices, Priorities and Challenges Practices and Implementation. Res. Journal of International Studies 8 51 – 58. Idowu, C.B (2002). Correction between Students Performance in Theoretical and Practical Aspect of Environment Science. Being a paper presented at the 2nd National Conference of Science, Oyo State College of Education Oyo 11th – 14th August. National Commission for College of Education (2012). Nigerian Certificate in Education Minimum Standards for Sciences, 2012. Education Tetfund. Oladipo, D.J (2011). Developing Nigerian Integrated Science Curriculum Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Management, 2 (8)134 – 145.
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Okwele, J.O and Wali, M.A (2011). Effect of Discovery and Demonstration Methods of Teaching on Achievement of Chemistry Students of different Levels of Scientific Literacy. Journal of Research in Curriculum and Teaching, 5(1) 385-392 Olagunju, A.M, Adesoju, F.A, Iroegbu, T.O, and Ige, T.A (2003). Innovation in Science Teaching for New Millenim. O. Ayodele-Bamisalye, I.A, Nwazuoke and A.Okedira (Eds).This millennium Innovation in Theory and Practice. Ibadan: Macmillan Publisher.Nigeria Vanaruwa, P.P, Sheikh S.Y and Kefas, A. (2018). Integrated Science Students First Year Performance as a Predictor of Final Year Performance in Physics. Nigerian Journal of Science Technology and Environmental Education 6(1) 6 – 10.
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Information and Communication Technology as a Change Agent for Effective Teaching of Biology Education Attahiru Muhammad S. Biology Department, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru. Corresponding Author(s):[email protected]
Abstract This paper, review the use of ICTs in biology education, Effective use of ICT for Education, along with ICT use in the teaching and learning process, quality and accessibility of education, learning motivation, learning environment besides, an overview of the ICT and scholastic performance. Information and communication technologies (ICT) have become common place entities in all aspects of life. Across the past twenty years the use of ICT has fundamentally changed the practices and procedures of nearly all forms of endeavor within business and governance. Quality education has traditionally been associated with strong teachers having high degrees of personal contact with learners. The use of ICT in biology education lends itself to more student-centered learning settings. But with the world moving rapidly into digital media and information, the role of ICT in biology education is becoming more and more important and this importance will continue to grow and develop in the 21st century. Keywords: ICT, Biology education, Change, Teaching and Learning
Introduction According to Daniels (2002) ICTs have become within a very short time, one of the basic building blocks of modern society. Many countries now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. However, there appears to be a misconception that ICTs generally refers to ‗computers and computing related activities‘. This is fortunately not the case, although computers and their application play a significant role in modern information management, other technologies and/or systems also comprise of the phenomenon that is commonly regarded as ICTs.Pelgrum and Law (2003) state that near the end of the 1980s, the term ‗computers‘ was replaced by ‗IT‘ (information technology) signifying a shift of focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of the term ‗ICT‘ (information and communication technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the general public (Pelgrum, W.J., Law, N., 2003). According to a United Nations report (1999) ICTs cover Internet service provision, telecommunications equipment and services, information technology equipment and services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation centres,
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commercial information providers, network-based information services, 2 and other related information and communication activities. According to UNESCO (2002) information and communication technology (ICT) may be regarded as the combination of ‗Informatics technology‘ with other related technology, specifically communication technology. The various kinds of ICT products available and having relevance to science education, such as teleconferencing, email, audio conferencing, television lessons, radio broadcasts, interactive radio counselling, interactive voice response system, audio cassettes and CD ROMs, projectors etc. have been used in education for different purposes (Sharma, 2003; Sanyal, 2001; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). The field of science education has been affected by ICTs, which have undoubtedly affected teaching, learning, and research (Yusuf, 2005). A great deal of research has proven the benefits to the quality of education (Al-Ansari, 2006). ICTs have the potential to innovate, accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow's workers, as well as strengthening teaching and helping schools change (Davis and Tearle, 1999; Lemke and Coughlin, 1998; cited by Yusuf, 2005). As Jhurree (2005) states, much has been said and reported about the impact of technology, especially computers, in science education. Initially computers were used to teach computer programming but the development of the microprocessor in the early 1970s saw the introduction of affordable microcomputers into schools at a rapid rate. Computers and applications of technology became more pervasive in society which led to a concern about the need for computing skills in everyday life. Hepp, Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) claim in their paper ―Technology in Schools: Education, ICT and the Knowledge Society‖ that ICTs have been utilized in education ever since their inception, but they have not always been massively present. Although at that time computers have not been fully integrated in the learning of traditional subject matter, the commonly accepted rhetoric that education systems would need to prepare citizens for lifelong learning in an information society boosted interest in ICTs (Pelgrum, W.J., Law, N., 2003). The 1990s was the decade of computer communications and information access, particularly with the popularity and accessibility of internet-based services such as electronic mail and the World Wide Web (WWW). At the same time the CD-ROM became the standard for distributing packaged software (replacing the floppy disk). As a result, educators became more focused on the use of the technology to improve student learning as a rationale for investment. Any discussion about the use of computer systems in schools is built upon an understanding of the link between schools, learning and computer technology. When the potential use of computers in schools was first mooted, the predominant conception was that students would be ‗taught‘ by computers (Mevarech & Light, 1992). In a sense it was considered that the computer would ‗take over‘ the teacher‘s job in much the same way as a robot computer may take over a welder‘s job. Collis (1989) refers to this as ―a rather grim image‖ where ―a small child sits alone with a computer‖. However, the use of information and communication technologies in the educative process has been divided into two broad categories: ICTs for Education and ICTs
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in Education. ICTs for education refers to the development of information and communications technology specifically for teaching/learning purposes, while the ICTs in education involves the adoption of general components of information and communication technologies in the teaching learning process.
Concept of ICT Information and communication technology (ICT) is extensional term for information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audiovisual systems, that enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The term ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audiovisual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to the elimination of the telephone network) to merge the telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution, and management (Wikipedia free encyclopedia).
Concept of Education Etymologically, the word education is derived from two Latin words ―educare‖ and ―educere‖ (Amaele et al 2011:6). Accordingly, ―educare‖, means to train, to form or to mould. In other words, it means that the society trains, forms or moulds the individual to achieve the social needs and aspirations. ―Educere‖, on the other hand means to build, to lead, or to develop. This is mostly favoured by the humanists who argue that the function of education is to develop the natural potentialities in the child to enable him function in the society according to his abilities, interests and needs. This is child-centered orientation. Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and directed research (Wikipedia free encyclopedia).
Science Education Science education is well recognized as a distinct field within education, and is concerned with the teaching and learning of science and the discrete science disciplines. Nested within science education are sub-fields such as biology education and chemistry education (Dr Keith S. Taber Cambridge University).
Enhancing Teaching and Learning Process through ICT The field of science education has been affected by ICTs, which have undoubtedly affected teaching, learning and research (Yusuf, 2005). ICTs have the potential to accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, to motivate and engage students, to help relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow's workers, as well as strengthening teaching and helping schools change
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(Davis and Tearle, 1999; Lemke and Coughlin, 1998; cited by Yusuf, 2005). In a rapidly changing world, basic education is essential for an individual be able to access and apply information. Such ability must find include ICTs in the global village. Conventional teaching has emphasized content. For many years course have been written around textbooks. Teachers have taught through lectures and presentations interspersed with tutorials and learning activities designed to consolidate and rehearse the content. Contemporary settings are now favoring curricula that promote competency and performance. Curricula are starting to emphasize capabilities and to be concerned more with how the information will be used than with what the information is. Contemporary ICTs are able to provide strong support for all these requirements and there are now many outstanding examples of world class settings for competency and performance-based curricula that make sound use of the affordances of these technologies (Oliver, 2000). The integration of information and communication technologies can help revitalize teachers and students. This can help to improve and develop the quality of education by providing curricular support in difficult subject areas. To achieve these objectives, teachers need to be involved in collaborative projects and development of intervention change strategies, which would include teaching partnerships with ICT as a tool. According to Zhao and Cziko (2001) three conditions are necessary for teachers to introduce ICT into their classrooms: science teachers should believe in the effectiveness of technology, science teachers should believe that the use of technology will not cause any disturbances, and finally science teachers should believe that they have control over technology. However, research studies show that most teachers do not make use of the potential of ICT to contribute to the quality of learning environments, although they value this potential quite significantly (Smeets, 2005). Harris (2002) conducted case studies in three primary and three secondary schools, which focused on innovative pedagogical practices involving ICT. Harris (2002) concludes that the benefits of ICT will be gained ―…when confident teachers are willing to explore new opportunities for changing their classroom practices by using ICT. As a consequence, the use of ICT will not only enhance learning environments but also prepare next generation for future lives and careers (Wheeler, 2001). Changed pool of teachers will come changed responsibilities and skill sets for future teaching involving high levels of ICT and the need for more facilitative than didactic teaching roles (Littlejohn et al., 2002). According to Cabero (2001), "the flexibilization time-space accounted for by the integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes contributes to increase the interaction and reception of information. Such possibilities suggest changes in the communication models and the teaching and learning methods used by teachers, giving way to new scenarios which favour both individual and collaborative learning‖. The use of ICT in educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. ICTs by their very nature are tools that encourage and support independent learning which is among the objectives of science education. Students using ICTs for learning
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purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves & Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase. In the past, the conventional process of teaching has revolved around teachers planning and leading students through a series of 4 instructional sequences to achieve a desired learning outcome. Typically, these forms of teaching have revolved around the planned transmission of a body of knowledge followed by some forms of interaction with the content as a means to consolidate the knowledge acquisition. Contemporary learning theory is based on the notion that learning is an active process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge and that instruction is the process by which this knowledge construction is supported rather than a process of knowledge transmission (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). In this domain learning is viewed as the construction of meaning rather than as the memorization of facts (Lebow, 1993; Jonassen & Reeves, 1996). Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be related to context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). As mentioned previously, any use of ICT in learning settings can act to support various aspects of knowledge construction and as more and more students employ ICTs in their learning processes, the more pronounced the impact of this will become. Teachers generate meaningful and engaging learning experiences for their students, strategically using ICT to enhance learning. Students enjoy learning, and the independent enquiry which innovative and appropriate use of ICT can foster. They begin to acquire the important 21st century skills which they will need in their future lives.
Enhancing the Quality and Accessibility of Biology Education through ICT ICT increases the flexibility of delivery of education so that learners can access knowledge anytime and from anywhere. It can influence the way students are taught and how they learn as now the processes are learner driven and not by teachers. This in turn would better prepare the learners for lifelong learning as well as to improve the quality of learning. In concert with geographical flexibility, technology-facilitated educational programs also remove many of the temporal constraints that face learners with special needs (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). Students are starting to appreciate the capability to undertake education anywhere, anytime and anyplace. One of the most vital contributions of ICT in the field of biology education is- Easy Access to Learning. With the help of ICT, students can now browse through e-books, sample examination papers, previous year papers etc. and can also have an easy access to resource persons, mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, and peers-all over the world. This flexibility has heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other commitments (Young, 2002). Wider availability of best practices and best course material in science education, which can be shared by means of ICT, can foster better teaching. ICT also allows the academic institutions to reach disadvantaged
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groups and new international educational markets. As well as learning at any time, teachers are also finding the capabilities of teaching at any time to be opportunistic and able to be used to advantage. Mobile technologies and seamless communications technologies support 24x7 teaching and learning. Choosing how much time will be used within the 24x7 envelope and what periods of time are challenges that will face the educators of the future (Young, 2002). Thus, ICT enabled education will ultimately lead to the democratization of education. Especially in developing countries, effective use of ICT for the purpose of education has the potential to bridge the digital divide. For instance, India has a billion-plus population and a high proportion of the young and hence it has a large formal education system. The demand for education in developing countries like India has skyrocketed as education is still regarded as an important bridge of social, economic and political mobility (Amutabi and Oketch, 2003). There exists infrastructure, socio- economic, linguistic and 5 physical barriers in India for people who wish to access education Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). This includes infrastructure, teacher and the processes quality. There exist drawbacks in general education in India as well as all over the world like lack of learning materials, teachers, remoteness of education facilities, high dropout rate etc. (UNESCO,2002). Innovative use of Information and Communication Technology can potentially solve this problem. Internet usage in home and work place has grown exponentially (McGorry, 2002). ICT has the potential to remove the barriers that are causing the problems of low rate of education in any country especially Nigeria. It can be used as a tool to overcome the issues of cost, less number of teachers, and poor quality of education as well as to overcome time and distance barriers (McGorry, 2002). People have to access knowledge via ICT to keep pace with the latest developments (Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2007). ICT can be used to remove communication barriers such as that of space and time (Lim and Chai, 2004). ICTs also allow for the creation of digital resources like digital libraries where the students, teachers and professionals can access research material and course material from any place at any time (Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007; Cholin, 2005). Such facilities allow the networking of academics and researchers and hence sharing of scholarly material. This avoids duplication of work (Cholin, 2005). ICT eliminating time barriers in education for learners as well as teacher. It eliminates geographical barriers as learners can log on from any place (Sanyal, 2001; Mooij, 2007; Cross and Adam, 2007; UNESCO, 2002; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). ICT provides new educational approaches (Sanyal, 2001). It can provide speedy dissemination of education to target disadvantaged groups (UNESCO, 2002; Chandra and Patkar, 2007). ICT enhances the international dimension of educational services (UNESCO, 2002). It can also be used for non- formal education like health campaigns and literacy campaigns (UNESCO, 2002). Use of ICT in science education develops higher order skills such as collaborating across time and place and solving complex real world problems (Bottino, 2003; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007; Mason, 2000; Lim and Hang, 2003). It improves
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the perception and understanding of the world of the student. Thus, ICT can be used to prepare the workforce for the information society and the new global economy (Kozma, 2005). Plomp et al (2007) state that the experience of many teachers, who are early innovators, is that the use of ICT is motivating for the students as well as for the teachers themselves. Bottino (2003) and Sharma (2003) mention that the use of ICT can improve performance, teaching, administration, and develop relevant skills in the disadvantaged communities. It also improves the quality of education by facilitating learning by doing, real time conversation, delayed time conversation, directed instruction, self-learning, problem solving, information seeking and analysis, and critical thinking, as well as the ability to communicate, collaborate and learn (Yuen et al, 2003). A great deal of research has proven the benefits to the quality of education (Al-Ansari 2006). Hepp, Hinostroza, Laval and Rehbein (2004) state that the literature contains many unsubstantiated claims about the revolutionary potential of ICTs to improve the quality of education. They also note that some claims are now deferred to a near future when hardware will be presumably more affordable and software will become, at last, an effective learning tool.
Enhancing Learning Environment for Biology Education Through ICT ICT presents an entirely new learning environment for students, thus requiring a different skill set to be successful. Critical thinking, research, and evaluation skills are growing in importance as students have increasing volumes of information from a variety of sources to sort through (New Media Consortium, 2007). ICT is changing processes of teaching and learning by adding elements of vitality to learning environments including virtual environments. ICT is a potentially powerful tool for offering educational opportunities. It is difficult and maybe even impossible to imagine future learning environments that are not supported, in one way or another, by Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). When looking at the current widespread diffusion and use of ICT in modern societies, especially by the young the so-called digital generation then it should be clear that ICT will affect the complete learning process today and in the future. Authenticity is an important issue which should be addressed in the design and development of learning environments (Collins, 1996). Learning environments need to reflect the potential uses of knowledge that pupils are expected to master, in order to prevent the acquired knowledge from becoming inert (Bransford, Sherwood, Hasselbring, Kinzer, & Williams, 1990; Duffy & Knuth, 1990). In addition, teachers should stimulate pupils to engage in active knowledge construction. This calls for open-ended learning environments instead of learning environments which focus on a mere transmission of facts (Collins, 1996; Hannafin, Hall, Land, & Hill, 1994; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). ICT may contribute to creating powerful learning environments in numerous ways. ICT provides opportunities to access an abundance of information using multiple information resources and viewing information from multiple perspectives, thus fostering the authenticity of learning environments. ICT may also make complex processes easier to understand through simulations that, again, contribute to
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authentic learning environments. Thus, ICT may function as a facilitator of active learning and higher-order thinking (Alexander, 1999; Jonassen, 1999). The use of ICT may foster co-operative learning and reflection about the content (Susman, 1998). Furthermore, ICT may serve as a tool to curriculum differentiation, providing opportunities for adapting the learning content and tasks to the needs and capabilities of each individual pupil and by providing tailored feedback (Mooij, 1999; Smeets & Mooij, 2001). As Stoddart and Niederhauser (1993) point out, ICT may fit into a spectrum of instructional approaches, varying from traditional to innovative. Another aspect which may of course influence the use of ICT is access to technology (Kennewell, Parkinson, & Tanner, 2000; OTA, 1995). This refers not only to the number of computers, but also to the placement of the equipment, e.g. in the classroom or in a computer room. Kennewell et al. (2000) feel it is essential that computers be placed in the classroom, in order to maximize the opportunities for curriculum activity. ICT environment improves the experience of the students and teachers and to use intensively the learning time for better results. The ICT environment has been developed by using different software and also the extended experience in developing web based and multimedia materials. ICTs have an important role to play in changing and modernizing educational systems and ways of learning.
Enhancing Learning Motivation Through ICT ICTs can enhance the quality of biology education in several ways, by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training. ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner centered environment. ICTs, especially computers and Internet technologies, enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. ICT has an impact not only on what students should learn, but it also plays a major role on how the students should learn. Along with a shift of curricula from ―content-centered‖ to ―competence-based‖, the mode of curricula delivery has now shifted from ―teacher centered‖ forms of delivery to ―student-centered‖ forms of delivery. ICT provides Motivation to Learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer software, sound, and colorful moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, animations and other performance conventions to compel the students to listen and become more involved in the lessons being delivered. Some of the parents of the respondents opined that their children were feeling more motivated than before in such type of teaching in the classroom rather than the stereotype 45 minutes‘ lecture. They were of the view that this type of learning process is much more effective than the monotonous monologue classroom situation where the teacher just lectures from a raised platform and the students just listen to the teacher. ICT changes the characteristics of problems and learning tasks, and hence play an important task as
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mediator of cognitive development, enhancing the acquisition of generic cognitive competencies as essential for life in our knowledge society. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves and Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase. Learning approaches using contemporary ICTs provide many opportunities for constructivist learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student centered settings and by enabling learning to be related to context and to practice (Berge, 1998; Barron, 1998). The teachers could make their lecture more attractive and lively by using multi-media and on the other hand the students were able to capture the lessons taught to them easily. As they found the class very interesting, the teachings also retained in their mind for a longer span which supported them during the time of examination. More so than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic. Unlike static, text- or print-based educational technologies, ICT-enhanced learning recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many different articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and remember. The World Wide Web (WWW) also provides a virtual international gallery for students‘ work (Loveless, 2003). ICT can engage and inspire students, and this has been cited as a factor influencing ready adaptors of ICT (Long, 2001; Wood, 2004).
Enhancing the Scholastic Performance Through ICT Based on the extensive usage of ICTs in biology education the need appeared to unravel the myth that surrounds the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as an aid to teaching and learning, and the impact it has on students‘ academic performance. ICTs are said to help expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality. However, the experience of introducing different ICTs in the classroom and other educational settings all over the world over the past several decades suggests that the full realization of the potential educational benefits of ICT. The direct link between ICT use and students‘ academic performance has been the focus of extensive literature during the last two decades. ICT helps students to their learning by improving the communication between them and the instructors (Valasidou and Bousiou, 2005). The analysis of the effects of the methodological and technological innovations on the students‘ attitude towards the learning process and on students‘ performance seems to be evolving towards a consensus, according to which an appropriate use of digital technologies in education can have significant positive effects both on students‘ attitude and their achievement. Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the 21st century. Kulik‘s (1994) meta-analysis study revealed
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that, on average, students who used ICT-based instruction scored higher than students without computers. The students also learned more in less time and liked their classes more when ICT-based instruction was included. Fuchs and Woessman (2004) used international data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), they showed that while the bivariate correlation between the availability of ICT and students‘ performance is strongly and significantly positive, the correlation becomes small and insignificant when other student environment characteristics are taken into consideration. Attwell and Battle (1999) examined the relationship between having a home computer and school performance, their findings suggest that students who have access to a computer at home for educational purposes, have improved scores in reading and math. Becker (2000) found that ICT increases student engagement, which leads to an increased amount of time students spend working outside class. Coates et al. (2004) showed that students in on-campus courses usually score better than their online counterparts, but this difference is not significant here. ICTs especially computers and Internet technologies enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. ICT helps in providing a catalyst for rethinking teaching practice (Flecknoe,2002; McCormick & Scrimshaw, 2001) developing the kind of graduates and citizens required in an information society (Department of Education, 2001); improving educational outcomes (especially pass rates) and enhancing and improving the quality of teaching and learning (Wagner, 2001; Garrison & Anderson, 2003). ICT can help deepen students‘ content knowledge, engage them in constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of complex thinking skills (Kozma, 2005; Kulik, 2003; Webb & Cox, 2004). Studies have identified a variety of constructivist learning strategies (e.g., students work in collaborative groups or students create products that represent what they are learning) that can change the way students interact with the content (Windschitl, 2002). Albert Bandura, Girasoli and Hannafin (2008) urge the use of asynchronous CMC tools to promote student self-efficacy and hence academic performance. Fister et al (2008) also depict the power of tablet PCs to improve mathematics instruction. ICTs have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. The use of ICT in educational settings, by itself acts as a catalyst for change in this domain. Students using ICTs for learning purposes become immersed in the process of learning and as more and more students use computers as information sources and cognitive tools (Reeves and Jonassen, 1996), the influence of the technology on supporting how students learn will continue to increase.
Conclusions In order to conclude I will try to proceed to synthesize from a general viewpoint the results obtained, taking into consideration the relevant aspects of the literature. The results provided by both the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the literature obtained will be exposed especially regarding those aspects which are related to ICTs for Education and ICTs in Education. ICTs for education refers to the development of information and communications technology specifically for
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teaching/learning purposes, while the ICTs in education involves the adoption of general components of information and communication technologies in the teaching learning process. This literature review has sought to explore the role of ICT in education as we progress into the 21st century. In particular ICTs have impacted on educational practice in education to date in quite small ways but that the impact will grow considerably in years to come and that ICT will become a strong agent for change among many educational practices. Extrapolating current activities and practices, the continued use and development of ICTs within education will have a strong impact on: ICT and teaching learning process; quality and accessibility of education; learning motivation, learning environment and ICT usage and academic performance. The adoption and use of ICTs in education have a positive impact on teaching, learning, and research. ICT can affect the delivery of education and enable wider access to the same. In addition, it will increase flexibility so that learners can access the education regardless of time and geographical barriers. It can influence the way students are taught and how they learn. It would provide the rich environment and motivation for teaching learning process which seems to have a profound impact on the process of learning in education by offering new possibilities for learners and teachers. These possibilities can have an impact on student performance and achievement. Similarly, wider availability of best practices and best course material in education, which can be shared by means of ICT, can foster better teaching and improved academic achievement of students. The overall literature suggests that successful ICT integration in education.
Recommendations Based on the discussions above the following recommendations were made: 1. Government should provide enough ICT equipment in Schools and Colleges. 2. Facilitators should acquire training of proper utilization of the ICT equipment. 3. Parents also should try as much as possible to provide ICT equipment to their children. 4. Teachers also should guide their students on how to perform research using ICT. 5. Parents also should monitor what their children are doing with ICT equipment at home, since they can have access to the rest of the world at anytime and anywhere.
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The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian Colleges of Education
1Muhammad Sirajo B., 2Ibrahim Muhammad G. and 3Sanusi Garba G. 1and2Department of Computer Science Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 3Department of Mass Communication Abdu Gusau Polytechnic Talata-Mafara
Abstract It is beyond any reasonable doubt that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a significant role in education especially in areas such as e-library, research, e-learning, Computer Based Test (CBT), result checking, record keeping and online registration. This paper attempted to dissect areas of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications especially at Nigerian Colleges of Education which is facing problems or limitations in terms of technical knowledge, poor electricity, improper maintenance of the installed facilities and inadequate computer skills among the administrators/ decision- makers in most of the institutions. Despite the fact that the Nigerian government spent resources in order to deploy the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) hardware, software development, internet and wireless network facilities in most of the colleges of education through various agencies including Tertiary Education Funds (TETFUND), National Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) and National Communication Commission (NCC), the sector still has some problems. The common problems identified in most of the institutions include epileptic power supply, lack of expertise, motivation, absence of re-training and maintenance of the installed facilities. The paper also looked beyond the problems and suggested some remedies for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) adoption in the Nigerian Colleges of Education to be implemented for successful Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications in the colleges. Keywords: Computer Based Test, Information and Communication Technology, National Certificate of Education, Tertiary Education Trust Fund, National Information Technology Development Agency
Introduction In present-day life activities technology has been playing a significant role in helping human beings to achieve several strenuous tasks, including acquirement and dissemination of knowledge. The rapid growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the 21st century made it possible for educational institutions to leverage the technical skills to acquire and disseminate knowledge irrespective of location and time. The Educational sector like no other,
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is one of the pioneers that have made Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as a tool in carrying out both academic and administrative functions. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) serve several purposes in human endeavors with high speed, accuracy, reliability and efficiency. Education as a significant aspect of social development in every corner of the real world which gives humans the ability to acquire knowledge through teaching, learning, research and Innovations had also transformed over time from traditional forms to modern ones using various tools including Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The advent of Computer Assisted learning, eBooks, virtual classrooms, online resources, social media platforms and other Educational software in the form of e-learning plays a significant role in enhancing educational development at all levels. Tertiary educational institutions are the early adopters of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) among the different levels of the modern school system in both developed and developing countries including Nigeria. The Nigerian system of education involves colleges of education for the training of teachers for primary education and senior secondary schools in the country regulated by the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). This has made the colleges of education one of the tiers of tertiary education in Nigeria which issues National Certificate of Education (NCE) to its numerous graduates after three years of teacher training. The process of teaching and learning in these colleges also involves the use of new Information and communication technology (ICT) equipment‘s in both classrooms and outside classrooms activities including the digital libraries adopted by the institutions. Most of the colleges were mandated to establish a unit of information and communication technology (ICT) that take the responsibility of imploring and exploiting the various computer, internet operations and software development for both the management, staff and students. Considering the role of education in the development of any community, the colleges are essential in developing an Information and Communication Technology (ICT) culture of any country. The colleges of education must provide effective leadership in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) integration through research, modeling, effective deployment of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities and provision of opportunities for the professional development of citizens of a country, (Yusuf, 2005, p.317).
Definitions of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a term used to describe the use of computers and telecommunication technologies in the processing of data and dissemination of information which includes the internet, mobile phones and other communication devices. And it is also the processing and analyzing of data and reporting or communicating the processed data in human-understandable form through the use of computer and communication technologies that can transmit the data in a bright output.
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Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a force that has changed many aspects of the way we live. Information and Communication Technologies consist of the hardware, software, networks, and media for collection, storage, processing, transmission and presentation of information (voice, data, text, images), as well as related services. ICTs can be divided into two components, Information and Communication Infrastructure (ICI) which refers to physical telecommunications systems and networks (cellular, broadcast, cable, satellite, postal) and the services that utilize those (Internet, voice, mail, radio, and television), and Information Technology (IT) that refers to the hardware and software of information collection, storage, processing, and presentation. (Sarkar, 2012, p.32).
Nowadays, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) turned the world into a ―global village,‖ in which individuals can communicate with others across the continents irrespective of location and time. Hence, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is usually examined in the context of how modern communication technologies affect the world, (Christensson, 2010, para.3). Indeed, the advent of modern Information and Communication Technology (ICT) had influenced the way education is acquired and disseminated through different use of technologies that enhance the teaching and learning to be more effective than the traditional methods that were being used for centuries of human existence.
Importance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education Education is the bedrock of teaching and learning that enables the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge through information sharing among the participants. In present times, Educators tend to use various tools and technologies to simplify the process of acquiring knowledge, including Computers, the internet, mobile phones, tablets and other communication devices. These have become standard tools and techniques that are also relevant resources for teaching and learning. They also allow both virtual or electronic, online learning through digital resources such as e-books copied to mobile devices and accessed at the learner‘s convenience, (Kukulska-Hulme 2012, p.12). The importance of information and communication in education cannot be overemphasized because the significant contributions Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools made to the sector are numerous and evolving from ongoing research which made innovations possible around the world. Even though Information and Communication Technology (ICT) implementation is costly to deploy in educational institutions, governments at all levels and non-governmental organizations had thrived in funding such facilities to schools, colleges and universities to harness the benefits of various technologies that support the objectives of Education.
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Using different Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools meant for teaching and learning, the school environment gives the learners the ability to handle their studies more efficiently and conveniently. Unlike the previous decades, when learners were taught using traditional methods in the classrooms with hard copies of books and physical teacher offering lessons according to a syllabus. The emergence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as an educational tool is changing. It will likely continue to alter many of the methodologies utilized by both teachers and learners in acquiring and disseminating knowledge, (Oliver, 2002, p.3). In 2009, there was an artificial intelligence (AI) research output in Japan that produced the first-ever Robot teacher named Saya to conduct a lesson. Saya, the female robot taught a science and technology lesson to a class of 10-year old pupils at Kudan Elementary School in Tokyo. The inventor of Saya, Professor Hiroshi Koboyashi lamented the primary purpose of the robot teacher as to highlight the joys of technology to children which would benefit schools suffering from a shortage of human teachers (Demetriou, 2009, para.1-4). Similar inventions were developed by different researchers around the world which made Robot teachers, tutors and Instructors like human ones simulated to teach in the classrooms. Even though the inventions were not fully adopted in the long run as permanent teachers, but they were just showcased as experiments in most of the cases. Still, this aspect of information and communication technology (ICT) in the Education sector cannot be undermined in the modern world where robots are considered to be the future of technologies.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges of Education There are various applications of information and communication technology (ICT) in almost every modern Educational Institutions including Colleges of Education that embrace competitiveness as part of a strategy for national development. The areas of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications in most of the institutions include the following; E-Library Libraries are the fountain of knowledge in any educational institutions that provide the staff, students and even general public access to books, journals, newspapers, magazines, research tools and other learning materials. Traditionally, libraries were mainly hard copies before the advent of electronic books and software that help the teachers and learners to ease the manual methods of acquiring educational materials via online and offline modes. The emergence of information and Communication Technology (ICT) has transformed the libraries around the world by integrating digital technology and library operation that gave the users an efficient means and virtual accessibility, (Gbadamosi, 2012, p.2). Nowadays, modern libraries do not require any social support for users to access learning resources which are mostly electronically available to registered members.
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E–Learning This encompasses the process of teaching and learning using various electronic materials in the form of software, internet usage, eBooks, videos, audios, images and various types of simulations to make a successful acquirement and dissemination of knowledge possible. The usage of different Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) made it a reality for Educators and students to imbibe the process of learning in automated and simulated ways utilizing either computers or telecommunication devices including the mobile/smartphones, laptops, tablets, satellites, projectors, electronic boards, electronic pens and other numerous gadgets. According to Jethro, Grace and Thomas (2012, p.2), Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the use of internet systems to expand knowledge and efficiency that provides students access to materials. The phase of learning, the period for education and other gadgets, allow them to manipulate the interaction to be consistent with their expectations and also manage the learning materials. Thus, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) gave the learners the capability to set the standard and collaborate with others globally on peer review of the learning methods and resources which would enhance innovations that transformed the role of teachers. Record-Keeping/Online Registration Information and Communication Technology (ICT) improves the methods of record-keeping and student registration in educational institutes globally. Some few decades ago, students‘ records and registration were kept and processed manually, which had solely depended on human interventions to sort out information of both the staff and students which requires more time and physical appearance. Presently, the students can register and access or be examined using the internet without their physical appearance. Undoubtedly, modern technologies have made it possible for learners to get information through various electronic means including emails, learning platforms, applications, computer-based examinations and other mobile devices. Research Because the significant output of research is coming out from the educational institutions around the world, which gave more rooms to technological applications in Education than any other sector of human endeavors. It is very imperative for scholars globally to collaborate and seek new knowledge that can be accessed through various Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based tools like the internet and computers which allow research to be carried out by different scholars in dispersed locations around the world and beyond. The most popular use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in research is in the data processing. The unprecedented growth in internet and computing systems provide opportunities for analyzing/processing a large quantity of data and processing complex computations on the data in a way that is extremely fast, accurate and reliable. Computer data processing gives researchers
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the ability to analyze data and more importantly facilitates quick and error-free analysis of large amounts of data from local samples or intercontinental samples covering many participants, (Sarkar, 2012, p.33-34).
Challenges of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges of Education Level of accessing computer amongst the primary and secondary school students is deficient especially in public schools, most of the graduate students from secondary school were not be able to operate the computer and this led to imperfect understanding Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in tertiary schools including Nigerian Colleges of Education. In Nigeria, there is poor access to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) materials, poor internet accessibility, reduced involvement in the creation of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) environment, and even low participation in software development. New York City has higher Internet accessibility than the whole of Africa, Ajayi (as cited in Yusuf, 2005, p.317). The most challenges influencing against the effective use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Colleges of Education in Nigeria are as follows: . Lack of necessary computer skills amongst the teachers . Lack of in-service training. . Lack of inadequate infrastructure (electricity) . Improper maintenance and operation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities . Lack of adequate knowledge of computer among the school administrators and decision-makers
The re-orientation and re-directing our value system towards the latest development around the world has put many teachers in a state of disarray to wholeheartedly embrace the e-teaching technology as many of the teachers lack the basic skills and access to computers. (Owolabi, Oyewole, & Oke 2013, p.3-4)
There is no room for learners to access computers and internet service in most of the institutions. This led to the low adaptation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in terms of basic computer operations and internet usage among teachers and learners. Also, there is a lack of motivation for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) adoption, especially for the students to cultivate the digital culture.
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Prospects of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in colleges of education The Nigerian government policies had clearly shown the implementation plans and commitments towards the development of Information and communication technologies (ICT) in school through various interventions. Such interventions of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) come from various government and non-governmental organizations like Tertiary Education Fund (TETFUND), Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC), Universal Service Provision Fund (USPF) and National Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA). Even though these agencies sponsored the installations of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment and software involved by awarding contracts, there are no maintenance plans for the projects executed. However, the management of various colleges of Education should be up to the task regarding the regular cost of repairs and maintenance of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) equipment in their respective institutions. Presently, there are many opportunities for Colleges of Education to grab regarding the benefits of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) that would be a revenue-generating avenue for the institutions. Such opportunities include e- learning /distance learning and some other enterprising programmes at their respective Information and Communication Technology (ICT) units.
E-learning may also be viewed as a promising way for improving the quality of tertiary Education and the effectiveness of open distance learning. These promises can be derived from different characteristics of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), including the increased flexibility of the learning experience it can give to students; the enhanced access to information resources for more students; the potential to drive innovative and effective ways of learning and/or teaching, including learning tools; easier use of multimedia or simulation tools; and the possibility to diffuse these innovations at low marginal cost among teachers and learners. (Igwe, 2012, p.4)
Colleges of education had to evolve in public information and Communication Technology policies, to serve as a framework for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) integration in all aspects of national development.
Conclusion Indeed, the role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education is numerous to mention in this paper which prepared to review some related literature from different authors of the topic. Although the article had attempted to highlight some areas where Information and Communication Technology (ICT) had been adopted in Nigerian Colleges of Education, but still they are struggling with some limitations. Hence, the institutions are advised to
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exploit more areas of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) applications including online mode of study, collaborations, and social networking which is yet to be adapted in most of the colleges. Verily, the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) application in the Nigerian Colleges of Education needs to be upgraded and sustained for them to be competitive in modern times. There is no doubt that Nigerian Colleges of Education are meant to train most teachers for the primary school which made Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills and knowledge very essential for both the trainers and trainees.
Recommendations Lastly, the Nigerian colleges of education are advised to adopt the following suggestions in order to meet up with 21st century technology advancement. 1. The mobile apps meant for learning should be developed for students and teachers to enable them access educational resources and acquire information in real-time. 2. The provision of internet services using Wi-Fi technologies within the academic environment would enhance the internet usage for the virtual learning expected to be a digital transformation strategy of the institutions. 3. There is also a need for training and re-training of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) staff, Academics and learners to simplify usage of the existing systems and new technologies.
References Christensson, P. (2010, January 4). ICT Definition. Retrieved 2019, Oct. 29, from https://techterms.com. Demetriou, D. (2019). Robot teacher conducts first-class in Tokyo school. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/5311151/ Robot-teacher-conducts- first-class-in-Tokyo-school.html [Accessed 28 Oct. 2019]. Gbadamosi, B.O. (2012). Emerging Challenges to Effective Library Automation and an E-Library: The Case of Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Nigeria. Library Philosophy & Practice. Igwe, D.O. (2012). The Roles of ICT Development in Open and Distance Education: Achievements, Prospects and Challenges. African Journal of Teacher Education, 2(2). Jethro, O. O., Grace, A. M., & Thomas, A. (2012). E-learning and its Effects on Teaching and Learning in a Global Age. Internataional Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 2(1), 203.
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Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). How should the Higher Education Workforce Adapt to Advancements in Technology for Teaching and Learning? The Internet and Higher Education, 15(4), 247-254. Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in Higher Education for the 21st Century: ICT as a Change Agent for Education. Retrieved April 14, 2007. Owolabi, T. O., Oyewole, B. K., & Oke, J. O. (2013). Teacher Education, Information and Communication Technology: Prospects and Challenges of e-Teaching Profession in Nigeria. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(2), 87-91. Sarkar, S. (2012). The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Higher Education for the 21st century. Science, 1(1), 30-41. Yusuf, M. O. (2005). Information and Communication Technology and Education: Analyzing the Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology. International Education Journal, 6(3), 316-321.
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The Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics Education Programme in Tertiary Institutions in Zamfara State
1Saidu Abarshi K., 2Ganiyatu Aliyu and 3Ibrahim Usman G. Department of Mathematics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding author(s): [email protected]
Abstract The study was conducted to assess the role of information and communication technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of mathematics education programme in tertiary institutions in Zamfara state, four research questions were raised to guide the study the population of the study consisted all mathematics education lecturer’s in all tertiary institution in Zamfara state. And samples of 40 mathematics education lecturers were randomly selected from the institutions. The reliability of the validated questionnaire was subjected to a test re test method of reliability using person’s product moment correlation coefficient (PPMCC) means was used to analyze data, the finding among other revealed that ICT have great impact on teaching and learning of mathematics in Nigeria. It was also discovered that ICT facilities serve as a major contributor to effective teaching and learning in teacher education programme. Based on the findings it was recommended among others that ICT facilities should be made available for effective teaching and learning of Mathematics teacher education programme. Keywords: Information Communication. Technology, Teaching, Learning and Mathematics Education
Introduction Information and Communication Technology with the acronym ICT refer to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunication. According to Akande (2010) suggested that interaction is made possible among individuals in the society and also in any teaching and learning situation through communication. The success of any teaching and learning process depends on the effectiveness of communication. Education is regarded as the bedrock of any national development and the issue of information and communication technology in teaching and learning education programme is considered a priority. The trend of teaching mathematics is fast changing with the emergence of ICT in most of the societies in the world now. Teaching and learning being two faces of the same coins, pre suppose that teaching leads to learning. Teaching of mathematics in
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Institutions of higher learning in Nigeria mostly depends on traditional approaches. However, it cannot be ruled out that the used of traditional method of delivery which was face to face mode. This mode of delivery has been variously view as not being able to meet the challenges driven age. The student in this learning situation is passive listener. Anderson, (2013) as it is the job of the teacher to present the content in this learning setting, what is promoted is shallow learning in the sense that assessment is usually base on memorization and regurgitation of facts if mathematics education should serve the purpose of providing the needs of learners and society, there should be continuous review in the curriculum in order to ensure the quality of education provide is in line with societal demands. This review of curriculum was to integrate I C T that can help in passing the desired and required skills to the learner to make him/her employed as well as relevant in the ever –changing mathematics environment. According to Salman, Mohammad, Ogunlade and Ayinla (2012) said that mathematics is an essential requirement by every field of human endeavour for intellectual development to cope with the challenges of life and as school subject, mathematics affect all aspects of people life at different stages and degrees. Mathematics education as an integrate part of science education is form of vocational education, according to Idialu (2013), that is directed towards developing the learner to become productive and self-employed. Mathematics education provides learners with awareness and understanding of the role mathematics plays in the modern would. It also provides students with the needed competences, skills, knowledge, understanding and attitude to perform a worker in industries, civil service and also properties of school. Mathematics education is a subject driven by life – related application of mathematics. It enables learners to develop the ability and confidence to think numerically and spatially in order to interprete and critically analyze every situation and to solve problems Tsafe (2013). Mathematics education is worked – focused skill-based, result oriented and technology base Ugwoke, (2011) mathematics education has been defined by Gbadeyan (2015), as the practice of teaching and learning mathematics along with the associated scholarly research. It is a value loaded education which helps an individual to develop necessary skills for lifelong learning and also integral part of general education in the Nigerian school curriculum. According to Owojori (2011), mathematics education teachers should expect rapid changes in the state of the arts in the world of work and the classrooms in this 21st century more the changes that occurred in the past centuries together. The over changing role of technology (ICT) continues to be a challenge for all educators especially mathematics educators, mathematics education teachers are constantly required to update their software and hardware skills as well as learn new information – based technologies. The incorporation of this knowledge, the constant maintenance and updating of hardware is a real challenge for mathematics educators. The coming of ICT into teaching and learning have necessitated paradigm shift from traditional method that was teacher centred to the modern
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method which is learner centre Bede (2015). The gain of such a new approach have been extolled by bua beng – Andoh (2012). Who affirms those great capabilities of ICT in the spreading of knowledge, making education more real and the development of more efficient educational service. The introduction of information and communication technology (ICT) in mathematics education programme makes teaching and learning increasingly flexible, multitasking and performance base. According to Olurundare (2006) asserts that ICT is important in teaching and learning as it guaranties unrestricted access of teacher to relevant information and development in the subject area as well as the provision of efficient and effective tools to take care of student‘s individual differences. Since educational institutions exist for the purpose of teaching and learning, human materials resources are deployed for the purpose. Information and communication technology (ICT) are the material resources provided for educators optimize their productivity in teaching and learning process (Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017). The importance of information and communication technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of mathematics cannot be over emphasised. ICT in the school system is part of new innovations to foster the standard of science technology and mathematics (STM) education in Nigeria. Hence, it is clear that the use of ICT in the teaching and learning of mathematics is imperative. The use of technology should start right from teacher training institutions and made compulsory for all mathematics students teachers throughout the training period, to copy with this word of computer and internet age. The researcher therefore wants to ascertain whether lectures are aware of the roles of using these ICT in mathematics education programme, and are those ICT resources available and accessible to them, toP what extent have they being adapting it in teaching and learning of mathematics programme in Zamfara state.
Statement of the Problem Teachers are mostly blamed for students‘ poor performance in mathematics. This poor performance lies in the fact that most teachers/lecturers use the traditional method of teaching. Since the world is generally ICT driven and its introduction has changed the ways things were done even in teaching and learning of mathematics education programmed, lecture method of teaching is no longer enough. Based on this the researcher want to access the role of ICT in the teaching and learning of mathematics education programme in Zamfara state
Purpose of the Study The major purpose of this study is to access the roles of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning of mathematics education programme in tertiary institution specifically, the study was designed to achieve the following purpose. 1. Find out the availability and accessibility of ICT facilities in the tertiary institutions. 2. Identify the roles of information and communication technology (ICT) has played in teaching and learning of mathematics education programme.
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3. Find out whether ICT facilities are adapted in teaching and learning mathematics education by mathematics lecturers. 4. Find out the difficulties encountered by mathematics education lecturers in the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics education programme.
Research Questions 1. To what extent are ICT resources available and accessible in mathematics education lecturers for use in mathematics education programme in Zamfara state? 2. To what extent has the role of ICT enhance is teaching and learning of mathematics education? 3. To what extent has the use of ICT been adopting in teaching and learning of mathematics education by mathematics education lecturers? 4. To what extent have the mathematics education lecturers encountered difficulties in the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics education programme?
Research Design The study was survey research design.
Area of Study This study was carried out in Zamfara state.
Population of the Study The population of the study consist of all the mathematics education lecturers in the three tertiary institutions in the state produce mathematics education teachers. However, the population of the study was forty mathematics education lecturers from college of education Maru, Federal college of education (Technical) Gusau and Federal university Gusau.
Sample and Sampling Techniques There was no sampling because the population was small and the population of the study was used as the sample of the study.
Instrument for Data Collection The instrument for data collection was a 35 – items questionnaire designed to provide answer to the four research questions, using modified 4 – point Likert scale of strongly agree (SA) = 4, agree (A) = 3, disagree (SD) = 2 and strongly disagree (SD) = 1 respectively.
Validity of the Instrument The instrument was validated by three experts in mathematics and science education. They were requested to provide the face and content validity of the
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instrument. The find draft of the instrument was distributed forty (40) mathematics education lecturers in college of education, Maru federal college of education (Technical) Gusau and federal university Gusau.
Reliability of the Instrument The reliability of the instrument was established using test-retest method. The person‘s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was employed to calculate the correlation coefficient(s) of the instrument was found to the 0.82. This was high enough and hence the instrument was reliable.
Administration of the Instrument The questionnaires were distributed by the researcher by hand, filled at spot and collected back. This was to ensure 100% return of the questionnaires.
Method of Data Analysis Data collected was analyzed using percentage mean ratings of a four – point scale. A mean of 3.00 and above was accepted while any item with a mean score less than 3.00 was rejected.
Results The results were presented in line with the research questions as shown in the table below: Research Question one: To what extent are ICT resources available and accessible to mathematics education lecturers for use in mathematics education curriculum delivery in tertiary institutions?
Table 1: Responses of Mathematics Education Lecturers on the Availability and Accessibility of ICT Resources in tertiary Institutions?
S/N ICT RESOURCES Ava % % Nava Non- % Acce % Nacce Availability Availability Accesibility Non Accessibility 1. Monitors 38 (95%) 2 (5%) 37 (92.5%) 3 (7.5%) 2. Computer 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%) 3. Internet 39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%) 35 (87.5%) 5 (12.5%) 4. Overhead projector 37 (92.5%) 3 (7.5%) 27 (67.5%) 13 (32.5%) 5. Video tapes 27 (67.5%) 13 (32.5%) 38 (95%) 2 (5%) 6. Video conferencing 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 7. Mobile phone 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 8. E-mail facilities 35 (87.5%) 5 (12.5%) 28 (70%) 12 (30%) 9. Computer discs 39 (97.5%) 1 (2.5%) 25 (62.5%) 15 (37.5%) (CDS) 10. Electronic book 0 (0%) 40 (100%) 0 (0%) 40 (100%)
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Table 1 above revealed that over 80% of the mathematics education lecturers in tertiary institutions in Zamfara State indicated that they have monitors, computers, internet, overhead projectors, and also video tapes, mobile phones, E-mail facilities and computer discs (CDS), and they also have access to them for the use in mathematics education curriculum delivery in the lecture halls. The result also shows that over 100% mathematics education lecturers indicated that video conferencing and electronic book are not available and then do not have access to them for use in mathematics education curriculum delivery in the lecture hall. Reaserch Question 2: To which extent has the role of ICT enhance teaching of mathematics education programme in Zamfara state?
Table 2: Responses of mathematics education lecturers on the extent of I.C.T role in the teaching and learning of mathematics education in Zamfara state. S/N Items S.A=4 A=3 D=2 S.D=1 X Decision 1 Student can set up internet service 20 10 5 5 3.1 Accepted after graduation. 2 The use of internet helps students to 15 20 3 2 3.2 Accepted make more research and get more fact. 3 It possess the capacity to improve 28 10 2 - 3.65 Accepted teaching and learning 4 It equips students with skills 20 10 7 3 3.18 Accepted required for survival in the modern mathematics office. 5 It enables the teacher to meet the 25 10 - 5 3.36 Accepted need of every students 6 It gives students opportunity to 17 10 8 5 2.98 Accepted learn and to discover new ideas 1. 7 I C T enhance learners 26 16 4 4 3.33 Accepted understanding concerning the mathematics environment 8 Grand mean 3.26 Accepted Source: adopted from Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017)
Table 2 above revealed that all the respondents accepted that ICT has enhanced teaching and learning of mathematics education program with a grand means score of 3.26 this show that mathematics education programme can be enhanced by integrating I.C.T in to the mathematics education programme in Zamfara State. Reserch Question 3: To what extent has the use of ICT been adopted in teaching and learning mathematics educations?
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Table 3 Responses of Mathematics Lecturers on the Adoption of ICT Facilities in Teaching and Learning Mathematics Education. S/N Items S.A 4 A 3 SD 2 D X Decision 1 Monitors 20 15 3 2 3.33 Accepted 2 Computer 25 15 5 - 3.50 Accepted 3 Internet 20 105 5 5 3.13 Accepted 4 Overhead 15 15 10 10 3.38 Accepted projector 5 Videotape 22 8 6 4 3.20 Accepted 6 Video 5 5 20 10 2.13 rejected conferencing 7 Mobile phones 27 10 3 - 3.60 Accepted 8 e-mail 18 12 5 5 3.08 Accepted facilities 9 Computer disc 20 10 6 4 3.15 Accepted 10 Electronic 10 3 23 4 2.40 Rejected book Grand Mean 3.09 Accepted
Table 3 above revealed that out of 10 items of the questionnaire (items 3& 10) with mean score of total (2.13 and 2.40) were rejected. In all the total grand mean score of 3.09 was arrived at, indicating that ICT has been adopted in the teaching and learning of mathematics educating programme in tertiary institutions in Zamfara state. Research question 4: To what extent have the mathematics education lectures encountered difficulties in the use of ICT in teaching mathematics education programme?
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Table 4: Responses of Mathematics Education Lecturers Encountered in the use of ICT in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics Education Programme S/N ITEMS S.A A SD D X DECISION 1 High cost of ICT equipment 20 8 6 6 3.05 accepted resources 2 Poor internet connectivity 24 6 5 5 3.23 Accepted 3 Lack of technical support 30 5 3 2 3.58 Accepted 4 Lack of maintenance culture 25 10 5 - 3.50 Accepted 5 Individual poor attitude to 15 15 10 10 3.38 Accepted acquire ICT skills 6 Lack of standby electric 20 14 3 3 3.28 Accepted generating set 7 Inadequate of ICT 30 6 4 - 3.65 Accepted equipments resources 8 Insufficient e-learning 21 10 5 4 3.20 Accepted literacy Grand mean 3.36 Accepted Table 4 above revealed that eight (8) items which were stated as difficulties encountered on the use of ICT in teaching and learning mathematics education were all rated accepted. However, a grand mean of 3.36 indicated that the above factors hindered the effective use of ICT in teaching and learning mathematics education programmed in tertiary institutions.
Summary of the Major Findings The results of the findings are as follows: 1. Computer, monitors, internet, overhead projector, video tape, mobile phones, E-mail facilities and computer disc [CDS] are available and accessible in tertiary institution for mathematics education curriculum delivery. 2. Mathematics lecturers in the mathematics education department use traditional method of teaching and learning, hence they should be encouraging to adopt the ICT for effective teaching and learning mathematics educations. 3. Mathematics education lecturers in mathematics education department need the technical skills in the use of electronics means for the teaching and learning of mathematics educations. 4. There is inadequacy and insufficient knowledge of E-learning literacy.
Discussion of the Findings The data presented in table 1 provided to research questions one by accepted that 80% of the ICT resources are available and accessible for mathematics lecturers in teaching mathematics education programmes. This is in line with the finding of
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Nwanunu and Isuwa (2017). That ICT are the material resources provide for education to optimize their productivity in teaching and learning process. The data presented in table 2 shows that mathematics education learners accepted that ICT play a vital role in enhancing teaching and learning of mathematics educations programmes in Zamfara state. The result collaborates with Olurundare, (2006) that the students agreed that ICT has emerged as an important component in academic institution as it play a vital role in teaching and learning as it guaranteed unrestricted access to teachers‘ relevant information and development in the subject areas as well as the provision of efficient and effective tools to take care of students industrial differences Table 3 shows that mathematics education lecturers accepted that ICT facilities have been adopted in the teaching and learning of mathematics education programme. This is line NCC minimum standard 2008, which stated that lecturers should use several teaching method and institutional materials (including ICT materials) if effective teaching and learning is desired. Finally, the finding in table 4 shows that mathematics education lecturers agreed that there are many problems encountered on the use of ICT in teaching and learning of mathematics education programmes.
Conclusion The role of I.C.T facilities in teaching and learning of mathematics education programmes was discussed, it was therefore, concluded that Information and Communication Technology (I. C.T) in mathematics education programme make teaching and learning increasingly, flexible, multitasking and performance base. It was also concluded that the challenges which to use of I.C.T posed have hindered its effective use in teaching and learning of mathematics educations programmes in Zamfara State.
Recommendations Based on the results of the findings the following recommendations were made; 1. Mathematics lecturers shall improve their teaching methods through the use of I.C.T resources to achieved desire goals. 2. The mathematics education curriculum should be re-arranged to accommodate the use of modern I.C.T resources in the mathematics programmes. 3. Government should provide adequate facilities that will promote the effective teaching and learning of mathematics education through information and communication technology (I.C.T). 4. The use of I.C.T resources for instructional delivery should be incorporated in to teacher education programme of pre-service mathematics teachers. 5. Government should try to improve power supply system, since power has become a major setback in the actualization of the use of I.C.T.
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References Akande A.F. (2010). Role of Information and Communication Technology in Science Education using Problem-Solving Method in JOPSSED, Vol(5), pp63-69 Anderson, M. (2013). Advantages and Disadvantage of Lecturers in Middle School and high school. Available from http//everydaylife.globalpost.com/advantage/disadvantage-lecture-middle- highschool-15106.html. Bede B.C.O (2015). Need for ICT integration for effective institutional delivery in Nigeria College of Educations. Journal of Education and Practice. Vol. No3, (online) Buabeng -Andoh, C. (2012). an Exploration of Teachers Skills Perception and Practice of I.C.T in Teaching and Learning in the Ghanaians Second Cycle School Contemporary Educational Technology, 3 (1) pp36-49. Gbadeyan J.A (2015). Mathematics Education for Employment Generation and Sustainability. A lead paper presentation at the 52nd Annual Conference of Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN). University of Nigeria, Enugu Idialu, E.E. (2013). Quality Assurance in the Teaching and Examination of Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria. College Students’ Journal 41[30], 649-656 NCCE 2008 Minimum Standard for N.C.E 3rd Ed; Nwanunu Peter and Isuwa John (2017) Assessment of the Role of Information and Communication Technology (I.C.T) in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics Educations Programmes in College of Education in Delta State. Conference Proceedings of Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN) Annual Conference, pg 852-858. Olurundare A.S (2006). Utilization of ICT in Curriculum Development Implementation and Evaluation. Lead paper presented at the National Conference on ICT University of Nigeria Nsukka. Owojori, A.A (2011). Emerging Challenges in Mathematics Education, Book of Abstract, 23rd Annual and International Conference at ABEN. p. 19. Salman, M.F Mohammed, A.S Ogunlade A.A & Ayinla J.O. (2012). Cause of Mass Failure in Senior School Certificate Mathematics Examinations as Viewed by Secondary School Teachers and Students in Ondo Nigeria Journal of Education and Practice 3, 8, 79-88 Tsafe A.K (2013). Mathematics Literacy an Agent of Poverty Alleviation and National Development. Journal of Education and Practice 4[25]
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Ugwuoke E.O (2011). Effective Utilization of ICT for repositioning Business Education Programs in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria for National Development.
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Zakah and Hibah under Bakolori Irrigation Project: as a Means of Poverty Reduction for National Development
Mustapha Muhammad Alkali Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract The paper discusses Zakah and Hibah as panacea for poverty reduction and national development. It begins with the definitions of Islam as a religion, irrigation as a scheme as well as Zakah in Islamic law and as institution. It highlights on brief history of irrigation in Nigeria and Bakolori Dam in particular. It discusses the responses of some farmers of the study area such as Bakura, Maradun and Talata Mafara local government areas in Zamfara State. The paper discusses the concept of Gift (Hibah) in Islam and its wisdom; utilization of funds generated through Zakah in construction, donation in Islamiyyah schools, classrooms or mosques, consequences of refusal to pay Zakah were pointed out. Finally, recommendations on how to improve Zakah funds for the wellbeing of the poor are preferred. Key words: Zakah, Hibah, Islam, Bakolori, Irrigation, Conflict
Introduction In the name of Allah the Beneficent the Merciful, All praise belongs to the All- knowing All hearing, whose power is beyond the human comprehension, the Supreme Judge, the Omniscient, the source of peace and perfection. May His peace and blessings be upon the noble Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon), the last messenger, the magnanimous, the generous, the leader of the combatants and example of the reformers and also on his family (household), his companions and to those that follow his footsteps to the Last Day of accountability. Water is an essential factor that plays vital roles in human being. It also serves as an important factor in the production of food for their good health and energy. According to Iwena, (1995:02), Agriculture, refers to the cultivation of soil for the purpose of raising food crops which in other words is called farming. It also encompasses breeding of livestock, conservation of forest, and fisheries development. Dangana, (2004: 02) described the word Islam as: Peace. It also means total submission to the will and commands of Allah. Islam is a complete way of life which encompasses all aspect of one‘sexistence, his mode of worship, eating habits, the way he
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dresses, how he acquires and disposes his wealth, his attitude towards himself and his family and society at large, his attitude as a leader and as a member of the society. The submission in this respect should be continues process or act throughout the entire life span of a Muslim. Islam therefore, draws the attention of its adherents and encourages them to protect their integrity by seeking their ways of livelihood through lawful means (Halal). To achieve that, they should venture into business provided they are permissible by law (Islamic Injunctions). Economists are of the view that society cannot be peaceful when people are stricken by starvation and poverty. Alkali, (2018:02). This will not be possible without water. Water plays vital role in human existence without which a society will perish. Societies utilize water to produce variety of food items through different ways, for examples irrigation system of farming and lots more. Almighty Allah States in the Glorious Qur‘an: And We send down from the sky rain charged with blessing, and We produced there with gardens and grains for harvest. And tall date palms with ranged cluster. A Provision for (Allah‘s) slaves. And we give life there with to a dead land. Qur‘an, (50:09-11) And Allah hath made the earth a wide expanse for you that ye may thread the valley ways thereof. Qur‘an, (11:19-20) From the above verses of the Glorious Qur‘an one will realize the bounties of Allah to His servants by sending water from the sky for man to use and live a comfortable life. People are encouraged to engage in farming activities. Furthermore, irrigation system of farming enables all year round production of food. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to land for the purpose of farming activities in all seasons of the year. (Iwena, Op cit, p.320) This study emanates from an observation over the years that large numbers of people, especially the youths, are nowadays running away from regular farming as well as irrigation system of farming in Bakura, Maradun and Talata-Mafara Local Government Areas. This is more obvious when compared with the percentage of population of those involved in farming in these areas (4/5%). For this reason, this research intends to examine the zakah and gift (Hibah) as well as their wisdom in Islam, under irrigation system in the aforementioned three local government areas with a view to drawing attention of our youths to partake in irrigation.
Concept of Irrigation According to Google.com definition, irrigation is applying dry land with water by means of ditches etc. Dictionary.com described it as the act of artificially applying water to the soil to allow plant growth. This can also include applying water to the lawn or garden. Erebor, (2003:07) defined Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement insufficient rainfall or to eliminate soil water handicap for crop production or agricultural purposes.
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According to Hansen (1962:12), irrigation is the system of harnessing surface and underground waters to make up for deficiencies in total volume of seasonal precipitation or deficiencies in the distribution of the precipitation over time and space. He further stressed that it is undertaken to provide an insurance against drought, for cooling the soil and atmosphere, thereby providing a more favorable environment for plant growth, to wash out or dilute salts in the soil, to reduce the hazard of soil piping, and to soften tillage pans.
History of Irrigation in Nigeria Irrigation in Nigeria has been traced back to around 700AD when Shaduf lift irrigation system was believed to have been brought from North Africa to the northeastern part of Nigeria. Abbas, (2008:11). The Baro experimental irrigation farm started in Baro, Niger state in 1908 (ibid, p.11). However, it was not until 1926 that the first formal irrigation scheme, the Kware irrigation scheme was established in the present Sokoto State. (ibid, p.11) The Jihadist leaders also, were not left behind, Malami (1998:50) opined that Muhammad Bello was very much interested in bringing improved farming techniques and methods. It was said that he introduced sugarcane for production of granulated brown sugar (ibid, p.50) He also established a sugar refinery at Gidan Maikara. In addition, he introduced cassava, the herb, economic trees and pomegranates in Sakkwato. (ibid, p.51) More so, method of irrigation using fulcrum and bucket shaduf was also introduced by him. The idea of leadership by example was also practiced by him. For instance, he established a garden for growing of medicinal herbs at Gidan Bango, Sagin Lemu and a farm at Garin Maidaji his personal house, where he used to water, the garden in which he produced vegetables for sale so as to earn income for his personal use. (ibid, p.52) In 1949 an irrigation division was set up in the then Northern provinces. Agricultural Department with an irrigation training school was established in Sokoto (Abbas, Op cit, p.12). However, it was not until 1953 that an irrigation policy was actually promulgated for Northern Nigeria enabling the irrigation division set up in 1949 ―to construct village level irrigation schemes ranging between 40 to 200 hectares all over the region‖. FMWR, (1991:12) In 1960, the Federal Government of Nigeria commissioned several studies to examine the water resources and irrigation potentials in Nigeria. These studies covered Sokoto Rima River Valley, Kano River Valley, Chad Basin and Anambra River Valleys. In 1962, the Federal Government of Nigeria included in its first National Development plan (1962-1968), as a matter of policy, the issue of water resources development for crop irrigation, among other things. In 1973, the Federal Government created the Sokoto Rima and Chad Basin Development Authorities with the responsibilities for full development of irrigation schemes among other mandates (Abbas, op cit, p.12).
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The Bakolori Dam and Irrigation Project The idea to construct the Bakolori Dam and Irrigation project predates the establishment of Sokoto River Rima Basin Development Authority (SRRBDA) ARIT, (1970:05). Since 1960s various levels of Nigerian governments in conjunction with world agencies initiated several programmes with the sole aim of improving agricultural activities in the country. Based on the experiment at Gonar Sardauna, the Bakolori Irrigation Project was conceived by Food and Agricultural Organization (F.A.O) and was recommended to be one of the programmes for socio-economic development of the area. The research for design and construction of the programme started since 1965 (ibid, p.05). This indicates that the preliminary studies started long before then. The Bakolori multi-purpose irrigation project is made up of a dam constructed across the River Sokoto in the now submerged village of Bakolori with a storage capacity of 450 million cubic meters for the irrigation of 23,000 hectares of land. SRRBDA, (1985:03). The Impresit Bakolori (Nigeria) limited, was incorporated in 1975 for the management of the integrated irrigation project and development of agriculture in Nigeria. In the company's share, 60% owned by the Federal Government of Nigerian and the remaining 40% to its technical partner, Impresit of Milan, one of the world's largest company in civil engineering. The Board of Directors reflects the shareholding proportion by having six Nigerians and four Italian directors. From its beginning, the company increased in size and by 1980 had fixed assets worth of $100m and an annual turnover of approximately $200m. BIP, (1975:02). During the construction, over 5,000 people were employed for the work, which include the dam, supply canals and the three major bridges of Sokoto and Bobo Rivers. The followings were also constructed: transmission lines, pumping, lifting and drainage stations, drain roads, flood dikes, a siphon across the Gora valley, roads, and service centers among others. (ibid, p.03)
The Concept of Zakah The word Zakah is the infinitive noun of the verb: Zakah, meaning: to grow, to increase or to be pure in the heart. The literal meaning of Zakah, therefore, is growing, increasing or purification of the heart NCE/DLS, (2000:15). But in Islamic law, Zakah takes a different meaning from the one known to the Arab before the coming of Islam. Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) defined Zakah as what is taken out of the property of the rich ones and given to the poor ones. Al-Jaza‘ir, (1992:285). That is why the learned scholars said: Zakah is a portion of a person‘s wealth, which is the right of Allah, given to the poor people. (NCE/DLS, Op cit, p.15)
The Impact of Zakah At this juncture, we will discuss the religious impact of Bakolori Irrigation Project (B.I.P) to the autochthones of the study areas. Islam as a religion permits activities
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that could, promote human development and irrigation system of farming among others. Similarly, it encourages people to work diligently for their survival as well as emphasizes on peaceful living among them. It further motivates people to equally engage in things that could fetch them benefits of the next world (Al-Akhirah). Some of these things include giving out Zakah out of their wealth especially harvests due to irrigation farming.
Zakah as an Institution Zakah institution is one of the basic pillars of Islamic religion. It is the third pillar which was instituted in the 3rd year after hijrah (from Makkah to Madinah). The Glorious Qur‘an attaches great importance to it where it appears several times with ‗prayers. In the Glorious Qur‘an Allah says‖ ...and steadfast in prayers and spend out of what we have provided for them (i.e. giving Zakah) and also giving charity to the poor and also in Allah‘s cause. Qur‘an, (02:03) Islam has been built upon five pillars: the testimony that none has the right to be worshiped except Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, establishing prayers, giving (legal) alms, fasting the month of Ramadan, and performing Hajj to His House (the Ka’abah) khan, (2006:65) The fact that Zakah is an obligation upon Muslims is one of the most apparent indications of the beauty of Islam and the concern it has for its adherents. The Glorious Qur‘an reads: Take alms (Sadaqah) from their wealth in order to purify them and sanctify them with it. Qur‘an, (09:103) The above verse shows clearly the benefit of giving out Zakah that is, it purifies and cleanses the soul of the giver and distances him/her from greed and avarice. It also strengthens the bonds of love between the rich and the poor, for it is from human nature that a person shows affinity to those who treat them well. More so, it brings increase and blessings to one‘s wealth and Allah replaces it (The wealth giving as charity with something better), as Allah (STW) Said: And what so ever you spend of anything (in Allah‘s cause), he will replace it. And He is the best of providers‖ Qur‘an, (34:39)
Zakah has been made Obligatory upon Four Categories of Wealth: 1. Grains and fruits produced by the earth. 2. Grazing or herding animals which feed freely from the earth 3. Gold and silver 4. And inventory (stock) with which one does business. Bn Baaz, (2004:09)
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For each of these categories, there is a specified amount under which Zakah becomes obligatory (termed as ‗Nisab‘). At this juncture, our major concern is for grains and fruits which are predominantly large in the production of Bakolori Irrigation project in Zamfara State.
Grains and Fruits According to Oxford English dictionary, Grains can be defined as cereal crops, a small hard seed or a tiny individual piece of something such as sand or salt. This includes oats, barley, wheat, rice, maize, millet and corn. The Nisab for grains and fruits is 5 ‗Ausuq’ and one Ausuq is equal to 60 Sai measured during the time of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) (ibid, p.10). This amount measured according to the Sai during the time of the Prophet (S.A.W), such as dates, raisins, wheat, rice, barley and their likes, is equal to 300 Sai, (one Sai) is equal to 4 handfuls of an average sized man. while 300 Sai, is also equivalent to five (5) bags, that is to say every one bag contains 60 Sai, when multiply 5 bags by 60 Sai is equal to 300 Sai. The amount which is due upon grains and fruits (if it reaches the Nisab) is 10% if the date-palm or plants relied upon natural means for water, such as rain, rivers, flowing streams and their likes. If they relied on unnatural means for water, such as using animals to water or machines which lift water or their likes, the amount which is due upon them is 5% as has authentically been reported by the messenger of Allah (S.W.A): The amount due upon that which is watered by the sky or streams, or was … is a tenth, and what was fed by (manual) watering a twentieth. Khan, op cit, p.327) There are two important things to note with regard to Nisab. Firstly, the property must reach a fixed minimum amount. And secondly that fixed minimum amount should remain in one‘s possession for a complete year. Therefore, if it becomes more within the year, the Zakah is compulsory. But in the case, where the amount decreases and becomes less, there is no Zakah. In an effort to assemble data appropriately, three hundred (300) questionnaires were administered within the three local government areas of Zamfara State namely; Bakura, Maradun and Talata Mafara to the farmers of Rice. This is due to the fact that, random sampling was made in choosing eleven towns out of many in considering them more serious and close in partaking farming activities. Through the effort of self-administered by the researcher and his assistants. Out of these questionnaires two hundred (200) were returned successfully leading to a rate of 66.6%. Data obtained were therefore analyzed using SPSS in descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages). The findings were presented below:
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Table 1: Did you pay Zakah of your farm produce on time?
Town Frequency No Yes Bakura 0 20 Birnin Tudu 1 19 Gidan Kano 1 19 Gora 1 19 Jabe 0 10 Mafara 0 20 Maradun 0 20 Matusgi 0 20 Rini 1 19 Sabon Gari 0 10 Ware 0 20 4 196 Total 2.0% 98.0% Source Field Data (2017)
The table 1 above shows an illustration of the farmers with different dimension of paying Zakah of their produce. In the first segment about four (4) farmers which are equal to 2.0% of the sampled population, gave, a ‗no‘ response (denial) in giving out Zakah. This does not mean that they are not abiding by Allah‘s injunctions, but what they have produced does not meet the minimum percentage required to be given out as Zakah. (If it reaches they are willing to pay). The second column of the table above shows that 196 farmers or 98.0% of the entire sampled population of research study areas were able to make a positive response that, they do observe the payment of Zakah as soon as they harvested their farm products. If the above percentages can give out Zakah promptly and issue it to those entitled, no doubt poverty and hunger may reduce and fend off for a short period of time. It also promotes and elevates some lives of the contemporary Muslims (autochthones) of the study areas.
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Table 2: Did you face any problems in distributing Zakah from your farm produce? Town Frequency No Yes Bakura 18 2 Birnin Tudu 19 1 Gidan Kano 20 0 Gora 20 0 Jabe 9 1 Mafara 19 1 Maradun 18 2 Matusgi 20 0 Rini 18 2 Sabon Gari 10 0 Ware 20 0 191 9 Total 95.5% 4.5% Source: Field Data (2017)
In the table 2 above, the first segment/Column shows that the respondents have the highest/largest number of farmers which is about 191 or equivalent of 95.5% of the total sample of the study areas opined that, they do not observe or come across any problem while distributing Zakah after harvesting their farm products. According to some farmers, the first thing they do after harvest is to earmark what is Zakah and to give it out as a protection against any misfortune such as fire, water disasters, and theft etc. However, in the second column, the respondents have only 9 farmers‘ equivalent to 4.5% that encountered some problems in the course of giving out Zakah in their areas/localities.
The Concept of Gift (Hibah) According to Al-Jazair, (1992:422) Gift (Hibah) implies giving out what one possesses legally out of his wealth, to his fellow. Such things include a house, clothes, food or money (e.g. Dollars, pounds Naira etc.) In view of this, let us have a glance at the Glorious Qur‘an for more clarification, in the following verses: … and we gave him Ishaq (Isaac) and Yaqub (Jacob),and each one of them we made a Prophet. Qur‘an, (19:49)
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It also says: … and do good as Allah has been good to you, and seek not mischief in the land… Qur‘an, (28:77) The Risalah of Abu Zaid Al-Qairawan, (ND:103)explains that gift (Hibah), charity (Sadaqah), and endowment (Hubus) would not be complete without full possession (to meet hand of receiver). He further said if the giver dies before possession, it is returned to the estate of the deceased person. But if he is on death bed, (sickness) then, it should be treated within the bequest (will) of his wealth.
Table 3: Apart from the Zakah, do you give out extra gifts to the relatives, masses, etc for the Development of Islam?
Town Frequency No Yes Bakura 0 20 Birnin Tudu 1 19 Gidan Kano 3 17 Gora 2 18 Jabe 0 10 Mafara 0 20 Maradun 2 18 Matusgi 0 20 Rini 0 20 Sabon Gari 0 10 Ware 0 20 8 192 Total 4.0% 96.0% Source: Field Data (2017)
The table 3 above shows that only 8 people/farmers responded ‗No‘ in giving out extra gifts to their relatives. This is equivalent to 4.0% of the sample population opined that, what remains after remittance of their debt and other expenses would not be extended to the next dry season. For this reason, there is no room for giving extra gifts to others. In the other segment, the table above shows that 192 respondents/farmers, which equals to 96.0% out of the total sampled population of the research study, took the largest number, with their ‗Yes‘ response in giving out extra gifts to relatives, masses etc. Some even said their relatives from far and near were eager to pay a visit, on hearing that their farm products were ripe for harvest. The givers (farmers)
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feel encouraged and satisfied to assist their brothers, their sisters, relatives or masses etc
The Construction of Mosque Construction of mosque is important and rewarding in the religion of Islam. Reflecting back to the Islamic history, the building of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) mosque (Masjid-Annabawi) was attached to his house. The first mosque to be built in Islam serves as a center of worship, preaching, learning, as well as place for public gathering for the entire Muslim Ummah during the life time of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) for execution and co-ordination of all the affairs of Islam and Muslims in general. However, it is noticed that only few individuals have the capacity to build mosques without assistance from some quarters. Some provide plots, others in bringing blocks; bags of cement, flanks, ceilings, Zinc for roofing and those who have the means may sacrifice their physical strength to work as laborers. In this research, therefore, the random sampling of 300 target farmers in the study areas has shown that very few individuals had used their possessions, gained under Bakolori Irrigation project to construct some classrooms in Islamiyyah or a Mosque. This is shown thus:
Table 4: Have you ever constructed or donated to Islamiyyah School, a class room, a mosque or any building for the sake of Allah through irrigation farming? Town Frequency No Yes Bakura 3 17 Birnin Tudu 4 16 Gidan Kano 5 15 Gora 3 17 Jabe 0 10 Mafara 7 13 Maradun 5 15 Matusgi 0 20 Rini 0 20 Sabon Gari 4 6 Ware 1 19 32 168 Total 16.0% 84.0% Source: Field Data (2017)
The table 4 above, shows only 32 people/farmers, equivalent to 16.0% out of the sample population of the study area; do not construct or donate to Islamiyah School, build a classroom and a mosque through irrigation system of farming in their localities. However, in other part, the above table shows that 168farmers
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which is equivalent to 84.0%, out of the total sample population of the study areas, the responded have contributed their quota in either of the above stated structures. In addition to that, some individuals‘ farmers do assist with little amount in their possession. Some of them, invested/assisted through the use of their physical power, which means exerting their energy in building or constructing a mosque. From the above, about four (4) personnel have made a tremendous and marvelous contributions through this system of irrigation. The first person is Alhaji Yusuf Son Allah who with the assistance of some few individuals, was able to construct a large Dihliz with three (3) small rooms were some students took as their residence, situated in Mallamawa area in Talata-Mafara local government. The Dihliz can contain a hundred people, in it the father of the current Sarkin Malaman Mafara, Sheikh Liman Zaid conducted for several years a Ramadan Tafsir session. After his demise, his son, Malan Sanusi Sarkin Malamai succeeded him. It was later transformed and reconstructed to an upstair level by the current administration of Abdulaziz Yari Abubakar of Zamfara State, under the supervision of some Engineers from the ministry of works and that of Religious Affairs respectively. Also, in Ware village, under Talata-Mafara local government there was a development. Alhaji Abubakar Sha Madara Sarkin Fulanin Ware who was able to construct a classroom for Islamiyya session, is still there for many years (see in appendix 3) The construction of five daily prayers mosques, situated at Bamfa area in Bakura local government by the two personalities is also visible. According to Alhaji Yusuf Farnana Bakura the construction of the mosques was an opportunity for good, in the hereafter and therefore the philanthropists should thank God for giving them the chance to do the work. These personalities, made use of their minimum income derived from irrigation system of farming, after giving out Zakah and with some gifts to their relatives, masses as well as settling some expenses. Most of the projects conceived took long time before being completed. However, this could encourage others to give their own quota, so as to reap abundant benefits in the hereafter.
Warning for Refusal of Giving out Zakah Islamic religion strictly warns its adherents whom there wealth and product have reached the Nisab stated by the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) in the previous page. The following quotations supported the verdict where almighty Allah says: Those that hoard up gold and silver and do not spend it in Allah‘s cause-proclaim to them a woeful punishment. On (that) day their treasures will be heated in the fire of Hell, and their foreheads, slides, and backs branded with them. They will be told: these are the riches which you hoarded, taste then that which you were hoarding. Qur‘an, (09:34-35)
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It also reads: ...Woe to those who associate others with Him, who give no alms anddisbelieve in the life to come. Qur‘an, (41:6-7) It further says: Let not those who are niggardly in spending from that which Allah granted them of His bounty think that their avarice is good for them: it is nothing but evil. The riches they have piled up shall become their fetters on Resurrection. Allah is He who will inherit the heavens and the earth. He is cognizant of what you do. Qur‘an, (03:180)
Conclusion In conclusion, economic indices have shown that agriculture contributes 40% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs about 70% of the working population in Nigeria (C/A, 2012). It is widely believed that agriculture is the largest economic activity in rural areas where almost 50% of the population lives. However, these agricultural successes are due to the influence of irrigation activities in rural areas. Irrigation has no doubt contributed positively to farmers of Bakura, Maradun and Talata Mafara Local Government Areas by the influence of Bakolori Irrigation system of farming. In addition, if Zakah could be well implemented promptly and accordingly will no doubt fend-off starvation and lift the standard of those less privileges. It also strengthens the bonds of love between the rich and the poor. More so, gift also added special values, rises images and personality of the delivery of gift (giver).
Recommendations There is need for non-governmental organizations to invest in Irrigation system of farming to reduce tension, redundancy and to provide job opportunities to the less privileged. There is need to expand the B.I.P farmlands, thousands of farmers were either not satisfied with their farmlands or have no farmlands to cultivate what would make them to sustain their families. The federal and state governments in collaboration with banks should provide free interest loans to empower the farmers of Bakolori Irrigation Project. The Bakolori Irrigation Project should design an efficient cropping system to ensure double or triple cropping in a year and to re-establish Agricultural Extension Services Co-operatives. The federal government/Bakolori Irrigation Project officials should provide enough farming implements such as tractors, excavators for clearing of the lands, as well as provide enough fertilizers, and pesticides and insecticides.
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Finally, there is need for the reliable, pious as well as worthy trusted Muslim scholars to preach to the farmers for them to give out Allah‘s right (Zakah) promptly and appropriately as well as gift to assist their brothers, the less privileged and give some parts for the progress of Islam.
References Abbas, A. Y. (2008). Sustainable Cost Recovery in Kano River Irrigation Project Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Usman Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. Ph.D Thesis Abdul‘aziz bn Baaz, (2004). al-Zakah, the Islamic Propagation, Rabwah Abi zaid al-Qairawan, A.M. (N.D), Matnu al-Risala, Darul Fikr Al-Jazair, A.J, (1992). Minhajul Muslim, Darul al-fikr, Beiruit Lebnan Dangana, M.M. (2004). Lecture notes on Moral Philosophy in Islam, Department of Islamic Studies, Usman Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Erebor, (2003), in ribe, I.A. (2007). The impact of small scales Irrigation scheme on income Generation, department of Agricultural Economics and Extension UDUS, Sokoto. Federal ministry of water resources, (1991). Irrigation Policy in Nigeria, A Memorandum. Hansen, E. V. (1962). Irrigation Policy and Practices, Iogon, Utah State University, 3rd Edition, United States Iwena, O. A. (1995). Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School, Tonald publishers Limited, Lagos, Nigeria JICA, (1993) in Abbas, A.Y. (2008). Sustainable cost Recovery in Kano River Irrigation Project, UDUS Sokoto. Khan, M.M. (2006). Sahih al-Bukhari (Translated in Arabic-English), New Delhi India. Malami, H.U. (1998). The Economic Principles and Practices of the Sokoto Caliphate, the Institute of Islamic Sciences, Sokoto, Nigeria- Nigeria Certificate in Education NCE/DLS (2000). National Teachers Institute, Kaduna, Nigeria The Bakolori Irrigation Project: A Background Information, Impresit Bakolori (Nigeria) Limited, Talata Mafara 1975. 1969-70, Annual Report on Irrigation Trials, 1970.
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The Relevance of Railways to the Development of Colonial Economy in West Africa Abubakar Musa Department of History, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract This paper attempt to explain the activities of Europeans in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries West Africa, with peculiar emphasis on railway lines construction, the paper discussed transportation system in West Africa during the pre-colonial period which include water and land. It also looks at the emergence of towns and markets at the railway junctions, emergence of commercial centres as well as decline of others. The transportation sector played and is still playing a crucial role to the economic development of West Africa. It also looks at the railway as employer of labour and facilitated the spread of the European currency, railway also contributed in mass movement of cash crops from West Africa to European nations, many areas of cash crops production were linked with the roads, railways and ports and such crops were easily evacuated. More so, railways assisted greatly in reducing the cost of transportation to the European officials. In the course of conducting this research text books, published and unpublished papers by different writers were consulted, internet materials related to this write up were also consulted. Keywords: Railway, Relevance, Colonial Economy, Economic Development, West Africa
Introduction The transportation sector had played a great role to the development of the pre- colonial economy of the West African communities during the period: (pre- colonial period) it remained one of the vital sectors of the economy in West Africa. Its primary function is to provide the movement of goods and people from one place to another thus, serving as one of the basic requirements to every economic development. For this reason, this paper therefore, aim at discussing: the transportation sector in the pre-colonial West Africa, trading relations between West Africans and Europeans, the emergence of Railways in West Africa as well as the relevance of Railways in the colonial West Africa.
Transportation in the Pre-Colonial West Africa Historical evidences have shown that the pre-colonial economy of West Africa was not subsistent.1 The fact is that, during the pre-colonial period, no West African community was economically sufficient. Therefore, among the various West African communities, existed a system of exchange of goods and services. The people in the Savannah region needed coastal products, such as salt, fish among
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others, and those in the coast needed products like, shea butter, hide and skin etcetera, from the Savannah. This made the transportation of goods and services to where they were not available. There were two forms of transportation during the pre-colonial period in West Africa, by water and by land. The water transportation is mainly on areas where there were rivers, big streams, lagoons and oceans. A number of ways were used to transport goods to various destinations. People could wade through them or walk on a trunk out across the water.2 The professional ferrymen stationed on the banks of the rivers also ferried traders and their goods. Canoes were also means through which large number of people and bulky goods were transported across the rivers, lagoons, lake and oceans in the pre-colonial West Africa .3 Transportation by land was either through the use of head porterage or pack animals. Traders carried their goods themselves, employed the services of porters, slaves or members of their families. A person was able to carry between 80-120 pounds of load and walk a distance of about 3 kilometers an hour.4 The animals used as means of transportation in the pre-colonial West Africa include: camels, donkeys, mule bullock and oxen.5 The animals were capable of carrying heavy loads and traveled longer distance with ease. These means of transportation were able to cover the local routes linked villages and towns: regional routes which linked two or more states and international highways which connect many states and different ecological regions together.6
Colonial Railways in West Africa As the commercial activities among the West African communities extended to other parts of Africa and Middle East, varieties of goods and services were exchanged the famous Trans-Sahara trade provided an avenue for the Europeans to have a taste of the West African products in the first instance, through North Africa and Middle East, goods like elephant tusk, salt, hide and skin. In their quest to reach India, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to had contact with the West African coast in the 15th century, when they discovered that gold was in abundant in the Gold Coast, the Portuguese were able to established trading bases along the African coasts.7 After the Portuguese had successfully launched their trading interest along the coast of West Africa, other Europeans such as; Dutch, Danes, British, French, Germans etcetera followed.8 From the 15th century, the export commodities of West Africa, among others include; gold, Ivory, timber, gun, dye-woods, beeswax, leather, pepper and slaves (though in a myopic form). With the establishment of the European plantations and the great demand for labour in the ―new world‖ the West African population was moved in masse to cultivate such plantations. This marked the beginning and changing nature of the trading relations between West Africa and Europe. Thus, from the 15th century to the next 300 years, the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade became the dominant feature of the West Africa-Europe relationship. The Atlantic Slave Trade has its own consequences to the economies and societies of West Africa. In fact, this trade laid
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the foundation of a network of commerce and production that brought about the wealth of Western Europe and North America, at the same time the underdevelopment of not only West Africa, but the entire continent as a whole.9
The Emergence of Railways Construction in West Africa Early in the 19th century, the production of export crops has been encouraged by the European nations. There were monopolies of trade and markets by the different European firms that were encouraged by their home governments. By 1877, groundnut production had increase so much that the French proposed the construction of a railway from Saint Louis to Dakar, through Kayor to collect the product.10 The railway was finally completed in 1885 despite the opposition from the Lat Dyor (Chief) of Kayor and it consumed 120 million Francs.11 By 1923 a 720 miles of railway track was constructed from Saint Louis to Bamako.12 Lines on Thies-Kayes that gave Sudan an outlet to the sea at Dakar was completed in 1923. The French also constructed railways in Ivory Coast (Bouake a 315 kilometers inland) between 1903 and 1912; Fer Kessedougou 558 kilometers and Bobo Dioulasso 796 kilometers, all in Upper Volta, were reached in 1926 and 1934 respectively. 13 Conakry to Kankan (in Guinea), the Pobe-Porte-Novo (in Dahomey) to Cotonou (in Upper Volta) railways were all constructed by the French between 1905 and 1913 and between 1926 and 1930 respectively.14 The French also constructed the Benin-Niger one metre gauge line that covered a distance of 577 kiometers.15 In fact, between 1880 and 1930 hundred kilometers of railway lines were constructed by the French colonial government in its areas of commercial influence of cash crops production with sea ports onward transportation to France. In Togo where German commercial influence was glaring, the central line from Lome to Atakpame (which was extended by the French to Blita in 1934); the Lome-Anacho and Lome-Palime lines were all constructed by the Germans.16 Railway construction started much later in the British West Africa. Although, Britain had claimed possession and commercial influences in some West African kingdoms during the early part of the 19th century, it still had to make its presence felt. Thus, because of many internal and external reasons that the British had to contend with the colonial railway construction had to wait for the passage of the ―colonial Loans bill of 1899‖.17 Therefore, the construction of railways in the British West Africa had to be taken care of by the colonial government.18 In 1895, railway construction was conceived in Lagos and the line was extended to Ibadan in 1901, Jebba 1909 and Kano, 711 miles inland in 1911, and Port Harcourt-Enugu-Jos line, linking the northern and eastern parts of Nigeria was completed in 1926.19 The line from Freetown-Balma, a distance of 222 miles was constructed in 1903, Accra-Kumasi and Accra-Sekondi lines were completed in 1923 and 1927 respectively.20 By 1940, there were 5,200 miles of railways constructed in British and French West Africa.21
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These railways together with other means like telecommunications that were constructed across the West Africa served as a means of evacuation of the West African raw materials to the ports for onward export to Europe as well as an avenue for the importation of European finished goods into West Africa.22
Colonial Economy Colonial economy simply means interventionism which in turn implies the policy, practice or advocacy of extending the power and domination by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.23 In order to attain this objective in Nigeria, roads, railway lines and harbors were extended to all potential cash crops producing areas by the British colonial administration. The largest bridge in Africa was commissioned in 1932 at Makurdi (Benue state). By 1937, about 19500 miles of railway lines had also been constructed in Nigeria connecting cocoa producing area with Kano in the north. Different feeder roads were also linking major towns and depots.24 This infrastructure were created to boast the internal trade and exchange ideas between the Europeans and Nigerians or among Nigerians. This had easy the transportation of goods and services from different parts of Nigeria to the coast where the goods were shifted to England. In other hand the British goods and services were also moved to corners of Nigeria easily and freely. However, scholars like Skidely asserted that the whole idea behind British colonial social facilities was to provide employment for the 134000 Britain at home.25
Colonial Industrialization in West Africa The closing decade of the 18th century was a period of rapid industrial expansion in Europe which essentially depended on tropical raw materials.26 To ensure the getting the needed materials for the industries at home various European firms at home lured their governments to pursue the policy of mass of primary crops. For instance, in Britain the cotton manufacturers formed a union known as British Cotton Growing Association (BCGA) in 1902, to promote cultivation of cotton in the British colonies in Africa. Similarly Lever Brothers (a soap manufacturing firm) began to promote the production of palm kernels. Likewise the confectionery manufacturers and cocoa processing firms made cocoa cultivation attractive in West Africa. The West African peasants were forced to produce cash crops like cotton, ground nut, cocoa, rubber and palm kernel, in response to the various demands such as taxes, court fines must have compel them to grow since failure to do so could easily cause European proconsul. Likewise inability for the farmer to pay taxes or crop fine lead to his imprisonment or forced labour on public projects. The peasant farmer therefore, has to produce more than his consumption for both domestic and international market.27
The Relevance of Railways in the Colonial West Africa Generally, the transportation sector has played and is still playing a vital role to the economic development of many nations; particularly, economic development of
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West Africa during the colonial period, it could be remembered that, the construction of railways in West Africa has been regarded by some scholars as the ―major legacy‖ of colonialism.28 In the contemporary there is the use of European ready made goods like cloths, farm implements and wiping out local industries like black smithing in West Africa. The use European currencies and like. The railways in the colonial West Africa served as an impe tus to the production of export crops. Many areas of cash crops production were linked with the roads, railways and ports and such crops were easily evacuated. It also assisted greatly in reducing the cost of transportation to the European officials and merchants. This is because it facilitated an access to hinterland and enables the Europeans to exploit West Africa. In addition, railways facilitated the quick dispatch of troops to quell the West Africa resistance as well as a weapon for the diversion of trade to a port for the benefit of the colonial powers. Railways assisted in no small measure in what Hopkins regarded as the opening of the West African market to international competitiveness.29 this is because colonies were required to be self-sufficient. Therefore, the colonial officials had to device all possible means of promoting the trade. Through the railway, goods that were imported into the West African markets were able to reach the final consumer. Other means of transportation have been complemented by the railways in ensuring the development of colonial economy in West Africa. Large numbers of people have been carried through the railways to various port cities. Thus, there were growths in population of port cities such as Dakar, Lagos, Takoradi among others. It also contributed to what Hopkins called ―dramatic reduction‖ in the cost of transportation.30 The railway sector had led to the consolidation of position or some existing commercial centres (Kano as an example) as well as caused the decline of others, unless such towns were linked to it by roads. It also led to the emergence of new towns and markets at the railway junctions Sabon Garin Kaura Namoda in present Zamfara state for example. The railway in West Africa was a major employer of labour in the colonial economy, it facilitated the spread of the European currency, an early centre of unionism and the remained the greatest carrier of merchandise.31 Furthermore, all the agricultural stations (agricultural departments and research centres) were set up was to meet the demand of exporting crops needed for European industries, like cocoa, ground nut, palm trees, rubber, cotton, timber, Shea butter tree, beniseed etc were studied and improved seeds and seedlings were produced and distributed to farmers free of charge in the areas suitable for each crop.
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Conclusion Prior to the advent of railway construction in West Africa, there were various mode of transportation that adequately served the needs and the extent of the existing markets. Railways construction started in West Africa by the French in 1880s and was followed by the British in the 1890s. Hundred kilometers of railway lines were constructed by both French and British in West Africa to link areas of cash crop producing and mining areas with roads and ports for easy exploitation of West Africa‘s resources. The construction of railways in West Africa had contributed greatly to the development of the colonial economy. It failed to cut across the different colonial boundaries, a situation that led to the improper economic integration of the region even after the independence. Railways were largely constructed with the exploited West African labour and purposely served the colonial economic interest.
Reference T. Falola, (1996). An Economic History of West Africa Since 1750, Ibadan Rexchantes. P. 54 G.O. Ogunremi, (1980). Topics in Nigerian Economy and Social History, Ile-Ife University. Chapter 7 T. Falola (1996). An Economic History of West Africa since 1750, Ibadan Rexchants. P. 57 E.O. Abiola, (1978). A Textbook of West African History (AD 1000 To The Present Day), Ado-Ekiti Omolayo press. P. 66 A. Alade, (1996). The Economic Basic of Imperialism, Ibadan Rexchantes. P. 122 J.D. Anderson, (1982). West Africa and East Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries, Ibadan HEB press. P. 73 A. Olukoju, (1980). Transportation in Colonial West Africa, p. 145 M. Webster‘s, (2008). Encyclopedia Britannica. M. Grouder, (1976) West Africa under Colonial Rule. P. 276 S. Oshin, (1898-1914). Colonial Railway policy in Northern Nigeria. P.164 A.G. Hopkin, (1973). An Economic History of West Africa, London. P.206 I.L.Bashir, (1980). Socio-Economic Development in British West Africa from 1900-1940, the case of Nigeria Sokoto L. David, (1985). The Unbound Prometheus Technological Changes in Europe, London, OUP p.45 R.W. Gavin and W. Oyemakinde, (1980). Economic Development in Nigeria since 1800, in Ground Work for Nigerian History, Ibadan, p.152
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English Language an Agent for National Development in Nigeria: Issues, Challenges and the Way Forward
Richard Gyasi Department English Language and Literacy, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract English is the world’s common language. English has come of age as a global language. It is spoken by a quarter of the world’s population, enabling a true single market in knowledge and ideas. It now belongs to the world and increasingly to non-native speakers – who today far outnumber native speakers. But when English language is addressed as a tool for development in Nigeria it is often seen as a hindrance to development. In this respect this paper will attempt to argue for the usage of English language in Nigeria as an effective tool for national development amidst the challenges of the 21st century. In the course of discussion, these challenges appearing in the process of education for development were presented and supported by opinions and examples. The paper ends in conclusions directly related to real-life situations, and gives implications to be utilized in the English language educational process directed at achieving development in Nigeria. Keywords. Language, English Language, National, Development, Challenges.
Introduction English language is the lingua franca of Nigeria as well as the ‗second‘ language. A ‗second‘ language is the language that comes after one‘s primary language. Ironically, it‘s also Nigeria‘s dominant language, with the use of English being taught at various levels of Nigeria‘s educational system. When every guiding and holding factors are scrutinizing, the role of English language in National development is noteworthy. English originally the language of England, but through the historical efforts of the British Empire it has become the primary or secondary language of many British colonies in Sub-Saharan Africans including Nigeria. Currently, English is not only the official language of Nigeria; indisputably it is the vehicle for international communication. It is therefore the major language of Nigeria and indispensable plays an international role. There are other languages which are also commonly used in Nigeria but English has eliminated rival tongues by its vigorous efficiency in national development. The pressure of English challenges these other languages, as the intensifying interrelationships of economics and trade circumscribe their
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international utility. African countries need both international and national means of communication neither of which is likely to be provided by an indigenous language (Povey, 1976:13). Therefore English becomes official language of the administration, medium of instruction, and subject of study in Nigerian schools. Knowledge of English is considered as necessary for activity, thought and employment. Making this possible is the use of a common Language-English.
English Language English is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and eventually became a global lingua franca because the English language allows non-native speakers to adopt to it easily. (Crystal, 2008:3-6., Wardhaugh, 2010: 4). It is named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to the area of Great Britain that later took their name, as England. Both names derive from Anglia, a peninsula in the Baltic Sea. The language is closely related to Frisian and Low Saxon, and its vocabulary has been significantly influenced by other Germanic languages, particularly Norse (a North Germanic language), and to a greater extent by Latin and French (Frinkenstaed etal, 1976:6) English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a group of West Germanic (Ingvaeonic) dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th century, are collectively called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman Conquest of England; this was a period in which the language was influenced by French (Crystal, 2003a : 86). Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London, the printing of the King James Bible and the start of the Great Vowel Shift (bbc.co.uk) Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, and later the United States, Modern English has been spreading around the world since the 17th century. Through all types of printed and electronic media, and spurred by the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English has become the leading language of international discourse and the lingua franca in many regions and professional contexts such as science, navigation and law (The Route of English), especially in the commonwealth. English is the largest language by number of speakers, and the third most-spoken native language in the world, after Standard Chinese and Spanish (Gordon, 2006:1). It is the most widely learned second language and is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states including Nigeria. According to Crystal there are more people who have learned it as a second language than the native speakers. It is estimated that there are over 2 billion speakers of English. English is the most commonly spoken language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Ireland and New Zealand, and it is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa and South Asia (Crystal, 2003b: 108). It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union and many other world and regional international organisations. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of
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speakers of this Indo-European branch. English has a vast vocabulary, though counting how many words any language has is impossible. According to Algeo (1999: 57-91), English speakers are called "Anglophones". Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo- European dependent marking pattern, with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed Subject +verb+ Object (SVO) word order and a complex syntax (Konig, 1994:532). Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses, aspect and mood, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives and some negation. The variation among the accents and dialects of English used in different countries and regions—in terms of phonetics and phonology, and sometimes also vocabulary, grammar, and spelling—can often be understood by speakers of different dialects, but in extreme cases can lead to confusion or even mutual unintelligibility between English speakers
National Development Scholars hold that national development is not an easy concept to define. Obasi (1987:5) gives reasons for the difficulty encountered in defining the concept. He holds that the term is ambiguous and is perceived differently by different people. To rise above the difficulties, which scholars attribute to the definition of national development, we attempt to separate the two words involved in our study. We analyze these two words differently, and then bring them together again in order to give an acceptable definition. The two words are national and development. National The word national is an adjective of another word, nation. To understand the meaning of national we must first know the meaning of nation. Nation is a tricky word to define. It yields different meanings depending on the side from which it is approached. Majorly, the definition of nation is approached from three perspectives: the cultural perspective, the psychological perspective and the political perspective. Wellman‘s definition captures these three perspectives in the definition of a nation. According to Wellman, ―a nation is a cultural group of people who identify with one another and either have or seek some degree of political self-determination.‖ (0basi, 1987, p.4).The cultural aspect of a nation demands the common possession of certain cultural elements like language, dressing, values, etiquette, traditions, crafts, mores, history, etc. The psychological aspect emphasizes the consciousness of these possessions and the collective identity which they foist on all possessors. On the other hand, it is the political aspect that calls for self-determination. The scope of our present study emphasizes all of these aspects of a nation. However, while recognizing the role of the cultural and psychological in the making of a nation, as understood in this study and as is necessary for it, the term, nation, as used in the context of this course ―English Language and National Development,‖ is analogous to a state, a country. Thus, the definition given to a country can also be applied to a nation. According to Anderson (1996),
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―A clearly defined territory which (i) is recognized internationally as a state (ii) is presided over by a government able to make and enforce independent decisions concerning domestic policy and law and foreign policy and (iii) is permanently occupied by a specific population.‖ (p. 36). Development Development has become the watchword of our time. Despite the widespread use of the term, scholars do not agreed on its meaning. The implication is that development is defined differently by various people. In the same manner, the difference in the definitions of development arises because people define development from the perspective of their own disciplines. It is these disciplines that colour most of the definitions given of development. The first of these is that by Guzman et al. (2017: 192) define development as ―the accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in the progress of an economy‖ .Todaro and Smith (2011:5) define development as ―the process of improving the quality of all human lives and capabilities by raising people‘s levels of living, self-esteem, and freedom.‖. You must notice immediately that Todaro and Smith emphasize human person as the centre of development, unlike Guzman et al. who emphasized on economic progress. In Todaro and Smith, we identify an effort to improve the human person not because of what can be gained from him but simply because he is a human person. It can be said here that man is properly instituted as the subject, goal and reason for development and not its object. Todaro and Smith‘s definition emphasizes three dimensions as constitutive of development. They are (a) Economic Dimension (b) Psychological Dimension and, (c) Social Dimension. Consequently, national development is the development which belongs to a nation. Obasi (1987: 60) define development as ―the progressive transformation of the economic, social and political structures of a society from relatively less complex, less efficient and less desirable forms to relatively more complex, more efficient and more desirable forms‖. National development is seen by Awotokun (1994: 130) as a minimum socio and political development as well as economic development in the building of a national identity. The ability of a country to improve the social welfare of the people by providing social amenities like quality education, water, good roads access to health facilities , etc accounts for the development of any nation.
Arguments in Favour of English as a Tool for National Development It is hard to imagine the modern world without the English language. It is in the top three of the most spoken languages in the world. English has become the lingua franca of travel, business, and international communications. In fact, Nigeria is ranked 4th among countries with the highest population of English speakers (List, 2019: 615). But how important is English for us? English as Language for Commerce and Economic development As Nigeria economies look to increase their commodity exports, ―the security of millions of African farmers depends on the negotiation and marketing skills--
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including their command of English--possessed by the leaders and exporters who represent them‖ (Negash, 2011, para.4). In this way English is displayed not only as the language of world markets, but also as the language of inter-country trade and negotiation within the African continent. The ability to clearly write in English is also key, as many forms of business communication, from emails to presentations and marketing to important business contracts, are written in English. In some industries in Nigeria, knowledge of business terminology in English is critical for entry into and the success of a business. Workers need to have an understanding and command of detailed vocabulary dealing with specific concepts in order to be able to communicate effectively with other professionals in the business. Examples of specialized businesses requiring knowledge of English include computing, engineering, science, technology, medicine and law. English has emerged as one of the major languages for doing business on the Internet in Nigeria. A website written in English can attract many customers and enable even small business owners in remote villages in Nigeria to sell items to people around the world. Well-written product and service descriptions in English are keys for attracting new customers and keeping them up to date on any new product offerings. English Language as Unifying Language for Peace and National Development National development only anchor in an environment where there is peace, people‘s right and freedom respected. Many scholars argue that in certain cultural contexts, the English language can be seen as a language of unity for peace and peace is a platform for sustainability for development. For example, in Nigeria English serve as the language of nationalism, concerned with political integration, efficiency and peace (Bamgbose, 1991:20). It is the language that brings all the supposed ―nations‖ of Nigeria to function as one mention is often made of each ethnic group being a nation on its own with the Hausa nation, the Ibo nation, the Yoruba nation, the Edo nation, Jukunland, Tivland, Urhoboland, Ogoniland etc. as examples. But, the cohesion of all under the subsuming Nigerian nation is possible through English. English as Language to Sustain Education for National Development Some Nigerian scholars such as Bamgbose and Akere (1991:5), vehemently opposed the use of English as the language of education and for that reason, openly canvassed in parliament for the replacement of English language with one of the indigenous languages as the official language citing the problem most people have in understanding the language and the inability to communicate effectively through the language as the major barrier. However, much as one would like to salute the sense of patriotism demonstrated by these Nigerian scholars, the fact remains that none of the indigenous languages has the linguistic capacity to handle the teaching of subjects like physics, chemistry, mathematics, geography, etc. This fact is buttressed by Adedeji, (1992:11) when he points out that:
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―A science student needs language for acquiring and communicating knowledge and skills in science and technology. He needs language to help him define concepts and describe substances, objects, locations and processes, report facts, draw inferences, make conclusions, classify items and make generalizations‖. What should be the purpose of education? This is a question that has agitated the minds of teachers and policy makers all through the ages. Development incorporates personal empowerment, Knowledge, which is often equated to power, is a catalyst for gaining positive self-image and confidence. A global education is key to such knowledge gain since it empowers students with information in the following areas synthesised by Sen (2010:2) as constituting the global curriculum: cross-cultural awareness, global issues, universal values, critical thinking/leadership skills and experiential learning. The purpose of education in Nigeria is for national unity and development. This has informed many of the reform programmes of successive governments. There have been initiatives by government on nomadic education, technical skills development, professional enhancement and continuous education among others. It is only through the English language that this basic education at different levels can be achieved. Even the nomadic education has to be done in English language because the concept to be used in teaching at a higher level (right after primary three) has to be provided in the English language. Educational opportunity and literacy have long been key elements in programmes committed to human development (Street, 2011: 6). The increased status of English within a global economy of languages has meant that English language education has also begun to be promoted as an important factor in international development programmes. Indeed, Bruthiaux (2002:289) contends that development efforts have now become ‗inextricably linked in governmental and academic circles as well as in the media with English language education‘ (pp. 269-291). Policies supporting the teaching of English as a means of educational enhancement in Nigeria are not solely based on societal beliefs about the power of English to transform people‘s lives, however, and there is some tangible evidence that knowledge of English can correlate with a better overall education in certain contexts and sustain development (Grin, 2011:). Moreover, links between quality education and economic growth have been clearly established in some recent studies (Little and Green, 2009). From this evidence, therefore, one could argue that the prominent role assigned to quality English education in the education systems of developing countries is partially justified, though again context-specific factors need to be taken into account for each actual case. English as language of Technology for National Development If English language has aided in national development in Nigeria, technology has enabled it to jump the fence and to thrive without the physical contact which had previously been necessary. The growth of English, and the emergence of the internet as a global communication channel, is mutually reinforcing development (Robert, 2015:15). Today Nigeria has benefited a lot from the modern technology.
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They are able to read and interpret, and put into use the instruction of such information. As well as being promoted as a key factor for economic competitiveness and educational advancement, English is also often framed within the discourse as a means of allowing access to technology, which in turn is seen as facilitating learning and supporting educational change. In this sense, the use of technology in such projects is viewed as a way to help reach the United Nations‘ Millennium Development Goals of universal primary education and of developing global partnerships that make available the benefits of new technologies. A discourse that simultaneously promotes English and ICT education can be found in policy statements across the globe, and is not restricted to underdeveloped and developing countries. The provision of ICTs in schools, and training in the use of them, is thus also seen as part of the way to provide people in remote areas in Sub-Saharan Africa with opportunities to access knowledge and education skills. In development contexts, this type of strategy is mostly viewed not as a luxury, but as part of any individual‘s freedom (Sen, 2010:5). In fact, Graddol (2006:65) argues that exclusion from these networks is one of the most damaging forms of exclusion, as he sees access to ICT as an ‗essential tool for economic development‘. As Graddol(2006:72) notes, information technology and English have become ‗basic skills‘ in education globally; and along with literacy in the national language (and perhaps the mother tongue) and numeracy, they are now seen as ‗generic skills [that are] needed to acquire new knowledge and specialist skills in the future‘ (para.1). Moreover, research suggests that access to technology has a particular appeal in development contexts where it ‗holds the allure not only of improving education and economic competitiveness, but also of allowing a nation to leapfrog to modernity‘ (Warschauer, 2004, pp.377-390). English as Language for Tourism Sustainability Any discussion of development sustainability in Nigeria must consider the phenomenon of globalization and, in particular, that of international mobility. We will look at one aspects of mobility which is international tourism. Tourism delivers jobs, something Nigeria needs above all else if they are to make a success of their growing demographics. So how is the continent faring? It is improving but is far from reaching its potential, according to a 2016 United Nations World Tourism Organisation report. The continent of Africa recorded 53.5 million international tourist arrivals in 2015, up from 50.4 million in 2010, but was still slightly lower than 2014‘s 55.3 million. The continent secured $33bn in tourism receipts in 2015, with 3% of global market share in terms of revenue and 5% in terms of tourist numbers (African Report, 2018). International tourism is already a huge international commercial undertaking. In 2008 there were 922 million international tourist arrivals. In the same year US$944 billion (30% of the world‘s export of services) was generated through international tourism. Despite occasional fluctuations in line with world economic trends, tourism is expected to continue to grow rapidly and by 2020 it is predicted that
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there will be 1.6 billion international tourist arrivals. The importance of English in international tourism is well recognized (UNWTO Report, 2016). There is a dynamic commercially driven response to the need in the form of English language training provided as part of tourism training programmes and in the publication of English language course books designed particularly for those engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism is particularly important to developing countries. The United Nations World Tourism Organisation recognises this importance through its ST-EP (Sustainable Tourism –Eliminating Poverty) Programme which provides assistance for the development of tourism in poor, rural and marginalised communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Examples of current projects include English language training for the staff of tourist lodges in Nigeria, Ghana etc (Hywel, 2010).
Challenges in using English Language as an Agent for National Development English language as an agent for national development in Nigeria is hindered by challenges slowing its positive effects. Some of the problems are highlighted below: Problem of Mother Tongue (L1) Interference in English language learning. According to Oluwayemisi (2014:124) other challenges confronting the teaching and learning of grammar in Nigeria are Intralingua and Interlingua problems. Interlingua problems: These are problems that arise from the interference of the native languages. Second English language learners experience mother tongue interference phenomenon which deals with problems a learner encounters when he transfers the acquired skills in his native or indigenous language (L1) to his second language (L2). The problems can be syntactic (grammatical), phonological (mispronunciation), semantic or morphological. Nzinga (1983) in Oluwole lamented the low performance of new entrants at the University of Ilorin saying that-there is clear ignorance of most basic elements of logical interference ... and most of the students do not have the opportunity to undertake advanced reasoning tasks. Phonetically, learners of English as a second language find it difficult to pronounce certain English words because the sounds are absent from their native languages. Examples are dental sounds // in thin, this and// in them, that etc.; and also palato-alveolar fricative sound /ȝ/ in measure, pleasure etc. Syntactically, the students employ plurality to honour elders. Problem of Shortage of Specialist Teachers in English Language Another problem which English learners encounter is staff shortage. Oluwayemisi (2014:128) explained that-there are academic staff shortages across board particularly in the critical areas English language; Over 60% of the academic staff in the Nigerian University System is in the category of Lecturer I and below of English language (Oluwayemisi, 2014: 129). These shortages are compounded by inter-and intra-sectoral brain drain. It furthers revealed that Colleges of Education has staff shortfall of 56.9%, Poly/Monotechnics 56.9% and Universities 39.1%.These have implications on the equality of teaching and learning especially at tertiary level. In my opinion, there should be one lecturer to between 20 and 50
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students; however, what obtains in our higher institutions is the opposite. Most of the lecture halls where general courses are taught are usually overpopulated and since listening which is the first foundational skill in learning English language cannot be done in a noisy and rowdy environment, learning is hampered. Moreover, facilitators easily lose control of the class except in situations where colleagues assist in class control (Kannon, 2009: 26). Lack of Basic and Necessary Teaching and Learning Equipment Lack of basic facilities and equipment in teaching and learning challenges effective teaching and learning of English Language. Most schools and colleges in Nigeria lack essential equipment which could have strengthen learners‗skills. Most schools do not have language laboratory, well equipped libraries, softwares, computers, etc which facilitate the learning of English language.
Recommendations For English language to contribute effectively to national rebranding project and national development the federal Government needs to be more committed to Bilingual education, with English language giving a prominent attention. A more serious commitment entails the following: 1. There should be an evaluation on the curriculum in general in particular. For English teaching, evaluation will be made to ensure a thorough look and discussion throughout the entire formal system from primary (optional) to secondary (compulsory) and tertiary (compulsory) education. 2. In order to improve the teaching and learning quality, several institutions should look out and learn from other countries what they have been doing concerning the contents, teaching methods and school/program evaluation and teacher/learner assessment concerning the use of English language side-by-side of the local language. The government should set up twinning programs, joint venture partnerships and different academic activities. 3. English teachers should apply new technologies, pedagogy methodologies and techniques in teaching. 4. A close cooperation among institutions should be developed to widen the opportunities for English teachers to attend various types of academic training. Strong emphasis should be placed on teacher training and retraining, and selection and placement. 5. Effort should be made toward the funding of adult education programmes that will focus on teaching and learning English language to illiterates who are artisans, tourist guides, market women, drivers, labourers, farmers and all those who engaged in a blue collar job. etc. 6. Though a lot of tasks need to be done, action research, classroom research, and especially the sharing of expertise and findings in the field to bridge the gap between Nigeria and the wider world.
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7. Sufficient attention should be paid to quality assurance in English teaching and learning. Many tasks must be done in the future to put in place quality assurance and accreditation criteria and practices. 8. There should been an increasing trend through the media to recognize English as a very important tool in national development, cooperation and globalization but not a rival to local languages.
Conclusion The English Language is an indispensable tool for national unity, integration and global communication. It plays a pivotal role in the attainment of sustainable developmental goals. The paper advocated total utilization of the English language roles especially in contemporary Nigerian society where corruption, underdevelopment, security quagmires have eaten deep into its fabrics. English should be allowed to perform its role most importantly in national development. English is equally the language of nationalism. It plays a significant role in almost all spheres of human endeavour, be it in education, politics, the judiciary, administration, economics, religion, government, business and legislation. Summarily, it is the key factor to unending development in Nigeria in specific areas such as education, national unity and the overall nation building of the country Finally, the paper does not in any way intend to suggest that the indigenous languages are inferior or incapable of performing educational functions like the English language, however, it is the believe of the paper that the geographical spread of English language provides the benefits for more international communication and interactions than the indigenous languages that still have a limited spread. Nevertheless, it is important that we should not exaggerate the importance of English nor should we undervalue the importance of other languages. We must temper our enthusiasm for English with a sense of responsibility towards those who do not have easy access to it.
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Awobuluyi, O. (1991). ―The National Language Question,‖ A Public Lecture delivered under the Faculty of Arts Guest Lecture Series, University of Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria, 15th January. Awotokun, M.A (1994). Local Government Administration Under 1999 Constitution in Nigeria Journal of Social Science. Vol. 10, No. 2. Pp 129- 134. Bamgbose, A. (1991). Language and the Nation. The Language Question in Sub- Saharan Africa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Bamgmose, A. & Akere (eds). 1991 Summary of Recommendation from the Seminar on the Implementation of the Language Provisions of the National Policy on Education, Abuja, Nigeria: Nigerian Education & Development Council, Federal Ministry of Education. Bruthiax, P. (2002). Supping the dismal scientist: Practical interdisciplinary in language Education and development economies. Journal of Mulitilingual and Multicultural Development. 21(4); 269-291 Crystal, D. (2003a). English as a Global Language (2nd ed). Cambridge Press. Crystal, D (2003b). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2nd ed). Cambridge University Press. http://doi.ng/10.1017/CBO97805114456997 Crystal, D. (2008). ―Two Thousand Million?‖. English Today 24.1 (2008) 3-6. English Today 264(1):3-6 Finkenstaedt, T and Wolff. (1973). Ordered profession; studies in dictionaries and English Lexicon. C. Winter. Gordon, R. G. J. (ed.), (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. SIL International. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com/15. Guzman, P.C., Pereira R. A. R., and Colenbrander, B.J.F. (2017). Measuring links between Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Urban Development: An Overview of Global Monitoring. 60, 192–201. Graddol, D. (2008). English Next. London: British Council. Retrieved from https://englishagenda .britishcouncil.org/continuing-professional- development. Grin, F. (2011). English is Economic Values: Facts and Fallacies. World Englishes 20(1); 65-78. How English Evolved into a Global Language. BBC. 20th December, 2010. Retrieved on 22nd May, 2019. Hywell, C. (2010). The English Language in Development. Retrieved from teachingenglish.org.uk
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Teachers Utilization of Instructional Materials in Promoting Students Performance in Agricultural Science in some selected Secondary Schools in Gummi Local Government Area-Zamfara State
1Musa, U T, 2Abubakar S A,3 Auwal A A. Department of Agricultural Science Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract Instructional materials are materials that are needed in order to enhance teaching and learning for training pupils and students in primary and secondary schools. The objectives of the study is to determine the roles of instructional materials in the teaching and learning process, their availability or otherwise and find out the extent at which teachers make use of such materials in teaching agricultural science in the study area. The research design used in the study was descriptive survey, the sample size of ten (10) schools for this research, in all a total of twenty- four (24) questionnaires were administered in the ten (19) selected schools. Simple percentage was the statistical tool used in data analysis, the results of the research indicated that the use of farm implements, live animals, pictures, cardboard papers, tape recorder, laboratory chemicals etc in teaching promote the students’ performance in agricultural science. Also improvements of the teaching, methodology, good teaching qualification, teaching experience, effective practical lesson promote students’ performance in agricultural science. Finally, the research made some recommendations encouraging government and non- governmental organizations to provide quality teaching materials for secondary schools in the study area. Keywords: Instructional Materials, Teachers, Pupils, Students, Utilization, Performance, Agricultural Science.
Introduction Instructional materials are essential and significant tools needed for teaching and learning in order to promote teachers ―effectiveness and students‘ performance‖, Alabere, (2017). Some years back teachers mainly concern with the knowledge of the subject matter, and how to organize and present the content of the lesson meaningfully (Abometa, et al, 2013). Teachers of those days made minimal use of instructional materials or sometimes, the materials were insufficient, but nevertheless now more emphasis is laid on the use of instructional materials (Junadu, 2008).
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It has always been the concern of the educationists all over the world to determine, organize and teach the subject matter that is more relevant to the need of the society (Anonymos, 1990). To achieve this several innovations were developed. One of the innovations in the educational system is the production of several teaching strategies at different levels of educations. Instructional materials otherwise known as teaching aids constitute one of the primary tools in the hands of the teacher for effective and learning to take place. The importance of incrustation materials is demonstrated in a popular adage that ―when we hear alone in the class we forget much of what he heard while when we hear and see we forget less and recognized better‖ (Albert,2012). The instructional materials include pictures, cardboard paper, television, sound films, tape recorders, laboratory chemicals, live animals and farm implements to mention but a few. Today children are growing up in a world of many sources of information as are result of which lesson are more understandable when materials are in the teaching and learning process (Akinbande, 2000). Whatever we hear, seen and do, the rate of forgetting is significantly lowered, but stigmatized more in student‘s memory (Ogizi, 2010). The instructional materials are used to supplement the normal process of listening speaking reading and writing and serve the pupils in meeting their educational goals. (John, 2014). Instructional materials are classified into three categories as visual aids, audio aids and audio visual aids, the visual aids facilitate learning through the sense of sight e.g modern diagrams, photography, cartoon, specimens and printed aids while the audio aids are that appeals to the sense of hearing only e.g record while the audio visual aids are those teaching aids which appeals to both sense of sight and hearing e.g television motion pictures, videos (Oyejemezi, 2016). The effectiveness of instructional materials in promoting students‖ academic performance in teaching and learning is indisputable. It provides in the much needed sensory experience needed by the learners for an effective and meaningful behavioral change. Instructional materials are meant to improve the quality of education for effective academic performance of students in schools. The performance of the students on the intended learning outcomes provides the validation- loop on the success of the interaction and instruction. The performance of students in senior secondary schools is not encouraging (Onlieowo, 2016). It was observed that the poor performance of student is unconnected with non-utilization of suitable instructional material. Many teachers go to class to teach subject without any materials to assist the learners. No laboratory, live animal, tape recorders among others to facilitate leaning. Learning is facilitated when learning make use of at least three of the sense organs namely: seeing, hearing and touching.
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In making use of any instructional materials, such materials must be previewed, that is, having full knowledge of the materials; prepare the environment where it will be used; prepare audience by means of making sure that the materials to be used are relevant to the lesson of instruction.
Materials and Methods A well-organized questionnaire was distributed to Agricultural Science teachers and principals in order to verify the instructional materials used in teaching agricultural Science in selected secondary schools in Gummi local Government of Zamafara State. A number of variables were choosing to collect the data these variables include, Teachers qualifications, teaching experience, students‘ performance and instructional materials that are necessary in Agricultural Science teaching learning situation. The research also carried out by physical inspection of instructional materials to confirm data obtain from the questionnaires. A total number of twenty-four (24) questionnaires were distributed to ten (10) school in which G.U.S.S Gummi and G.D.S.S Gummi has also four (4) questionnaires each while the remaining eight schools, G.G.D.S.S Gummi, G.D.S.S Daki Takwas, G.D.S.S Falale, G.D.S.S Gyalange, G.D.S.S B/Magaji and G.D.S.S Gwalli has two (2) questionnaires each. The number of questionnaires that were distributed was based on the number of agricultural science teachers available in each school. Simple random sampling techniques were used to select the ten (10) secondary for this research. However, the purposive sampling techniques was used in selecting the respondents from each of the selected school, the purposive sample was employed to ensure that only teachers of agricultural science were selected. Simple descriptive statistics tools of frequency and percentage were used for data analysis.
Result and Discussion The data collected were gathered, sorted, analyzed, and presented in tables.
Types of Schools The result obtained indicated that nine (9) schools in all the selected schools were day schools which is 90% while only one (1) schools is a boarding schools which 10%. This indicated that day schools dominated the schools in Gummi Local Government area of Zamfara State. See table I below:
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Table 1: Types of Schools Types of Schools Frequency Percentage% Day School 9 90 Boarding School 1 10 Total 10 100
Number of Agricultural Science Teachers in each School The result obtained on the number of Agricultural Science teachers in each school indicated that G.U.S.S Gummi and G.D.S.S Gummi has four (4) teachers accounted for 16.8% each while each of the remaining eight (8) schools has two (2) agricultural science teachers having 8.3% each. This indicates that G.U.S.S and G.D.S.S Gummi has more agricultural science teachers see table 2 below
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents Base on Number of Agricultural Science Teachers Name of schools Frequency Percentage% G.D.S.S Gummi 4 16.8 G.U.S.S Gummi 4 16.8 G.D.S.S Gummi 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Daki Takwas 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Gayari 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Birin Tudu 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Falale 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Gyalange 2 8.3 G.D.S.S B/Magaji 2 8.3 G.D.S.S Gwali 2 8.3 Total 24 100
Classes Taught The result obtained on the classes taught indicated that junior secondary classes has fifteen (15) teachers 60.2% while senior secondary schools has (9) teachers scored 37.5%. This shows that junior section has more Agricultural science teachers than the senior section because junior section are more populated.
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Table 3: Distribution of Teachers Base on Classes Taught Classes taught Frequency Percentage% Senior classes 9 37.5 Junior classes 15 62.5 Total 24 100
Qualification of Teachers The result obtained indicates that fifteen (15) Agricultural Science teachers in the whole school are N.C. E holders (62.5%) followed by seven (7) teachers with B.sc Agricultural (29.2%) and two (2) teachers are B.Ed holders (8.3%) this shows that N.C.E holders dominate the teaching of Agricultural Science in Gummi Secondary Schools followed by B.Sc. and B.Ed. holders, with No Diploma holders. See table four (4) below.
Table 4: Qualification of Teachers
Qualifications Frequency Percentage% N.C.E 15 62.5 B. Ed 2 8.3 B.Sc Agric 7 29.2 Diploma 0 0 Total 24 100
Teachers Teaching Experience The result obtained on teachers teaching experience shows that eight (8) teachers in the selected Secondary Schools were having two years teaching experience which is 33.3% which tally with those having 10 to 20 years of experience, followed by six (6) teachers with less than two years of teaching experience (25.1%), then two teachers having twenty and above years of experience (8.3%). This indicates that teachers with two year teaching experience and those with ten- twenty (10-20) years are the majority.
Table 5: Distribution of Teachers based on Teaching Experience Teaching Experience Frequency Percentages (%) Less than two year 6 25.1 Two years only 8 33.3 Ten – twenty years 8 33.3 Twenty and above 2 8.3 Total 24 100
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Use of Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science The result obtained indicates that 24 teachers (100%) in all the selected Secondary Schools in Gummi make us of instructional materials for teaching Agricultural science while no teacher teaches without instructional materials. According to the response most teachers used instructional material like simple farm tools such as Hoe, Rake, Axe, Sickle, Watering Can, Maps, Diagram, Chart, Soil Samples (Sandy, Clay and Loamy). See table six below
Table 6: Distribution of Teachers Base on the Use of Instructional Materials in Teaching Agricultural Response Frequency Percentage% Yes 24 100 No 0 0 Total 24 100
Types of Instructional Materials Used The results obtained on the types of instructional materials used shows that nine (9) teachers in all the selected secondary schools were using modern types of instructional materials accounted for 100% while fifteen (15) teachers were using improvised types teaching aids accounting for about 62.5%. This shows that most of the teachers in all the selected secondary schools make used of improvised instructional materials for teaching Agricultural science. See table seven below.
Table 7: Distribution of Teachers base on Types of Instructional Materials Used Response Frequency Percentage% Modern 9 37.5 Improvised 15 62.5 Total 24 100
Availability of Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science The result obtained shows that Eleven (11) teachers in all the selected Secondary Schools (45.8%) report that there are adequate instructional materials while Thirteen (13) teachers (54.2%) believed that teaching materials for Agricultural science is inadequate. See table eight below.
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Table 8: Distribution of Teachers based on Availability of Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science Response Frequency Percentage% Adequate 11 45.8 Inadequate 13 54.2 Total 24 100
Differences Noticed by the Teachers while Using Instructional Materials for Teaching Agricultural Science The result indicates that eleven (15) teachers noticed that the students understanding is very high when instructional materials were used in teaching (62.5%) followed by nine (9) teachers whose response was that students have high understanding (37.5%) and none of the teachers report a low understanding by the students when instructional materials were used for teaching Agricultural Science in the study area.
Table 9: Distribution of Teachers base on Differences that Teachers noticed on the use of Instruction Materials Differences Frequency Percentage% Very High 15 62.5 High 9 37.5 Low 0 0 Total 24 100
Result Discussion The researched work was specifically designed to determine the effects of instructional material utilization on the academic performance of students in agricultural science in secondary schools in Gummi Local Government Area, Zamfara State. In order to achieve this purpose simple percentage and frequencies were used in analyzing the data obtain from the respondents. One of the objective the study was to identify the types of instructional materials being used to influence students‘ academic performance in agricultural science in secondary schools in the study area. Data collected were analyzed and it was observed that utilization of good and relevant major instructional materials influence students‘ academic performance in agricultural science. The result also indicates that teachers‘ qualifications and experience in the used of instructional materials influences students‘ academic performance in agricultural science. Other factors are motivation, facilities and materials, space of time available, number of learners. However, majority (54%) of the teachers were not satisfied with the availability of instructional materials for teaching agricultural
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science in the selected secondary schools. This is in line with the work of Olaitan and Agusiobo, (1994) where they state that,
Major Findings That the use of instructional materials is important to influence students‘ academic performance in agriculture science, that teachers‘ qualification and experience were the major factors affecting the use of instructional materials to influence students‘ academic performance in agricultural science in secondary schools. The success of achieving what the instruction materials are met to achieve in an instructional situation depend on their suitability, adequacy and effective utilization.
Conclusion The study was carried out to determine the utilization of instructional materials on the academic performance of students in agricultural science in secondary schools in Gummi local government, Zamfara state. In order to achieve this objective, the research used questionnaires as the instrument for data collection. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study. A total of 24 respondents (as stated in the methodology) made up of teachers were used for the study. The data collected were presented in tables and analyzed using simple percentages and frequencies. The failure rate of students will be curtailed if agricultural science teachers were made to utilize appropriate and relevant instructional materials while teaching agricultural science in secondary schools. This was affirmed by the respondents where they say there is very high understanding by students when relevant instructional materials are used the teaching situation. Instructional materials were very important to influence student‘s academic performances in agricultural science as they can simplify and clarify what is complex and difficult to express in words.
Recommendations The following recommendations were made based on the findings of the study. The agricultural science teachers should endeavor to use and try to improvise instructional materials for effective teaching of agricultural science in the secondary schools. Government should ensure that adequate employment of dedicated and qualified agricultural science teachers to teach the subject in all secondary schools in the study area and in the state. Adequate and suitable instructional materials for teaching agricultural science should be made available to all secondary schools for the enhancement of students‘ academic performance in agricultural science. Government should sponsor training and re-training of teachers on utilization of agricultural science instructional materials.
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There is need for a well-equipped laboratory and farms for agricultural science practical. This will go a long way in ensuring that students are exposed to different aspects of practical learning.
References Abinbande, G. (2000). Principles and Practice of Education Technology, International Publishers Ltd, Old Even Eventual Bulding Dugbe Ibadan. Abometa, A.O Patric, B.A and Mathew. C.D (2013). Journal of History and Refilling Public Education Centre. Alabere R.A (2017). Education and Modern Language University Malaysia/ CATLS, Ilorin, Nigeria Albert o. and Peter, C. (2014). Learning and Teaching Principles and Practice of Education for Nigeria Teachers Training College. Anon ymous k. (1990). Certificate in Education Learning and Sandwich Course Book on Education Cycle, National Institute Kaduna. Etim P.J (1998). Instructional Modules Development for improving Agricultural Science Education in Nigeria Secondary School Afr. J. Educ Inform Manage. Ikot A.S (2008) Effects of Instructional Materials Utilization on performance of Junior Secondary Students in Practical Agricultural in Ikot-Absi Local Government Area. Unpublished M.Sc (Ed) Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Education, University of Uyo, Uyo. Ibe-Bassey G.S (1991). The Selection and Use of Instructional Materials Implications for Teachers ―Effectiveness J. Educ. Media and Techno John S.O (2012). Agricultural Methodology for Teaching Agriculture, Department of Vocational Teachers Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Macmillan Ltd. London and Ibadan Stocks. Junaidu M.I and Salawu, A.A (2008.) Reading in Education Vol. II Education Foundation Unit Facility of Education Extension Service, Nigeria. Ogizi A. and Canham P. (2010) Learning and Teaching Principles and Practice of Education for Teachers Training Colleges, Oxford University Press, Britain. Onjemezu, D.A (2016) Resources Development in Education, Imo State University Press, Okigwe.
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Monetization of Fringe Benefit in Public Service for Sustainable National Development Zainab Ibrahim Department of Economics, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract The main trust of this paper is to consider and analyze issues that are useful for a successful implementation of the policy of monetization of fringe benefits in the Nigerian public service. The topic is a subject of current interest, not only to public servants who are directly affected by the policy pronouncement of the Federal Government, but to the generality of the Nigerian people who in one way or the other will be effected by the policy. In other to address the issues involved, the paper adopts a priori approach of analyses. It observed that the problem of monetization is not in the policy but that of implementation. In conclusion, no matter how laudable the objectives of the policy of monetization may be, certain people will still view the policy with suspicion. Therefore, public servants should embrace the policy with an open mind to ensure its success. Government, on its own put should put in place the necessary infrastructure, including adequate budgetary provisions. Keywords: Monetization, Public Service, Fringe Benefit, Sustainability, National Development
Introduction Monetization of Fringe Benefits in the Public Service is a subject of current interest, not only to public Service is a subject of current interest, not only to public servants who are directly affected by the policy pronouncements of the Federal government, but to the generality of the Nigerian people who in one way or the other will be affected by the policy (Daniel 2016). The subject can be considered as a hydra with tabular body and tentacles around its mouth. The extent of policy pronouncement on the issue of monetization and the, level of sensitization reached by government, make it very difficult for the subject to fizzle out even after initial implementation, just like some other government policies that often die halfway in the path of implementation. It is a matter that government cannot gloss over; the sensitization exercise has affected the psyche of every worker in the federal public service, with those at the state and local government level waiting to see how the policy of monetization will also affect them. In matters of this nature, these workers refuse to recognize the concept of a federation being preached by the government. They argue that what ¡s good for the goose is good for the gander (Budget Circular 2015). However, the main thrust of this paper to consider and proffer issues that will be very useful for a successful programme of implementation in other to achieve the objectives of the policy monetization. In this paper, the rationale for the policy of
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monetization the objectives of the policy of monetization, the issues of policy implementation, monitoring and strategy will be considered. The last sections of the paper contain the recommendations and conclusion.
The Rationale for the Policy of Monetization Against the backdrop of several political and socio-economic problems facing the economy, government decided to fashion out, the objectives of the policy of monetization in a manner that could resolve some of the teaching problems of the nation. Ekaitte (2013) observed that ―over the years, the cost of government has continued to escalate beyond imagination, arising mostly from the burden of providing basic amenities to the public servants. These amenities include residential accommodation, transport, medical services, utility services, fueling and maintenance of vehicles. For example, in 1977, recurrent expenditure was N158.563 billion. In 1998, it rose to N178.097 billion. Between 1999 and 2001. The increase rose sharply to N447.67 billion (1999); N461.61 billion (2000) and N79.33 billion (2001). Capital expenditure on the other hand was N269.651 billion (1997); N309.015 billion (1998); N498.027 billion (1999); N239.45 billion (2000) and N438.7 billion (2001). While the percentage of the Recurrent over total expenditure was 36.56 percent and 37.02 percent in 1997 and 1998 respectively, it rose sharply to 65.84 percent in 2000. The increases are attributed to the implementation of the new, salary increases in year 2000. Government is convinced that to move the economy forward. Monetization is the answer as it minimizes waste, misuse and abuse of public facilities and enhances allocation. Between January and December last year, the Federal Government also spent about N7.36tn on the implementation of the 2018 budget. The amount was spent on the three major expenditure component. They are recurrent expenditure, Capital Expenditure and Statutory transfers. The 2018 budget signed by president Muhammad Buhari on 20th June, 2018 had total spending of 9.1tn (Budget Circular, 2018) From the above, the entire concept of monetization is to cut costs in government spending Democratic governance is an expensive type of governance. It is the government of the people, by the people and for the people. It is the government that listens to the yearnings and aspirations of the people that elected the m through the ballot box. Therefore, it is not strange if government the government says that the cost of governance has continue to escalate and the burden of providing basic amenities for public officers has contributed significantly to the continuous increase in government recurrent expenditure, thereby leaving very little for capital development. Ogunleye (2011) observed statistical data obtained from the office of the accountant-general of the federation showed an increase in recurrent expenditure from N100.13 billion in 1997 to N478.29 billion in 2002. It was assumed that the increase was due solely to the increases in the salaries of public servant during the period. However, the increases, in the recurrent expenditure became more pronounce between 1999 and 2000 of democratic governance. The re-emergence of the presidential system of government in May 1999 added to the
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burden of both recurrent and capital expenditure. Salaries and allowance of political office holders and their numerous aides have to be paid. Infrastructural facilities have to be provided for the additional political office holders and their appointees. These are issues associated with democratic governance. The outcry of government on such issues does not absolve it from providing the basic amenities and infrastructural facilities for its citizens. The core issues that government is battling with and consider as problems of national concerns are: The escalating cost of government The burden of providing basic amenities for public officers. The ever rising increase in recurrent expenditure. The inadequacy of funds for capital development. The issues encapsulated above are very important and are matters that should be handled and resolved by a responsible government that is interested in national growth and development. The last democratic government led by President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan had since the assumption of power in May 2010 put in place certain policy measures to revamp the national economy. The policies include privatization, tax reforms, public service reforms, due process, trade reforms, local government reforms and procurement reforms. These reforms are being introduced to take Nigerian into the class of middle income earning nations and to, increase its gross national products from the present level of $300 to $630 or $700 bracket within the next 10 years (Faloseyi, 2014).
Objectives of the Policy of Monetization According to the federal government, one of the ways it thinks of solving problems of waste and misuse of public amenities in the possession of public officer is the introduction of the police f monetization into Federal Public Service. The objectives of the policy include the following: To encourage public servant to own personal houses, and to enable them plan for a more comfortable post-service life. To minimize waste, misuse and abuse of public facilities. The reduction of capital cost, maintenance and running cost. To reduce the rent burden on government as public servants make up over 80 percent of the tenants, especially in Abuja. The promotion of the, observance of maintenance culture and discipline in the use of public utilities since individuals will now have to pay for such services. The savings from monetization will enable government to prosecute more capital projects (Budget Circular, 2013 and SGF Circular, 2013). The above objectives are quite laudable and they can be achieved if appropriate machinery of policy implementation, monitoring and strategy is put in place. The
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achievement of the desired results will be of immense benefit to government, public servants and society at large.
Issues of Policy Implementation From the outset, there seems to be the problem of acceptability of the policy of monetization on the basis of its proposed implementation. The Editorial (2013) observed that the President (Chief Olusegun Obasanjo) had in his characteristic manner ordered the monetization of the public servant‘s benefits with effect from July 1, 2003 without input from the National Assembly. He had even gone ahead to recommend the measures to state governments in violation of the concept of separation of powers. The Editorial also observed that the president did not provide figures regarding how much would be saved each years and when the savings would start to accrue to the public purse. ―Like everything the President does. It is a measure compelled by good intention but which because of lack of consensus, might create more problems than it solves‖ (Editorial, 2013). Similarly, ―attempts by the senate to hide its dismay over the presidency‘s efforts to prosecute the on policy using the law makers to make implementation (Daniel, 2016) It has often been argued that Nigeria does not stop the laudable objectives. The problem with Nigeria is in the area of implementation of its programmes. There is skepticism that the implementation of the policy of monetization will not differ much from earlier policies that have failed in the process of implementation. In an interview with Okunrounmu (2013), he expressed the view that if the country goes about monetization the way it goes about most government programmes, it will suffer serious setbacks. In Nigeria, programmes are announced before planning commences. At the stage of pronouncement, Nigeria should know how much the policy of monetization would cost. What would be its financial implication on the nation‘s budget annually for the next five years? Answers should be given as to how the policy would be sustained. The man components of the policy of monetization include benefits, which were hitherto provided by government to entitled public officers at huge costs. Such benefits include residential accommodation, furniture, utility, domestic servants, motor vehicles, fuelling/maintenance of transport facilities, medical treatment, leave grant, meal subsidy and entertainment. The crucial components of the policy of monetization that require immediate implementation are: - (i) Residential Accommodation The highlights in relation to residential accommodation are as follows: 100 percent of annual basic salary to be paid unblocks annually to enable the officers, to rent houses of their choice. During the first year of the monetization policy, the residential accommodation allowance of officers, which is 100 percent of annual basic salary, will be converted to rent for the quarters they occupy.
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Government residential houses across the country will be sold by public auction at the end of the first year of monetization after proper valuation. Public officers occupying such houses will be given the first option to purchase the house, but at the price of the highest bidder. To ensure that government properties are properly maintained during the one year transition period, all residents will pay 10 percent of their basic salary as service charge into a trust found to be managed by a board of trustees made up of representatives of residents, facility managers appointed to manage each estate/group of property and the federal government. (ii) Furniture Allowance The highlights in relation to furniture allowance are: 300 percent of annual basic salary to be paid once in every four years The allowance will be paid annually at the rate of 74 percent of annual basic salary. (iii) Motor Vehicle and Transport The highlights in relation to motor vehicle loan and vehicle are: Government will no longer provide chauffeur driven vehicles to entitled officers 300 percent of annual basic salary will be granted as motor vehicle loan. Loan will be recovered within 6 years at 4 percent of interest. (iv) Use of Government Vehicles The highlights in relation to the use of government vehicles are: No new vehicle will he purchase by the ministry, Extra-Ministerial Department, Federal Government Agency or Parastatal. Each Ministry/Agency will be allowed a specific number of utility vehicles, including houses, for essential services. Where there is a need to purchase a new vehicle or vehicles by any Ministry, Extra-ministerial Department Agency or Parastatals, A request will be made to Mr. President for approval. A committee will be set up to work out details for the disposal of the vehicles. Service-wide staff buses will be pooled under the management of the office of the head of the Civil Service of the Federation to convey staff to and from office at an approved rate. (v) Fuelling/Maintenance and Transport Allowance The highlights in 10 percent of annual basic salary will be paid to public servants. 30 percent of annual basic salary will be paid to political, public and judicial office holders as contained in the Act, 2002.
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Relation to this Sub-section are: - (vi) Personal Assistance Allowance The highlight is: 25 percent of basic salary will be paid to entitled officers as listed in the certain political, public and judicial office holders (Salaries and Allowances, etc.) Act. 2002. The above component of the policy of monetization required immediate implementation. In order to guard against its failure, government has to address and adequately tackle the following issues: Preparation of budget estimates and timely submission to the Budget Office. Budge considers: ion and approval by the National Assembly as item on national priory. Quick resolution of areas of disagreement between the legislators and the executive. Signing of the Appropriation Act at least three months before the commencement of the government financial year. Compliance with the guidelines of the Appropriation and Supplementary Appropriation Acts. Timely release of funds to the relevant ministries benefits within the tax structure. Favorably treatment of the monetized benefits within the tax structure. Monthly rendition of financial reports in a standardized and uniform format by all ministries, Agencies, etc. The success or otherwise of the implementation of the monetized benefits largely depends on the sufficiency of funds in the Appropriation Act. The first year of implementation of the policy of monetization could be considered as the year of financial resources experiment. In the subsequent years, the lessons learnt in the first year will be used to tackle emerging problems associated with implementation of the policy. It is important to note at this juncture that a lot of savings well result from the successful implementation of the policy on the federal public service. These savings can be channeled to the provision of infrastructural facilities for the growth and development of the national economy. (Saka, 2011)
Issues of Monitoring Strategy The issues of monitoring and strategy are a sine-qua-non for the successful implementation and sustenance of the policy of monetization. The issues of crucial importance are the composition, of a presidential Monitoring and strategy Committee to collate, review and submit monthly progress report on the level of achievement or otherwise of the objectives of monetization. The Nigerian economy is volatile economy and is subject to various kinds of shocks. Therefore, any issue
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that requires effective monitoring and strategy should be broken down into phases of implementation. (Williamson & Oliver 2011) On the short run, the implementation of the policy of monetization will have serious consequences on the economic, social and political lives of the country and its citizens. The work of the Presidential Monitoring and strategy committee will also include the determination of such consequences on the fact of the economy. The short-time implementation of the policy of monetization has to be considered in relation to its consequences on the national budget inflation, unemployment, productivity, political and social aspects. On the short run, government has to be very careful on how it goes about implementing the policy on monetization. There is no doubt about the bitter pills of monetization on the short-run. Hence, it requires the assistance of such a committee to do the nutty gritty that will bring about the realization of the objectives of the policy of monetization. (Okoye, Annazodo, Izueke and Eze, 2012) In an interview with Odion (2012), he expressed the view that ―Nigeria seems to be running a special brand of democracy, where the president is operating as through we were still in military regime. If I look back to the time we took off since 1999, I can count as many policies that have been initiated and just simply rubbed-stamped by the National Assembly. Now, monetization has to deal with national revenue that is expenditure. In other words, spending the money that belongs to the country, and I think that the appropriate body that should deliberate and be seen to be initiating it really, should be the representatives of the people‖. Abstracting from the above, reforms of this nature should be deliberated by the National Assembly. The National Assembly is the creation of the Nigerian contribution. It is made up of elected representatives of the Nigerian people through the ballot box. This is the assembly where crucial national policies are subject to debate as to their advantages and disadvantages; desirability and ultimate approval or disapproval on the basis of its implication and consequences on the national economy. Therefore, the first port of operation and enlightenment on the benefits of monetization is the National Assembly. If the law makers are well informed about the pros and cons of monetization, they will not kick against it but they will be in a better position to educate the people at the grassroots. (Okunronmu, 2012) Adequate appropriation for the timely and regular payment of salaries and monetized benefits should be a matter of primary concern when considering issues of monitoring and strategy. Government has to consider the Aspect of funding to meet the payment of salaries and monetized benefits. On the short run, the policy of monetization will increase the budgetary appropriation of government because of the colossal and immediate disbursement of salaries together with the monetized benefits to the public officers. The issue of irregular payment of salaries and allowances is not strange to public officers at the state and federal levels. Workers are owed arrears of salaries and allowances for several months, ranging from three to eight months. If these arrears are not cleared, how will the government be able
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to start and religiously adhere to timely and regular payment of salaries and monetized benefits to the public officers? The best approach to handle this matter of monetization is the adoption of the strategy of phasing. Monitoring and strategy require the existence of sanctions and discipline for non-compliance with the policy of monetization. This should be applied consistently nom matter whose ox is gored. The interest of the nation overrides every individual interest. Adeleke (2010) Policies are not introduced for the mere sake of introduction. They are introduced for the overall benefit of the nation and its citizenry in the application of sanction and discipline government should take into consideration the concept of federalism, and its deregulation policy. For instance, every state should determine what he could pay to its workers and so on. In an interview with Okunronmu (2013), he expressed the view, ―we all know the bane of our policies is in the implementation and the civil servant is ever ready to thwart any policy of it does not suit him. You can see that civil servants will get so many years allowances; they will still be living in government houses after collecting the three years‘ salary. We all know they are the only ones who know where the government houses are, and you are going to depend on the same civil servant to implement the policy‖. In order to overcome these fears, stiff sanctions and discipline should be meted out to any erring officer. This role should not be glossed over by the presidential Monitoring and strategy Committee when constituted. The aspect of sanctions and discipline is a fundamental aspect for the successful implementation of any policy including that of the policy of monetization.
Conclusion No matter how laudable the objectives of the policy of monetization, people would still view the policy with suspicion. This is not uncommon with public policy. If people do not agree with the identified problem or the definition of the problem, the chances are that such people will not agree with the policies to tackle the problem. In the case of the policy of monetization, if it is successfully implemented, it will definitely minimize waste, misuse and abuse of public facilities since people will have to pay to use facilities that were hitherto provided by government to entitled officers. Public servants should therefore, embrace the policy with as open mind to ensure its success for their future benefits, that of the nation, and the entire citizenry.
Recommendations The paper makes the following recommendations: 1. The government should constitute a presidential Monitoring and Strategy Committee to collate, evaluate, review and submit monthly progress report on the level of achievement or otherwise on the objectives of monetization. 2. There should be continuous education and enlightenment on the benefits of monetization to public officers and entire citizens through workshops, seminar, conferences, print and electronic media.
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3. Government should make adequate appropriations for the timely and regular payment of salaries and monetized benefits. 4. There should be sanctions and discipline for non-compliance to make for effective strategy and monitoring of the policy of monetization. These sanctions and discipline should be applied consistently no matter whose ox is gored.
References Adeleke, O.A. (2010). ―Exploration of the Implications of Monetization of Workers‘ Fringe Benefits in a Nigerian Higher Institution‖. Research Journal of Social Sciences, 5(1): 35-51. Budget Circular (2015). Federal Government of Nigeria, 2003. Supplementary Budget Preparation and Submission Call Circular. BD/2000BP/2003/T/19 of July 0l,Pp. 1-6 Budget Circular (2018). Federal Government of Nigeria, 2003. Supplementary Budget Preparation and Submission Call Circular. BD/2000BP/2003/T/19 of July 0l,Pp. 1-6 Daniel, A. (2016). Monetization of public Sector Benefits. Vanguard. July 24, p. 16. Editorial (2013). Waste Control: Discipline, Monetization of Benefits. Vanguard. July 24, Pp. 16. Ekaitte. U. J. (2013). Waste Control: Discipline, Monetization of benefits. A Paper delivered by the Secretary to the Government of the Federation at the Retreat for Ministers and Permanent Secretaries at the NICON Hotel. Abuja: July 18. Faloseyi, M. (2014). No Going Back on Degradation, Monetization - SGF. The Punch. October 29, Pp.3. Fayomi, I. O. (2013) ―Monetization Policy in Nigerian Public Service: The Perspective and Challenges.‖ International Journal of Educational Research and Development Vol. 2(5), pp. 105-113, http://www.academeresearchjournals.org/journal/ijerd Francis O (2015) ―Monetization of Fringe Benefits in the Public Service. Issue of Policy Implementation, Monitoring and Strategy, the Nigerian Accountant‖ The official J. Instu. Chartered Acc. Nigeria. January / March, 2004 edition, 37(1). Nwachukwu, C. (2013): ―Monetization and Crisis of Salary Differential‖. Workers’ Power- Rattawu, Vol. 1, no. 4 Sept., p:5
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Odion, J. (2012). Merits and Demerits of Monetization. Vanguard. September 29, p.35. Ogunleye, J.O. (2011). Monetization of Fringe Benefits in the Public Service: Scope and implementations, Relevant Circulars and Directives. A paper Delivered by the Permanent Secretary, National Salaries, income and Wages Commission at a National Workshop Organized by the Ikeja District Society of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria at the Hill Station Hotel, Jos: September 24. Okoye, J.C, Anazodo, R.O, Izueke, E.M & Eze, S.C (2012). ―Monetization of Workers Fringe Benefits: The Journey so far in Nigeria Federal Civil Service‖. Public Administration Research; vol. 1, no. 1; 2012.pp50-60 www.ccsenet.org/par Okunronmu, F. (2013). Merits and Demerits of Monetization, Vanguard September 29, Pp. 36. Saka, A. (2011) ―The Long Run Effects of Monetization on the Nigerian economy‖ Journal of Economics and International Finance Vol. 3(5), pp. 269-278, May 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JEIF SGF Circular (2013). Monetization of Fringed Benefits in the Federal Republic Service. Office of the Secretary to the Government of the Federation Circular. SGF. 19/S,47/C.11/371 of July 27, Pp. 1-6. Sinclair,R.R, J.S. Tucker, J.C. Cullen,& C.Wright, (2015) ―Performance Differences Among Four Organizational Commitment Profiles‖. Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (6):1280-1287. Williamson, & Oliver E. (2011). "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach". American Journal of Sociology 87 (3): 548- 577
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Secondary Education Curriculum and Community Development: Problems and Prospects Muhammad Sadisu Yusuf Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education Maru Zamfara State Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract Secondary school education has been a catalyst for youth in terms of developing their talents, interest and abilities. The paper explains secondary school education identifies its aims and objectives of secondary school education the role of community in development of secondary education diagnoses problem affecting secondary school education which includes among others; poor leadership roles, poor funding of schools, unqualified teaches, ineffective inspection and supervision bribery and corruption and ill-convened curricula, etc the writer suggest lastly as part of the prospects to have viable and effective leadership of school head, good communication between school administrations, teachers and student; good funding of school, reconstructions and rehabilitation of schools buildings and lastly establishment of senior secondary school commission to take care of senior secondary school issues. Keywords: Junior Secondary School, Senior Secondary Education, Community, Development, Community Development.
Introduction Education was being identified as the yardstick to any meaningful development, socially, politically, and economically. It is seen as a gateway to effective national education and industrial transformation a sine-quanun for progress, unity, cohesion, and development (Argungu, 2012). It is all round development of the individual, socially, physically, psychologically and spiritually. It is the greatest force that can be used to bring about change, the greatest investment that a nation can make for the quick development of its economic, political, sociological, and human resources. It was in realization of this that a national policy on education was formulated to put things in right perspectives for the country. Since the national policy on education is the government way of achieving that Part of its national objectives, using education as a tool, no policy on education can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and objectives of the nation. The first national objectives of Nigeria as stated in the national development plan and endorsed as the necessary foundation for the national policy in education, are the building of; a free and democratic society; a just a egalitarian society; a united, strong and self reliant nation; a great and dynamic economy and a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens
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Nigeria‘s philosophy of education, therefore, is based on the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizens of this nation at all levels of education. The national aims and objectives to which the philosophy is linked are therefore; the inculcation of the right types of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society; the inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; the training of the mind in understanding of the world around and the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competence both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live on and contribute to the development of his society (FGN NPE, 2014).
Statement of the Problem Nigerian educational system is based with serious problems ranging from unqualified teachers, overcrowded of classroom, lack of enough instrumental materials in schools, poor leadership rulers and ill-conceited curriculum. These challenges are so complex and interwoven the problems of basic education and secondary education. The quality of instruction in terms of content delivery, curriculum development, teachers, effectiveness in teaching and learning, etc empty in our secondary schools, (Ahmad, 2014). On the other hand, government has not helped matters in poor funding of secondary education, poor educational polices and program, lack of effective inspection and supervision of schools to checkmate the activities of teachers and students as a result, secondary schools have become ―Centre of exploitation and moral decadence. (Guga and Bawa, 2015). In essence, this paper is to depend secondary education curriculum and community development, its problem and prospects. This led to the production of poor secondary school leaner‘s who could not read and write effectively or become production in any viable vocation skills. As a result they become misname in the society and used by politicians as ―things‖ during election campaign. This is serious menaces which need to be carried out to here a stable society.
Objectives of the Study The main objectives of the study is to assert secondary school education curriculum in Nigeria specifically, the objectives if the study includes; i. Define what is meant by secondary school education ii. Identify the aim and objective of secondary school education curriculum iii. Diagnose the problems affecting secondary school education. iv. Suggest, possible solutions to the identified problems affecting secondary school.
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Research Questions The paper tries to answers the following questions i. What is meant by secondary school education? ii. What are the aims and objective of secondary school education curriculum? iii. What are the problems affecting secondary education? iv. What are the solution affecting secondary schools? Significance of the Study The paper would be useful to educational planners in publishing out strategies and methods of helping teachers, learners and parents with useful remedies to secondary education. Also educational developers and curriculum planners and administration would find the paper useful in teaching challenges affecting secondary schools in Nigeria.
Basic Concepts: i. Secondary Education: As the name implies it is the kind of educations receive at the senior secondary level. According to the national policy in education (2004 Revised) it is the education received after the junior secondary school level/ upper basic education. It is the education received after the nine (9) years of basic education and before a child enters into higher education (i.e.). It is now called senior secondary education. According to the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2014 revised), the broad aims and objectives of senior secondary education are; i. Provide all primary school leavers with opportunity for education of a higher level irrespective of sex, social status, religious or ethnic background. ii. Offers a diversified curriculum to cater for the differences in talents, opportunities and future roles. iii. Provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and commerce at the sub-professional grade, as well as; iv. Develop and Promote Nigerian languages, arts and culture in the context of world cultural heritage. v. Inspire it students with a desire for self improvement and achievement of excellence. vi. Foster national unity with emphasis on the common ties that unite us in our diversity. vii. Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and feelings of others, respect for the dignity of labor, appreciate those values specified under one broad national goal and live as good citizen (FGN, NPE 2014).
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The policy also highlighted that to achieve the stated goals, secondary education shall have six years‘ duration, given out in two stages; a junior secondary school stage and senior secondary stage, each shall be three years‘ duration.
Concept of Community Development 1. Community: This refers to people living in a common locality having shared (common) interest and behavioral patterns. It implied people who have common problems and goals. People live in community by virtue of the things they have in common. This included their norms, beliefs, aspiration and knowledge (Zaki, 2003). While, development has been shown by (Zaki, 2003 and Michel) as multi-dimensional process including changes in attitude, structure and investigations as well as acceleration of economic growth, reduction of absolute poverty. 2. Development: According to Ladela (2005) on quoted by Ahmadu (2011) ―is a continuous process of generating and approximately allocating resource for achieving great socially satisfying needs‖. In addition, he asserted that development essentially comprises of inter related components which are increasing the available resources in a country and improving the utility of these resources. 3. Community Development: Is therefore project initiated or with the active participation of the inhabitants of a locality, which are intended to benefit them collectively. The project may concern education, social welfare, health, infrastructure such as roads, wells, irrigation, farming, manufacture or commerce while most of the benefits may accrue to individual families the projects are intended to involve community as a whole, in self confidence and political skills. According to Yakubu (2003), community development is an integrated rural development. This means the concerted effort of government and other interested agencies (e.g voluntary, educational research e.t.c) uniting with those of rural communities to tackle co-operatively rural development problems in order to make improve and increase per capita income and the welfare of the people. Another aspect of integrated approaches in the provision of road, schools, water and power to rural dwellers and to encourage young rural dwellers or stay in their home areas and work in their land rather than flocking to cities to smell the number of unemployed. Junior Secondary School: The junior secondary shall be both pre-vocational and academic. It shall be tuition fee, universal and compulsory; it shall teach basic subject which enable pupils to acquire knowledge and skills, every student offer: i. Minimum of 10 and maximum of 13 subjects. ii. All subjects in group A iii. At least one subject each from group B and C.
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Group A: Core 1. English 2. French 3. Mathematics 4. Language of Environment to be taught as LI 5. One major Nigerian Language other than of the Environment to be taught as L2 6. Integrated Science 7. Social Studies and Citizenship Education 8. Introductory Technology
The language of the environment shall be taught as L1 where it has autography and literature where it does not have, it shall be taught with emphasis on orally as L2.
Group B: Pre-vocational Electives i. Agriculture ii. Business Studies iii. Home Economics iv. Local Crafts v. Computer Education Emphasis on subjects in group B shall be practice.
Group C: Non Pre-Vocational Electives i. Religious Knowledge ii. Physical and Health Education iii. Fine Art iv. Music v. Arabic Students who complete Junior Secondary School shall be streamed into; i. Senior Secondary School ii. Technical college iii. An out of school vocational training center iv. An apprenticeship scheme The screening shall be based on test on academic ability, aptitude and vocational interest on the ratio of 60:20:10. (FGN, NPE 2014)
Senior Secondary School Curriculum According to the National policy on education (2014) it explains the term secondary school curriculum thus;
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A. The senior secondary school shall be comprehensive with a core- curriculum designed to broaden pupils‘ knowledge and out-look. B. Every student shall take all the seven (7) core subjects in Group A and minimum of one and maximum of two from the list of electives subjects in group B and C to give a minimum of eight (8) and maximum of nine subjects. C. One of the three elective subjects may be dropped in the last year of senior secondary school course.
Group A Core 1. English Language 2. French Language 3. Mathematics 4. A major Nigerian language 5. One of Biology, Chemistry, Physics or Integrated Science 6. One of literature-in-English, History, Geography or Social Studies. 7. A vocational subject Group B Vocational Electives 1. Agriculture 2. Applied electricity 3. Auto-mechanics 4. Book-keeping & Accounting 5. Building Construction 6. Commerce 7. Computer Education 8. Electronics 9. Clothing and nutrition 10. Home management 11. Metal work 12. Technical Drawing 13. Wood work 14. Shorthand 15. Typewriting 16. Fine Art 17. Music
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Group C Non-Vocational Electives 1. Biology 2. Chemistry 3. Physics 4. Further Mathematics 5. Integrated science 6. Health Education 7. Physical education 8. Literature-in-English 9. History 10. Geography 11. Social Studies 12. Bible knowledge 13. Islamic studies 14. Arabic 15. Government 16. Economics 17. Any major Nigerian language Students offering integrated science cannot offer any of Chemistry, Biology and Physics. Students offering social studies cannot offer any of Geography, History ande Literature-in-English.
Certification a. The Junior Certificate (JSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and exam conducted by States and Federal examination boards. b. The Senior School Certificate (SSC) shall be based on continuous assessment and national exam. (FGN, NPE 2014)
Curriculum of Secondary School Education Depending on the kind of choice abilities of the candidates, senior secondary curriculum is the bridge for ones‘ subject specialization at the secondary level. A child who has just finished his junior secondary school examinations (JSCE) is at liberty to choose of advancing his/her education. The core subjects in our senior secondary schools‘ education are; Pre-vocational subjects like Agricultural science Metal work
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Wood work Electronic Commence Book keeping and Accounting e.t.c Auto mechanic Major Nigerian‘s Language English language, mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, creative arts, music, drama, Islamic studies, Christian Religion Knowledge, literature in English and other subject of social science includes geography, history, economics, government, and civic education. There are other categories like: fine arts, creative arts, drama, music, and English literature. Vocational subjects include wood work, metal work, applied electronics, building, and painting e.t.c. Computer studies and ICT which includes: computer mathematics, data processing/data management. So at the senior secondary level a candidate can now choose his/her area of specialization for future career. For instance, whether he/she wants to go for either arts or science like; physics, chemistry, biology, agricultural science, etc. Arts class: English, Arabic, Hausa, IRS/CRS etc. (liberal arts) or social science class: which comprises subject in economics, geography, government, e.t.c or commercial subjects like; commence, book keeping and accounting, metal work, building technology, electronic. Others include home economics, home management.
Secondary School Education and Community Development Secondary education if well managed can provide the nation with the required capacity man power in the development of science and technology. And it is at this stage (secondary school level) that the child is prepared and developed for university education and hence very vital and essential for effective development. In addition, secondary school education can best be developed meaningfully and effectively if members of the community see to themselves that schools built by the government/ private organization are to be supported positively by them. If this happens, a tremendous land mark would be recorded in the area of secondary education. This can be done through proper monitoring, supervision and inspection of school by members of the community. Of course, that argument the effort of the school heads in proper development and implementation of the school curriculum. A good example of this is in the establishment of Parent Teachers Association (P.T.A), School Based Management Committee (SBMC) Community Based Management Committees (CBMC) and Mothers Association e.t.c. The organization of PTA is a representation of members of staff of a school and parent of wards in that school who occasionally came together through meetings to rub minds, discuss issues, policies and programs affecting the student and the school. Also the school based- management committee (SBMC) comprises of experts and specialist in various cadre that can contribute meaningfully in cash or
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kind toward the success of the school. The idea of establishing School Based Management Committee (SBMC), Community Based Management Committee (CBMC) has come to stay as enshrined by the federal ministry of education. So, the SBMC in CBMC are now included in implementation of the school curriculum of schools especially domiciled in their localities /communities. They can now make inputs as in the kind of curriculum to be given in their community, make decisions concerning the staff, student‘s welfare and security of their children. From the above discussions, we could see that there is a close relationship between the roles of the community with that of the schools which could in turn produces good curriculum development, better co–operation, diligence, sustainability of the schools goals and objectives, enhanced productivity and better end result.
Challenges of Secondary Education Secondary school education like other levels of education has its own problems, According to (Obe, 2013), (Guga and Bawa 2015) itemize the following problems affecting secondary education, these includes: i. In consistent school curricula The Curriculum of secondary school education is very much inconsistent within schools, state and regions. This is very bad and disappointing, twice out the end the students are to sit for are uniform qualifying examples WASSE or NECO as last, the student would be disadvantage ii. Poor policy decision and programes This is very obvious when one visits any of the public schools among the country, he/she would see a lot of policy decision regarding educational plains and programs. iii. Improper planning and implementation The planning and implementation of secondary schools‘ education is begetting with many obstacles in terms of implementation due to social and political problems. iv. Poor funding of schools Educational development plans could not be carried out without finance and educational sector in the most segment that suffers poor finance and this suggest all educational sectors. v. Poor infrastructure and dilapidated buildings Of one looks at most of the public secondary school building it is clear that the structure is at disgracing situation must states in unyoked buildings with cracks no windows or doors. vi. Lack of proper inspection, monitoring and evaluation of school plants Though, we have the inspectorate division in most Northern states of the federation, but the inspectors handily inspect schools because of lack of funds by the Ministry of education.
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vii. Overcrowded class rooms This is obtaining in most of our junior and secondary school, student sit on the floor or on windows. In most classes we have 150-200 student per class. This makes teaching learning very difficult. viii. Lack of instructional materials in schools Most of the secondary schools lack basic instructional materials like textbooks, exercise books, laboratory equipment and which has serious use to curriculum delivery. ix. Poor leadership roles and mismanagement Educational plans and decision could be easily achieved if there‘s good leadership role. Otherwise it most results to poor leadership. x. Unconducive learning atmosphere in schools This is the most serious disease affecting all sectors of Nigerian economy. It is the cankerworm affecting the segments of government (Obe, 2013). xi. Bribery and corruption Our student are unproductions, decide, inactive because their teachers are untrained or unqualified. xii. Exam malpractices Things do not go will because of poor administration everywhere now and political leaders are only interested in continuing projects that benefits them. xiii. Unqualified and untrained teachers The implementation of the curriculum content could not be realized, because most of the aims and objectives are not realistic, pragmatic or practical in nature. xiv. Poor administration and negative political will xv. Unrealistic aims, goals or objective
Conclusion On attempt has been to buttress the issues surrounding secretary school education curriculum, its aims and objectives and of course the role of community has been explained especially the PTA and SBMC. Lastly, the challenges of secondary school education could be minimized if all stakeholders join hands together and the federal government should establish senior secondary school commission to take care of all issues affecting them.
Recommendations The writer is of the view that the aforementioned problems could be solved if the idea of enhanced secondary education curriculum could be achieved. Hence, recommends the following solutions: 1. The school curriculum should be realistic, brief, achievable and measurable
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2. The federal and state ministries of education should have accurate policy decisions and programes and should be implemented well. 3. There should be proper planning of educational decisions, actions, developments and implementations. 4. Educational planners and policy makers should be up to date with evaluation, assessment and adjustment of changes in the secondary school curriculum and should involve all stake holders in the community in case of possible innovations. 5. All schools should be adequately funded, so that proper implementations of the set goals would be achieved. 6. All schools‘ plants, including classrooms, students‘ hostels, libraries, laboratories, sport arena should be built, and those dilapidated should be rehabilitated. 7. Proper inspection, monitoring and evaluation of schools should be intensified by the ministry of education officials and lapses should be reported for quick action. 8. More classroom blocks, facilities and equipment should be provided in schools so that learning will be enhanced. 9. Basic instructional materials like Audio, Visuals, and audio-visuals should be provided in schools to make learning interesting and motivating. 10. Special workshops, seminars, conferences should be intensified for school heads and other academic staff for proper administration and management of schools. 11. Special salary package and incentives should be given to teachers to boost their morale. 12. Good leadership role should be encouraged among administrative heads of schools. 13. More importantly, government should establish a special commission for secondary schools‘ education to address problems affecting senior secondary schools. Lastly secondary schools‘ education curriculum if well managed can provide the action with required capacity manpower in the development of science and technology in Nigeria. This is possible only if concerted efforts are being made both at the planning, development and implementation stages of the curriculum development.
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References Ahmadu (2011). Community Development at Grassroots. A paper presented at Community Development Dialogue in Sokoto State. Ahmed, H (2014). The Impact of Community Development as Non- Governmental organization in Nigeria. A research thesis (Unpublished), Usman Danfodio University, Sokoto. Argungu, M.A (2012) The Importance of Education in Nation building ―A paper presented at the Conference on Education FCET Gusau 2012. Guga, A & Bawa A (2015). ―Curriculum and Instruction‖ Guga Printers and Publishers, Zaria. Ladela, M. A (2015). Development Concept and Usage. Paper Presentation at Lecture Forum on Youth Empowerment, Sokoto State Federal Government of Nigerian, National Policy on Education (NPE) Federal Ministry of Education, Abuja (2014). Obe, A.O. (2013). ―Curriculum Change Process Graphic Publishers, Zaria‖. Yakubu, B.A. (2013). Community Development as Instrument of change. A Research Thesis (Unpublished). Submitted to Usman Danfodio University, Sokoto Faculty of Agriculture.
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An Overview of Memory Retention and Problem Solving Ability among Colleges of Education Science Students in Nigeria
Ibrahim Mustapha Department of Primary Education Studies, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected] +2348065955316
Abstract The main purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of memory retention and problem solving ability on college of education science students in Nigeria. The paper specifically examined some cause of poor memory retention such as over learning, inappropriate timing, duration of study and problem solving ability such as overcrowding, inadequate instructional materials among college of education science students. The paper also examines the two variables on academic performance such as lack of motivation, and stress. It concluded and recommended among other that the National Commission for College of Education should spread the course to a specific number of credit unit per semester, and Government should build more lecture hall and employ qualified manpower to reduce overcrowding in our tertiary institution and embark on funding so as to acquire adequate instructional materials. Keywords: Memory Retention, Problem Solving, Science Education, College of Education
Introduction Science has been and will continues to be a tremendous importance to humanity for its ability to explain many of the everyday occurrences in life as well as playing a very significant role in the technological development of both developing and developed nation of the world. The issue of academic performance of students in Nigerian colleges of education has not been encouraging. Infect, Gabel and Bunce, (1994) lamented fact that students in college of education often do not succeed in applying knowledge which they have acquired in lessons given in school. This circumstance seems to apply especially to science lessons (Friege and Lind, 2006).As a consequence, improving students‘ problems solving skills continues to be a major goal of science teachers and sciences education researchers. Problem solving skills ability is the prediction of achievement in the school environment. The ability of problem solving has a fundamental role in students‘ academic performance and their construction of the concept (Adesoje, 2008). Students having problem solving ability, have the ability to acquire knowledge of wide
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application and the development of the same ability to transfer that skills acquired through problem solving in school, to find solution for their personal and community problem. The poor academic performance in our colleges of education was as a result of understanding of strong domain knowledge; knowledge of problem-solving strategies, and attitudinal components (Janassen, 2000; O‘Neil and Schacter, 1999). In order to achieve the ability to solve problems in science, there are two issues (Lee, Tang, Goh and Chia, 2001): developing problems solving skills in students through science education, and looking at the difficulties faced by students in this area and finding ways to help them overcome these difficulties. Learning plays a significant role in all the walk of human life. But if we just learn to recall in a particular situation without being able to repeat that successfully on subsequent occasions, learning is of no avail. According to Weiten, (2013), memory and retention are lined because any retained information is kept in human memory store, therefore without human memory processes, retention of material would not be possible. In addition, memory and the process of learning are also closely connected. Memory is a site of storage and enable the retrieval and encoding of information, which is essential for the process of learning. Information is retained in human memory store in different way, but it is primarily done through active learning, repetition and recall. While information that is encoded and store within memory store can often forgotten through ineffective encoding of material, decay of information, interference, competition of newly learned material and retrieval failure. Mangal, (2010). It is believed that for an effective learning to take place, there must be good ability to preserve our past experiences and make use of them whenever needed. It is against this background that this paper examines the effect of memory retention and problem solving ability on among college of education science students with the aim of determining how to improve memory and class retention as well as strategies of addressing knowledge in problem-solving ability.
Conceptual Framework Human memory is the process in which information and material is encoded, store and retrieved in the brain. Memory is a property of the central nervous system with three different classifications; long term, short term and sensory memory. The three types of memory have a specific difference function but each are equally important for memory processes. 1. Memory: refers to the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences. www.lumosity.com Eze, (1999) in Olagbewo, (2008) refers memory to be like a black box of an aircraft which contains information of all things that happened to the aircraft while on flight.
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Kendra, (2008). Refers to memory as the process that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage and retrieval. 2. Memory Retention: in psychology, memory retention is an organism‘s ability to store, retain and recall information and experience. Wikipedia.org/wiki. Mangal, (2010). Memory retention refers to the measurement of the soundness or quality of one‘s memory which can be judged on the basis of his power of retention or retentively. In a related development, Olagbewo, (2008) enlisted four kinds of methods of retentively which includes: i. Recall: According to Hilgard, (1967) in Olagbewo, (2008) one way of remembering is to recollect or reintegrate an event and the circumstances surrounding it. ii. Recognition: to recognize is the ability to notice a difference between an object or human beings among others. iii. Reproduction: this is the ability of an individual to vomit what he has learnt. iv. Performance: this is to act out or execute a task like reading. 3. Problem-solving ability: is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. www. Lumosity.com. Altun, (2003) problem solving ability is the highest level of learning in the hierarchy which depends on the master of next lower type of learning. He advocate five steps that are basically associated with task of [problem solving; these are: i. Identifying the problem, ii. Defining / representing the problem, iii. Exploring possible strategies iv. Acting on the strategies, and v. looking back and evaluating the effect of ones activities The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options. www.lumosity.com. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, (NCTM, 2000, P.52). the principles and standard defines problems-solving ability as ―engaged in a task for which the solution method is not known in advance‖. Polya defined problem-solving ability as finding ―a way where no way is known, off-hand…..out of a difficulty……around an obstacle‖.(1999 p.1) for example one mathematician defines problem solving abilities as the process of evaluating possible techniques,
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applying techniques reaching a solution, checking the results for accuracy and writing out the solution in a coherent fashion.
Theoretical Framework Theories about Memory Theory of encoding specificity finds similarities between the process of recognition from the memory trace, or the situation in which it was learned, and from the environment in which it is retrieved. Clifford, (2010) asserted that theories are frameworks serving to tie together the results of many observations and experiments. They are especially useful in giving order to the vast amount of information psychologists have accumulated about memory. He explains two theories these are: 1. A theory of general memory functions: one theory a simple one agreed on by most psychologists was used in the definition of memory. Three distinct processes of memory have been identified. These are an encoding process, a storage process, and a retrieval process. Encoding is the process receiving sensory input and transforming it into a form, or code which can be stored; storage is the process of actually putting coded information into memory; and retrieved is the process of gaining access to stored, coded information when it is needed. 2. Information-processing theories: this are models of memory based on the idea that a device i.e a digital computer that takes items of information in process them in steps, or stages; and then produces an output.
The Steps in Problems Solving: In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps; many researchers refer to this as to the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequential, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.www.lumosity.com. A. Identifying the Problem: while it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. B. Defining the Problem: after the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. C. Forming a Strategy: the next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individuals‘ unique preferences. D. Organizing information: before the solution to the problem, there is the need to organize available information. What do we know about the problem? What do
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we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution. E. Allocating resources: of course, we don‘t always have unlimited money, time and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, one need to determine how high priority it is. F. Monitoring progress: effective problem-solving tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they don‘t make good progress toward reaching their goals, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies. G. Evaluating the results: after a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem.www.lomusity.com.
Causes of Poor Memory Retention among Colleges of Education Science Students Most people have spent thousands of hour in the classroom, the result of this effort is surprisingly disappointing; indeed, both the popular press and the academic literature are replacing with examples of educational failure among students and recent graduates. Researchers have been conducted about possible causes of poor memory retention on college of education students. Carpenter, (2007) outlined some causes of poor memory retention among students and graduates on their academic performance. This includes: 1. Over learning: when learners choose to devote an uninterrupted period of time to learning some material or a skill, they must decide when to quit, regardless of whether they later return to the same material. For example, only a student has cycled through a list of vocabulary words until each definition has been correctly recalled exactly one time, the student must decide whether to cycle again through the same list. The continuation of study immediately after the student has achieved error-free performance is known as over learning. 2. Spacing of learning: I most research on this topic, a fixed amount of study time is divided across two sessions that are separated by an intersession interval (ISI), if the ISI equals zero, study time is said to be massed. Importantly, the retention interval is always measured from the second study sessions. When tested later, performance is usually much better if the study time is spaced rather than massed. 3. Inappropriate timing and duration of study: students do not prepare for an exam and more so, shows ineffective study duration in learning. Most students lack poor retrieval practice and rapid feedback; it offers a currently unexpected opportunity to schedule study sessions in ways that optimize long term retention.
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In a related development, school students in most colleges of education today performs less well than before, or less well than reasonable expected, this can be due to a number of causes. Some of these are: Problem at home, while not the most common problem this can interfere with concentration. Excessive ambition can result in frustration, leading to lack of trying. This can result from parental pressure. Lack of motivation, this is the opposite of excessive ambition. The students need to understand the importance of good grades. Puberty, sometime hormonal changes can temporarily affect performance. So can emerging in the opposite sex, as well as lack of self-esteem. Jacquelyn, (2008), opined that a person‘s ability to remember or retain facts, faces and events depends on the brain‘s ability to perform a complex network of processes that record and retrieved information, various malfunctions within the brain‘s processing centers can delay memory recall, or prevent it altogether. Although diseases or injury can dramatically affect memory by damaging specific areas of the brain, poor memory normally has a more gradual onset resulting from nutritional, psychological, behavioral or age related factors. Dietary Cause: like the rest of the body, the brain requires certain nutrients to perform optionally, when deprived of these nutrients on a continued basis, the body‘s metabolism and cognitive functions begin to break down. Cells require adequate supplies of oxygen, and the proper balance of vitamins and nutrients, to function in a coordinated manner. In terms of brain function, neurotransmitters secreted by cells determine how efficiently the brain process incoming and outgoing information. Stress: when stressful conditions persist over long periods of time………as occurs with depression, job dissatisfaction or loneliness……… the ongoing production of stress hormones begins to take a toll on the brain and body within the brain, excess levels of stress hormones have adverse effects on the hippocampus, which is one of the primary areas involved in memory can develop as cell structures in the brain and body age, causing metabolic process to function less efficiently. As the body ages, the brain gradually loses brain cells. Fewer brain cells mean that fewer cells are available to produce the neurotransmitters need for optimal brain function. Jacquelyn.
Causes of Poor Problems-Solving Abilities among College of Education Science Students The success of any educational problem depends on the caliber of teachers, Ajeyalemi, (1990), opined that the students‘ poor performance and lack of interest in learning is as a result of lack of qualified teachers and facilities in education.
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This therefore, forms the bases of poor problem- solving abilities among colleges of educations science students. Situations were learners are not properly guided especially in science subjects e.g physics. Altun, (2003), confirms that there are series of causes of poor problem-solving abilities among students. These are: 1. Crowded Classroom: this problem is caused by increase in students‘ enrolment as a result serious guest for education. 2. Inadequate Instruction Materials for Effective Learning: this problem is virtually everywhere in the country, the government, communities and privates shows no concern is ensuring adequate administration of instructional materials. 3. Poor Technological Advancement: it is a known fact that our technological is only developing in the area of communication, leaving education sector with serious delay in technological advancement. 4. Poor Supervision: most tertiary institutions are operating domestically without proper and regular supervision, this certainly contributed to poor supervision among both academic and non-academic staff. The effect of these can reflect on student problem-solving ability in school. 5. Lackadaisical Attitude in the Part of the Students: most students today, show non chalent attitude towards learning. They do not pay attention to their students and at the same time do not have good study habits, many of which spend their time watching movies, pornographies, football and the likes.
Causes of Poor Academic Performance of College of Education Science Students Nigeria like any other developing nations has witnessed series of political instability, with obvious effects on education policies at federal, state and local government levels.This gradually laid the foundation of fallen standard in education at the tertiary levels, which causes differential academic performance of students. In the quest of finding survival feet, the nation has evolved series of socio-economic and educational measures but these have not improved the social economic status of families in the country. Carrier and Pashler, (1992). In addition, Pradman, (1999) asserted that a number of factors could influence students‘ performance in schools. These factors include educational policies, home support system, nutritional status and health of individuals. For Wasagu, (2001), poor study habits, lack of activity-based teaching methods and negative students‘ self-concepts were some of the factors responsible for students‘ poor performance. Sola and Ojo, (2007), momentous development in the country education such as expansion without proper physical and academic planning plus inadequate provision of qualified teachers or instructors form this poor academic performance.
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In a related development, it is within this study examines socio-economic factors influencing students‘ academic performance in Nigeria, with some explanations from Chanchaga local government area of Niger state, specifically to Niger state college of education as a case study. The time frame of the study covers the period of 2004 to 2007. A total of one hundred and twenty (120) copies of questionnaire were administered to respondents. The study revealed that: Insufficient parent income Family type Lack of funding by governments; are
Factors influencing students‘ academic performance based on these findings certain recommendations are made towards improving students‘ academic performance. Prominent of these include proper funding of education by government, sensitization of parents towards their children education and the support of NGOs to eradicate poverty.
Memory Retention and Academic Performance In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, or how well a student meets standards set out by the institution. Engle, (1994) reported that an individual working memory capacity (as measured by performance on a specially designed task) correlates well with performance on a variety of other task. Engle interprets this correlation as evidence that all of these tasks requires use of a common resource, the individuals working memory, which influences academic performance. Kyllonia and Christal, (1990) have claimed that a major source of individual differences on reasoning tasks lies in how much information one must maintain in working memory, especially while effecting some transformation, found that latent variables for reasoning ability and working memory correlated approximately r=0.8 in four large studies. They noted that most performance processes (such as encoding and inference) in information of processing models of reasoning are presumed to occur in working memory. The impact of working memory on academic performance is considerable. Between the age of 7 and 14 years, children who score poorly on working memory measured linked which executive skills typically performance below expected standards in national curriculum. (Gathercole, Brown and Pickering, 2002). Gathercole, (2004) a child with weak working memory capabilities is therefore limited in their ability to perform this operation in important classroom-based activities. A related suggestion is that poor working memory skills result in persuasive learning difficulties because this system acts as a bottleneck for learning in many of the individual learning episodes required to increment the acquisition of knowledge.
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In a related development, Legbo, (2006) conducted a research on the relationship between memory retention and academic performance in Niger state college of education Minna using memory retention data invention results of the study indicated that the correlation between memory retention and students‘ academic performance was low, negative and not significant.
Problem-Solving Ability and Academic Performance Problem-solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process such as visualization, association, abstract, comprehension, manipulation, reasoning, analysis and synthesis, generalization that requires the mediation management, co- ordination control of more routine or fundamental skills. (Schvable, 1990). However, problem-solving is a basic skill needed by today‘s learners. Jarnic, (2008) also studied the nature of the progress towards effective problem-solving in young children she evaluated the interaction between a child‘s evolving understanding or belief system regarding cause-effect relationships and their choice of strategy in problem-solving using a computerized micro world, fifth and sixth-grade children were asked to determine relationships between design features and the speed of race cars. As children used various strategies to produce faster cars by changing design features, new information became available to them. However, if the new information disconfirmed a prior belief the child held regarding the relationship between speed add design features, the prior belief frequently served as a source of bias against using the more effective strategy and the new knowledge was either ignored or misinterpreted. In a related development, Mayer, (2002). The process of solving problems has two steps: problem representation and problem solution. For problem representation, a learner needs to transform a problems description to his or her internal mental representation in two stages: problem-translation and integration. Problem translation extracts concepts from the textual description of the problem by using linguistic and semantic knowledge, linguistic knowledge is used to comprehend the words meanings in the textual description, while semantic knowledge means factual knowledge in the world. Problem integration requires a learning to connect sentences in a problems description and produce a coherent representation. After the problems description is translated into the learners internal mental representation (mental model), it means that the learner has already comprehend the problem. Further, he concluded that the preliminary stages in the problem-solving process that involved disembedding relevant information from the statement of the problem and restructuring or transforming the problem into one the individual understands are particularly important in determining the success or failure of problem-solving process.
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Implication of Memory Retention and Problem-Solving on Education Agwu, (2005), asserted that education is the best legacy a nation can give to her citizens especially the youth. This is because the development of any nation or community depends largely on the quality of education of education of such a nation. It is generally believed that the basis for any true development must commence with the development of human resources. Base on this assertion, it is believed that for any development to come, there must a positive change in terms of the ability of our mind to conserve or store what has been previously learned or experienced for recollection after sometimes, subsequently, this will certainly enhance mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. Students in tertiary institution have low memory retention capacity as a result of over learning which must at times result to stress. Situations were students are over used without resting; this can result to massive failure of examinations.
Conclusion This paper has examined the effect of memory retention and problem-solving ability on academic performance of a selected college of education students in Nigeria. The paper asserts that, the continues decline in academic performance among students in general can be achieved if he/she develops, interest in the lesson and teachers must also develop good principles and concept to aid retention.
Recommendations 1. The national commission for colleges of education should spread the courses to a specific number of credit units per semester, so that year of NCE graduation should have additional one [1] year, making a total of four years NCE programmed. This will reduce students‘ poor performance at that level. 2. The school on its own should set-up a time-table committee that will look into spacing of learning so that students can learn not more than the minimum courses per day to curb massed time of study. 3. Guidance and counseling department of the school should organize orientation to educate and enlightened the students on the appropriate time for study and good study habits to enhance effective and efficient learning process. 4. Parents should assist in training their children both morally, socially and emotionally to curb the problem of home frustrations. 5. Students on their own should develop strategies and skills of reducing stress e.g proper resting after a difficult task. 6. Government should build more college of education and employ qualified manpower to reduce overcrowding in our tertiary institutions.
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7. Government and the community including NGOs should embark on funding tertiary institution so as to acquire adequate instructional materials for effective learning. 8. Government, community and NGOs should set up a committee to ensure constant of those facilities. 9. Student must be aware of their objective for schooling and should be extrinsically motivated to improve performance.
References Agwu, I.A (2005). Empowered Youth Programme; Partnership for Enhancing School. Counseling, Vol xiv, pp64-74. Ajayelemi, M. (1990). How does Working Memory Work in the Classroom? Educational Research and Review 1,134-139. Adesoji, F.A.(2008). Students Ability Level and Effectiveness of Problem Solving Instructional Strategy. Journal of Social Science.17(1),5-8 Altun, G. (2003). The Perceived Problem Ability and Value of Students in Nurses and Midwives. Nurse Education Today, 23,575-589 Carpenter, R. (2007). Principle of Learning and Memory, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Carrier, M, & Pashler, H. (1992). The Influence of Retrieval on Retention. Memory and Recognition, 20, 281-294. Engle, A. (1994). Memory in Rsternberg [Ed]. Encyclopedia of Intelligence (PP- 700- 704) New York: Macmillan, Freegem G & Lind, G. (2006), Type and Qualities of Knowledge. International Journal of Science and Mathematics 4, 437-465. Gabel ,D.L & Bunle, D.M (1994). Research on Problem Solving: Handbook of Research on Science Teaching & Learning. New York Macmillan. Gathercole, S.E. (2004). Working Memory and Learning during the School Years Proceeding of the British Academy, 125, 165-380. Jarnic,O (2008). Study of Some Factor Responsible for Poor Performance of Students in WAEC, Unpublished B.A Ed Project University of Life. Jonassen, D. (2000). Toward a Design Theory of Problem-Solving. Educational Technology, Research & Development 48. 63-85. Jacquelyn, J. (2012). Problem Solving, Cognitive Psychology and Creativity, UK University.
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Kendra, Learning. UK University.C. (2008). Memory and Memory Retention. A Handbook on Psychology of Lee, I, Jang ,G. Goh, P. & Chia, S. (2007). Some Effect of the Need for Recognition on Course Grades. Perceptual and Motor Skills 67, 175-178. Legbo, O. (2006). A Research Studies on the Conceptual Needs for Memory. A Case Study of College of Education Minna, 2006. Ajiboye Printers. Mangal, S.K (2010). Essentials of Educational Psychology, Fourth Printing, PHT Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. Mayer,R.E.(2002). Thinking Problem Solving and Cognition (2. Ed) New York Freeman. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, (2000) Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School. Reeston, VA: Author . Olagbewo, I. (2008). Fundamental of Psychology of Human Learning. [1st Ed.] Hingam Nigeria Ltd. 2005. O‘Neil, H.F & Schacter, J. (1999). Test Specifications for Problem Assessment Retrieved. March 3, 2007, from http://www.Ibe. Edu/ reports/ Tech 463. Pradman, G.O [(1999). Effect of Home and School Related Factors on Learning Achievement. Indicators of Quality Learning aAchievement of Primary School Children of Orissa. http.//www.ncert. Polya, G. (1999). How to Solve it. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. (Published 1999). Schrable, P. (1990) Academic and Adaptional Performance a Quantitative Synthesis. American Education Journal. The University of Arizona, Tuison.
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Early Childhood Education: A Remedy for Corruption and the Realization of Change in Nigeria
1Abubakar Rilwanu Z., 2Suwaiba Suleiman and 3Ahmad Abubakar M. 1Department of Early Childhood Care and Education, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru 2Department of Islamic Studies, Zamfara State College of Arts and Science (ZACAS) 3Department of Educational Psychology, Zamfara State College of Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected] +2348033651445
Abstract This paper highlighted the roles early childhood education can play in enabling Nigeria to curb with existing challenges of wides spread of corruption by the past and present administrations which has been hindering national development. The Concepts of change, democracy, early childhood education and anti-corruption institutions were also discussed. In addition, how early childhood education can be applied to eliminate corrupt practices. The paper concludes that for Nigeria to curb with emerging challenges, Nigerians must concede to the fact that her major social problem is corruption and that corruption could best be fought by giving much attention to early learning. Therefore, the paper suggested that early childhood education should be given much emphasis as it is the bed rock of any education in Nigeria and early childhood teachers/care givers should serve as roles model of corrupt free society to enable Nigeria curb with emerging challenges. Keywords: Change, Youths, Democracy, Corruption and Early Childhood Education
Introduction Nigerian state is engulfed with many social problems that has affected its economic, political development so much so that the citizens has lost confidence on the leadership abilities and the integrity and the trust of the general citizens is lost. These has no doubt affected our national and international outlook. According to research Adaji (2005), Adejimo (2010), UNDP, cited in Lanre (2012), Ebdrup (2014), Mike (2016) asserts that and Q & A (2016) the most glaring and subsuming of these problems is corruption, others include unemployment, poverty, insurgency amongst youthetc. (Africa and the world, 2016). According to Igieobor (2014) ―one of the greatest threats to purposeful leadership, economic and political development of any nation is corruption‖ Igieobor describe corruption as cankerworm in the fabrics of our system. Crash of attitudinal value system has resultant corrupt attitudes especially among children (mostly school children who are the future democratic leaders in Nigeria have been observed. Some children nowadays see certain corrupt attitudes such as examination malpractices not as crime but as their right. Consequently, when the menace of corruption became unbearable, people became agitated for change in governance and change in
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attitudes for just society. In view of that Muhammad Buhari made a clarion call for ―change‖ in the 2015 election in Nigeria (Punch, 2016), that was similar to what Barack Obama did in U.S.A in 2008 (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, 2016) as well as Nana AkufoAddo and Adama Barrow of Ghana and Gambia respectively in 2016 (Oluwakoyan, 2016). In Nigeria the CHANGE SLOGAN implies ―CHANGE OF ATTITUDE‖ that is, change from corrupt attitudes to honest attitudes. By extension cleansing of the mind from negative attitudes at grassroots so that prevention and control measures against corruption can be solidly built before thinking of how to prosecute and jail the culprits in Nigeria is paramount (Dada 2003), (Ogundugba, (2008), (Nigerian Tribune, 2016), (Punch, 2016) and (Christian, 2016).
Conceptualization Change: Is defined by Webster (2019) as the ability to make someone or something different and to become something else. Meanwhile, future democratic leaders in this article are referred to as youth. Youth: Youth as in Ogundugba (2008) and UNESCO has been defined as persons between the ages of 15 and 24 but Oduwole (2015) reported that in Nigeria, youth usually fall in to the ages 18-35 years and to Van (2012) they form more than 60% in Nigeria. However, Abutudu (2016) describe a democratic leaderas a leader who come to power through election, that is a situation while citizens elect who are togovernthem. Corruption: Corruption according to Transparency International that is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. Ebdrup (2014) identified two level of corruptionas grand or political corruption which are committed by leaders and petty corruption which are committed by individual. Furthermore, Africa and the world (2016) ascertained that negative attitude of the leaders resulted to corruption and poor management of public funds as a cause of unemployment and eventual abject poverty, insurgency (Boko Haram), arm bandits and un-patriotism among youths in Nigeria and other parts of the world, thereby generating vicious cycle as illustrated in figure1:
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Negative attitude
Unpatriotism Corruption
Unemployment Insurgency
Poverty (Africa and the world)
Democracy: Democracy (Greek: δημοκρατία dēmokratía, literally "rule by people") is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a liberal democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association. Democracy government by the people; a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
Early Childhood Education Early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is a time of remarkable growth with brain development at its peak. During this stage, children are highly influenced by the environment and the people that surround them (UNESCO). Early childhood care and education (ECCE) is more than preparation for primary school. It aims at the holistic development of a child‘s social, emotional, cognitive and physical needs in order to build a solid and broad foundation for lifelong learning and wellbeing. ECCE has the possibility to nurture caring, capable and responsible future citizens (UNESCO 2019). In this way ECCE is one of the best investments a country can make to promote human resource development, gender equality and social cohesion, and to reduce the costs for later remedial programmes. For disadvantaged children, ECCE plays
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an important role in compensating for the disadvantages in the family and combating educational inequalities.
Anti-Corruption Institutions in Nigeria and Corruption cases There are a lot of recorded corrupt practices in previous and present governments (i.e present government of Gen. Muhammadu Buhari) and some anti-corruption institutions in Nigeria. However, every Nigerian will also admit that both past and present governments have put some efforts to curb corruption through establishing anti-corruption agencies such as:Observed by Ayobami (2016) and Ikubaje (n.d) that all successive government were accused of one or the other form of corrupt practice. In respect to that in pre-independent (1960-1966) civilian administration of Tafawa Balewa/Azikiwe, it was reported that in 1944, some executives were accused and investigated to have bought African Continental Bank in Lagos. More so, the 1966 Aguyi Ironsi‘s military government instituted a commission of inquiry to investigate corrupt practices surrounding Nigeria Railway Corporation. Similarly, the 1966-1975 Gowon military administration some officials of defence ministry and Central Bank of Nigeria were accused of having influence in cement importation. However, 1975-1976 Murtala‘s government promulgated the ―Corrupt practice Decree‖ of 1975, initiated asset declaration and Balgore commission of inquiry. Meanwhile, the 1976-1979 of Obasanjo‘s military administration was abused of favouritism in appointing the head of international Telecommunication (ITT). Likewise, Shagari‘s civilian administration of 1979-1983 was also accused of preferential treatment to some associates in terms of rice importation and distribution and also the defunct Johnson Mathey Bank of London revealed that many politicians launder money. On the other hand, the 1983-1985 Buhari‘s military administration launched War against indiscipline, established special military tribunal of inquiry and ordered for currency change exercise. However, the 1985-1993 Babangida‘s military government set up Code of Conduct Bureau of 1990 butwas also characterized by corrupt practices referring to annulmentof June 12, 1993 election, privatization initiatives in favour of the higherplaced individuals. Also there was the transition between the military to civilian in August-November 1993 led byShonekan‘s stint civilian government was brief. Subsequently, the Abacha‘s military government come to power between 1993-1998 in which Advanced free fraud and other related offences Decree and National commission to fight corruption were promulgated. Thereafter, Abdulsalam‘s military administration camebetween 1998-1999 was also suspected of looting the public fundwithin the short period. It was Obasanjo‘s civilian government of 1999-2007 that strengthened the existing anti-corruption laws and established three anti- corruption institutions which survive not only during his government but remain to the present, these are; The Independent Corrupt Practice and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) instituted in 2000, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) of 2003 and the money Laundering act, of 2004.
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However, despite that, some executives were accused of stashing cash in freezers and also attempted to amend the constitution for a third term. Likewise, the ‗Yar‘Adua‘s civilian administration from 2007-2010 could not probe the corrupt scandals of his predecessors due to how he was allegedly assisted to emerge and his poor health condition (Ayobami, 2016; Wikipedia, 2016; Ajomole, 2015 and Ikubaje, n. d.). Similarly, Jonathan‘s government that followed was also accused of corruption cases and abuses of the constitutional provision such as pension and fuel subsidy scams. Presently, the government of Buhari which took over from 2015 till date is also characterized by corrupt practices such as 2016 budget padding (Vanguard, 2016; Ekweremadu & Ukwuoma et al, in Igiebor, 2014). Since the perennial corrupt practices of Nigerians (military, politicians and other civilians) have defiled all the existing anti-corruption measures, in line with Igiebor (2014) and supported by Transparency International, (n. d.) that advocated for non-confrontational approaches such as round table discussion and entrenchment of attitudinal change as the best procedures to curb corruption, the main thrust of this paper was to present early childhood education for all children as a feasible alternative to wipe out corruption in Nigeria.
Conceptualization and Application of ECE to Curb Corruption Given the multifaceted nature of early childhood, it often goes by a number of names and definitions, in different countries, as well as between different stakeholders. For example, UNESCO refers to early education as early childhood care and education (ECCE), the OECD calls it early childhood education and care (ECEC), and the World Bank calls it early child development (ECD), while UNICEF calls it early childhood development (ECD). Education International refers to services for young children as early childhood education (ECE). This includes all kinds of education taking place before compulsory schooling and provided in different kinds of settings nurseries, crèches, childcare centres, kindergartens, pre-schools and other similar institutions, (1998 Congress Resolution on Early Childhood Education). It is widely agreed that early childhood education is the most effective means that society possesses for confronting the challenges of the future. Indeed, early childhood education will shape the world of tomorrow. Progress depends increasingly upon the products of educated minds: upon research, invention, innovation and adaptation. Of course, educated minds and instincts are needed not only in laboratories and research institutes, but in every walk of life. Indeed, access to early childhood education is the sine qua non for effective participation in the life of the modern world at all levels. Little kids are the blooming buds of our society, and therefore, it becomes important to nurture these young minds so that they become responsible citizens‘ tomorrow. Hence, it is necessary to start moulding these kids right from childhood to help them identify the good and the bad, make them understand cultural differences and form a foundation which will help them in their life journey in order to become responsible members and thereby establish a free corrupt society.
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The young brains are more susceptible to danger if not given appropriate guidance and hence it is necessary for the government to support teachers/caregivers who handles this leaders of tomorrow by teaching them the effect of corruption in the society in order to have more decent future leaders who will not only shunned corruption but fight it. When the kids are young, they are curious about every new thing they see, every new word, and often have unlimited questions for every unique experience they go through. Enrolling a child in a school makes him/her adapt to new surroundings and also contributes to overall development. The early childhood education is therefore the best means by which we educate the young ones towards making the child independent, creating a positive and well-balanced self-image and developing intellectual abilities that is needed for better economic, political development of a nation. More importantly, the goal of early childhood education is to make pupils wiser, more knowledgeable, better informed, ethical, responsible, critical and capable of continuing to learn. If all childrenwere to possess such abilities and qualities, the country‘s problems of corruption would be automatically solved. It is therefore necessary to develop the political will by our leaders to support the early childhood education in our public school system. Early childhood education also serves society by providing a critical reflection on the world, especially its failings and injustices, and by promoting greater consciousness and awareness, exploring new visions and concepts, and inventing new techniques and tools which will be use to curb corruption in Nigeria. Early childhood Education, is humanity‘s best hope and most effective means in the quest to curb corruption in Nigeria.(UNESCO 2019)
Conclusion and Recommendations From the accessible evidences shown there were no doubt corrupts practices linked to the successive governments in Nigeria from pre-independence to date. However, attainment of change has continued to posed a problem to the nation development. To materialize this change there is need for behaviour and attitude of the citizen‘s right from childhood education. This paper concludes that for Nigeria to be corrupt free, achieve great it must identify and acknowledge its major societal problem, that is, corruption which is born out of negative attitudes. To fight corruption from the grass root, all citizens must strive in to inculcate good moral behaviours in the children for a just and egalitarian society. In line with the literature available, the following suggestions are presented; 1. Government should ensure children of all family background receive sound and good early childhood education. 2. Early childhood teachers/caregivers should serve as role models in the society 3. Caregivers/teachers should increase their efforts in inculcating good behaviours to pupils especially corrupt free society. 4. Government should establish more caregivers centres.
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References Abutudu, M. (2016). The challenges to Democratic Government at the Local Government Level in Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of the Social Sciences, 6 (1 & 2), 122-123 Adaji, P. I. (2005). Nigeria’s Nationalinterests: A Moratorium and Change of Tactics. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nigeriansinamerica.com/nigerians- national-interests-a-moratorium-and-change-of-tactics/on 15/07/2019. Africa and the World (2016). Major Problems Facing Nigeria Today. Retrieved 15/07/2019 from http://www.africaw.com/major-problems-facing-nigeria- today. Ayobami, O.O. (2016). Corruption Eradication in Nigeria: An appraisal. Retrieved 11/07/2019, from http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/ayobamin.htm Dada, A. (2003). Attitudinal Change for National Development. Retrieved 17/07/2017 from http://www.nigreiansinamerica.com/attitudinal-change-for - national-development/ Ebdrup, N. (2014). Professor: let’s fight corruption in Africa effectively. Retrieved 17/07/2019 from http://sciencenordic.com/prfessor-let%80%99s-fight- corruption-africa-effectively Igieobor, G. O. (2014). Corruption and challenges of National Development in Nigeria. Sokoto Journal of Social Sciences. 4 (1 & 2), 274 -288. Lanre, O. (2012). The Challenges of Democratic Governance in Nigeria. International Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 3 (5). Retrieved 09/07/2019, from http://www.ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_5_March_2012/19.pdf Mike, U. (2016). Challenges in Nigeria and Solutions on how to Solve Them. Retrieved 10/07/2019 from https://soapboxie.com/world-politics/challenges- in-Nigeria-and -solutions Ogundugba, S. (2008). Nigerian Youths and National Development. Retrieved 17/07/2019 from http://www.nigeriansinamerica.com/nigerian-youths-and- national-development/. Oluwakoyaon, P. (2016). Nigeria‘s Change Mantra‘ll cut Across Africa – Akufo- Addo. Retrieved 24/08/2019 from http://thenationonlineng.net/nigerians- matra-ll-cut-across-africa-akufo-addo/ Punch, (1/9/2016). Nigerians Need Attitude Change, Not Restructuring – David- West, Tam. Retrieved 17/07/2019 from http://punchng.com/nigerians-need- attitude-change-not-restructuring-david-west/.
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Q & A, (2016). What are Social Problems in Nigeria – Top 10? Retrieved 11/08/2019 from http://ask.naij.com/culture/what-are-social-problems-in- nigeria-10-top-i23504.html UNESCO (n.d.). By Youth, for Youth. Retrieved 11/08/2019 from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/youth/ UNESCO. Unpublished Material. Retrieved 25/09/2019 08:21am from https://en.unesco.org/themes/early-childhood-care-and-education Vanguard (2017). Budget Padding is a Crime of Corruption, SERAP tells Dogara. Retrieved 10/08/2019 from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2016/08/budget- padding-crime-corruption-serap-tells-dogara/
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Reducing Unemployment through Entrepreneurial Development in Nigeria
1Ibrahim Garba, 2Ibrahim U.G. and 3Mukhtar Ibrahim F. 1,3Department of Physics, Zamfara State College of Education, 2Department of Mathematics Zamfara State College of Education, Maru
Abstract This study is on reducing the Unemployment problem in Nigeria through entrepreneurial development. The study is motivated by the fact that unemployment problem like corrupt practices in Nigeria, is a very big problem that require the collective effort of all. This paper is with the opinion that unemployment problem in Nigeria can be solved through entrepreneurial development and that government effort in this regard is not sufficient looking at the magnitude of the unemployed in Nigeria. Therefore, the study recommended that solving the unemployment problem should not be left in the hands of the government alone rather we should have employed the public private partnership approach so as to allow the involvement of private individuals in helping to establish entrepreneurial development centres as well. Keywords: Unemployment, Entrepreneurship, Development, Nigeria
Introduction In view of the present state of our country Nigeria the issue of unemployment in both the educated and the uneducated manpower, has become one of the most important issue of discussion in Nigeria. The unemployment situation has changed from previous position marked by prolonged period of unemployment and under- employment, to one in which graduates of tertiary institutions have to normally wait for a long time before getting a first job if at all. At the beginning of this millennium, employment crises have emerged as the most challenging issues confronting many world economies. The continuing global economic slowdown and uncertain economic prospects have resulted in a grim global economic landscape. This plunged many economies into deep recession, the ripple effects of which have affected the job markets. These effects are more pronounced in the developing and underdeveloped countries of the world, with increased unemployment being the outcome. Nigeria has one of the highest levels of youth unemployment in the world (60-65%) (Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity Report, 2008). These are mostly young adults that have graduated from universities and polytechnics or institutions of higher learning. Available estimate shows that about 1.6 million persons, mostly young adult, graduate annually. In addition to this number, about 3.8 million others are certificate
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carrying youths that have no formal education, or have completed primary or secondary school, or dropped out from tertiary institutions all of which are annually poured into an already saturated labour market (Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity Report, 2008). Many of the youths are not productive and have actually been reduced to petty traders and smugglers; in many instances, the growth in the phenomenon of trafficking in persons and child labor can be attributed to poverty and joblessness among the youths. For a few who are able to find their way out of the country to work in other countries, their departure has contributed to depleting the quality of human capital resources in the country. This paper has come as a wakeup call to appropriate authorities to look in the direction of entrepreneurial development initiatives in the quest to solving unemployment problem in Nigeria. Diverse economic, social and political problems at different magnitudes facing nations of the world exist and the third world countries are not excluded. It is possible that these diverse economic, social and political problems might have adversely affected the sustainable development of these countries, including the high unemployment rate they are currently facing (Williams and Michael, 2012). Unemployment problem in Nigeria is a hydra headed phenomena going by its many-sided nature. Though unemployment has become a global phenomenon of the 21st century, the problem is becoming more gargantuan each passing year in Nigeria. Unemployment, underemployment and unmitigated rural-urban migration have come to characterize the Nigerian labour market. This has been compounded by frightening number of joiners as schools, polytechnics and universities churn out leavers in a geometric progression. This has impacted on the rate of social vices like robbery, kidnapping, prostitution, human trafficking, child abuse and unfair labour practices experienced mostly by the unemployed youths, which are other noticeable dimensions to the complexities of contemporary Nigerian employment dynamics. According to the National Manpower Board, (2009) the Nigeria labour market could barely absorb 10% of the over 3.8 million persons turned out by the Nigeria educational system on a yearly basis. In brief, the employment trends in Nigeria indicate that, without a concerted effort to tackle the problems of unemployment and underemployment the situation could get worse. Many scholars have written widely on entrepreneurship and its potency to generate employment, thus, underscoring the quintessence, significance and relevance of this sub-sector in the development of any given economy (Adejumo, 2000). The experiences of developed economies in relation to the roles played by entrepreneurship buttresses the fact that the importance of entrepreneurship cannot be over- emphasized especially among the developing countries. In order to highlight its significance in relation to the growth and development of a given economy, entrepreneurship has been variously referred to as a ―source of employment generation‖. This is because entrepreneurial activities have been found to be capable of making positive impacts on the economy of a nation and the quality of life of the people (Adejumo, 2000).
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Studies have established its positive relationship with stimulation of economic growth; employment generation; and empowerment of the disadvantaged segment of the population, which include women and the poor (Oluremi and Gbenga, 2011; Mueller and Thomas, 2000; Reynolds, 1987). The question is; what is the level of knowledge of entrepreneurship skills by the owners of small scale enterprises? What are the respective influences of entrepreneurship development programmes on the poverty level of the citizens? It is in the wake of the above that this study aimed at examining the possibility of reducing/curbing the unemployment problem in Nigeria through entrepreneurship development.
Concept of Unemployment In defining the word unemployment, it appears that there seems to be a consensus on the definition of unemployment. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines unemployment as numbers of the economically active population who are without work but available for and seeking work, including people who have lost their jobs and those who have voluntary left work (World Bank, 2008). That is, people willing to work but not presently working. underemployment is often used to describe the condition of those who work part-time because full-time jobs are unavailable or who are employed at less-skilled work than they are qualified to do. According to the Federal Ministry of Employment, Labour and (FEML&P), unemployment figures include, those out of work, able to work and looking for a job, but work is not available to them. This definition should be extended to include those unemployed persons who give up job seeking out of frustration and retrenched or laid off persons. Unemployment is usually segmented according to the following characteristics of the unemployed, age, sex, education, duration of unemployment period and kind of education and economic activity previously carried out. Although there seems to be convergence on this concept, its applications have been bedeviled with series of problems across countries. Okongwu (1996) points out the problem arising from the concept of labour force. In most countries, particularly Nigeria, people below the age of 15 years and those above 55, who are actively engaged in economic activities, are usually excluded from labour statistical surveys. All these factors have the tendency to result in under-estimation of unemployment rates thereby making international comparison very difficult. Factors such as the preponderance of full housewives (but who are willing to be engaged in paid job) and unpaid family workers also contributed significantly to the underestimation of unemployment. According to McConnell et al. (2003) which significantly portrays a Euro-American point of view of unemployment people are considered officially unemployed if during the survey week they were 16 years of age older, were not institutionalized, and did not work, but were available for work and (1) had engaged in some specific job-seeking activity during the past 4 weeks, (2) were waiting to be called back to job from which they were temporarily laid off, (3) would have been looking for a job within 30 days. Those, who are 16 years or older and not institutionalized but officially neither employed nor unemployed are classified as ―not in the labour force‖. The labour force itself therefore consists of those employed and unemployed.
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The Concept of Entrepreneurship The word entrepreneur is derived from the French word ―entreprendre‖ meaning ―to undertake‖. The definition of an entrepreneur has evolved over time as the world‘s economic structure has changed and become more complex. Since its beginning in the middle ages, when it was used in relation to specific occupations, the notion of the entrepreneur has been refined and broadened to include concepts that are related to the person rather than the occupation. Jean-Baptiste, an aristocrat industrialist, with his unpleasant practical experiences developed the concept of entrepreneur a little further which survived for almost two centuries. According to him, an entrepreneur is one who combines the land of one, the labour of another, and capital of yet another, and thus, produces a product. By selling the product in the market, he pays interest on capital, rent on land and wages to labourers and what remains is his/her profit. The entrepreneur has been described by Collins et al. (1964) as a ―risk taker‖ – a person who braves uncertainty, strikes out on his own through native wit, devotion to duty and singleness of purpose somehow creates an industry where none existed before. Essentially, an entrepreneur fills in the people, financing production and marketing gaps by acquiring and assembling the necessary resources into newly created form The entrepreneur has been described by Collins et al. (1964) as a ―risk taker‖ – a person who braves uncertainty, strikes out on his own through native wit, devotion to duty and singleness of purpose somehow creates an industry where none existed before. Essentially, an entrepreneur fills in the people, financing production and marketing gaps by acquiring and assembling the necessary resources into newly created form The term ―entrepreneur‖ was first used by the early 18th century French economist Richard Cantillon who defines the entrepreneur as the agent who buys means of production at certain prices in order to combine them into a new product (Schumpeter; 1951; Burnett, 2000). For Drucker (1970), entrepreneurship is about taking risk. The behavior of the entrepreneur reflects a kind of person willing to put his or her career and financial security on the line and take a risk in the name of an idea, spending much time as well as capital on an uncertain venture. Gana (2001) defines entrepreneurship as the willingness and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities in an environment, and be able to establish and run an enterprise successfully based on the identified opportunities. Though Gana‘s definition was based on the managerial perspective, it is important to mention that the entrepreneur has certain personality traits which influence his behaviour (psychologists view). He also lives in a society (sociologist view) and he is obviously affected by the economic opportunities and government incentives (economist view). Gana therefore cautioned that any attempt to describe the entrepreneur against only one dimension will be inadequate and would not give a holistic view of who the entrepreneur is
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Badi et al. (2006) defined entrepreneur as a person with vision, original idea, decision-making and daring to try. The entrepreneur is also an investor who brings in new ideas, new commodities, new processes and encourages his team in the new activities. For Scarborough and Zimmerer (2000), an entrepreneur is a person who creates a new business in the face of risk and uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and growth by identifying opportunities and assembling the necessary resources to capitalize on them. Entrepreneurship is the creation of a new business venture and a new organization for that venture (Stoner et al., 2000). Mbaegbu reported that Inegbenebor and Osaze (1999) have differentiated various grades of entrepreneurs on a continuum from craftsman entrepreneurs to opportunistic entrepreneurs. According to Inegbenebor, the craftsman entrepreneur generally establishes his own self-employed business which could be a micro enterprise or a small/ medium enterprise. The number of outside people he employs depends on the size of the enterprise. The opportunistic entrepreneur on the other hand has the potential of establishing a business and growing it into a large scale bureaucratic corporation employing hundreds of people. Mbaegbu (2008) submitted that there is, therefore, no one-best definition for the entrepreneur: He however stated, anyone who creates a business, establishes it, and nurses it to growth and profitability or takes over an existing business because the founder is dead or has sold it, or who inherited it and continues to build and innovate on it, or a man who runs a franchise, qualifies as an entrepreneur in our usage (Nwachukwu, 1990). The bottom line is career in self-employment and profiting from self-employment.
Who is an Entrepreneur? Entrepreneurs are individuals who recognize opportunities where others see chaos, or confusion. One anonymous quote found by Jeffery A. Timmons sums up the realities for entrepreneurs. Anyone can be an entrepreneur, who wants to experience the deep dark canyons of uncertainty and ambiguity; who wants to walk the breathtaking highlands of success‖. Entrepreneurship in the modern dispensation in Nigeria can be traced to the colonial era due to the problem of trade by barter of exchanging agricultural products. It means primarily innovation, to others it means risk-taking. To others, a market stabilizing force and to others it means starting, or owning and managing small business. Thus, an entrepreneur is viewed as a person who either creates new combination of production factors such as new methods of production, new market, find new sources of supply and organizational form or as a person is willing to take risks or a person who exploits market opportunities, eliminates disequilibrium between aggregate demand and supply or a person who owns and operates a business. Institutions and individuals promoting rural development see entrepreneurship as a strategic development intervention that could accelerate the development process.
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Entrepreneurs and Nigerian Economy The role of entrepreneurs in economic development in-volves increasing per capital output and income, initiating and constituting change in the structure of business and society; this change is accompanied by growth and increased output. Entrepreneurship facilitates the use of local raw materials and other resources. Being relatively labour intensive, enterprise creates substantial employment opportunities at low capital cost and being resilient, flexible, can better adapt to unexpected changes in the economic and financial environments. Stimulation of indigenous entrepreneurship in developing country like Nigeria is made possible. Private individuals or groups are afforded the opportunity to manage the businesses with minimal resources requirement. Investment in small businesses helps to transform traditional sector. It modernizes the people‘s perception of life and introduces the use of machines instead of manual labour. Again, the skills of men are modernized and synchronized with developments in the new industrial sector. Another function of entrepreneurs in Nigeria‘s economy is creation of employment. In Nigeria of today, government cannot provide 100% employment for the citizens; entrepreneurship has helped many to be gainfully employed. It helps to reduce unemployment problem in the country i.e., the root of all socio-economic problems. It leads to wealth creation Gana (2001). Furthermore, utilization of resources is being accomplished. Resources that might end up to be idle in the hands of people are effectively mobilized (capital, skills etc.) and employed productively. More so, it also induces backward and forward linkages which stimulate the process of economic development in the country. It helps to link up various sectors of the economy. It constitutes the market for Agriculture extractive and industrial outputs. Also, it helps in diversifying economic activities but also in saving foreign exchange for their mother country (Gana, 2001). It helps reduce the concentration of economic power, stimulates economic equitable redistribution of wealth, income and even political power in the interest of the country. It contributes to regional activity and cooperation. It promotes Nigeria‘s export trade, reasonable quantity of products or services from Nigeria are sold in other countries. Trade among member states of ECOWAS is expanding. Good trades Relationship (import and export) are being fostered due to the factor of comparative cost advantage (Gana, 2001). Entrepreneurship as a distinct factor of production contributes to the economic development of an economy in many significant ways as mentioned above. The overall role of entrepreneurship in economic development of an economy is put as ―an economy is the effect for which entrepreneurship is the cause.
Problems Facing Entrepreneurs in Nigeria According to John (2006), entrepreneurship has a lot of problems. Nigeria entrepreneurship is faced with several constraints which limit its development.
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Among these constraints is financial or capital shortage, infrastructure problems, technology, organizational constraints, inadequate or lack of skilled manpower, competition from imported goods and poor administration of government assisted programs, inadequate information as to business opportunities, inadequate capital, substandard goods, anxiousness for profit etc. These problems have great potentials of affecting business operations Inadequate Capital: As a result of insufficient capital, entrepreneurs are not able to carry out all the beautiful project /ideas that they may have formulated. Borrowing from banks and other institutions have not been very easy as very stringent conditions are required for the entrepreneurs. This has greatly affected business development. Lack of Awareness of Business Opportunities: Most often, entrepreneurs are not aware of business opportunities available to them. This is because most entrepreneurs do not know how to seek for business opportunities. Rather than seek information from the Chambers of Commerce, Ministry of Trade and Industry, foreign and technical partners etc, most entrepreneurs depend on their intuition and what is obtained within their immediate environment, which may not be enough. Quest for High Profit: The quest for high profit can be said to be responsible for the non-chalant attitude of most entrepreneurs. Because they seek for high profits, most entrepreneurs resort to reducing standards and quality of their products. The effect of this is that, the average consumers would prefer imported products not minding the high cost compared to the locally produced ones. Production of Substandard Goods: As a matter of fact, most entrepreneurs are in the habit of producing substandard goods. This is because they may not have the technical know-how or the resources to make better products. The implication is that market is saturated with poorly produced goods and the consumers are left at the mercy of the entrepreneurs for profit; Management Control: The employment of incompetent and low quality staff can affect the features of a business. When a worker is incompetent, his output would surely be poor. Most entrepreneurs have no effective control over their workers due to the fact that most of the employees are well known to them. It must be stated that there is no sentiment in business. An entrepreneur should be very firm in the running of his business as the success or failure of the business depends largely on his abilities. Government Policies: Most times, government came up with certain policies that may not be in the interest of the entrepreneurs. This could either be in form of restriction on certain key raw material or outright ban, withdrawal of subsidies; increase in taxes etc. These policies can affect business operations.
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Recommendations The discussion above show that government efforts aimed at entrepreneurial development cannot solve the multidimensional nature of the Nigerian unemployment problem. As such, it will require the collective efforts of both the public and private enterprises to mitigate the unemployment problem in Nigeria. i.e. a public private partnership in reducing the unemployment problem in Nigeria through entrepreneurial development. Furthermore, as it is currently being practiced in some Nigeria institutions of higher learning entrepreneurial programs and curricula should be designed to meet with the current trends. Its content should be properly designed towards making a graduate in Nigeria skillful in a particular trade or enterprise of interest before he or she leaves the school, such that the long years of waiting for the elusive supposed dream or plum job will be greatly cut-down through practicing the trade or enterprise learnt about in school. Finally, adequate fund should be set aside by both the public and private enterprises and channeled towards assisting graduates with entrepreneurial skills to set up their own privately owned enterprises in the area of their skill. This also comes with the possibility of becoming an employer of labour as against the usual after school long waiting for the never forthcoming dream job.
References Burnett, D. (2000). Hunting for Haffalumps: The Supply of Entrepreneurship and Economic Development, Technopreneural.com http://www.geogle.com Collins, O.F., Moore, D.G. and Unwalla, D.B. (1964). The Enterprising Man. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University. Drucker, P.F. (1970). Innovation and Entrepreneurship; Practices and Principles. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity Report (2008). The Nigerian Statistical Fact Sheets on Economic and Social Development, Abuja and Lagos. Gana, J.S.S. (2001). Entrepreneurship. Kaduna: Jofegan Associates. Inegbenebor, A.U. and Osaze, E.B. (1999). Entrepreneurship and the Business Enterprise In: Approach Benin: Malthouse Press. Mueller, S.L. and Thomas, A.S. (2000). A case for Comparative Entrepreneurship: Assessing the Relevance of Culture. Journal of International Business Studies. 31(2):287. Mbaegbu, D.G.E. (2008). Entrepreneurship Development Theories: An Overview and Critique. Proceedings of the First Chike Okoli International Conference on Entrepreneurship, titled ―Entrepreneurship & Africa‘s Quest for
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Development Published by Chike Okoli Centre for entrepreneurial Studies, Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka Nigeria. Nwachukwu, A.C. (2009). The Role of Entrepreneurship in Economic Development: The Nigerian Perspective. European Journal of Business. Management. 4(8). Oluremi, H. A. and Gbenga, M.A. (2011). Environmental Factors and Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable. Development in Africa. 13(4). Okongwu, C.S.P. (1996). The Nigerian Economy. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Reynolds, P.D. (1987). New Firm's Societal Contribution Versus Survival Potential. Journal Business Venture 2,231-246. Stoner, A.F., Freeman, R.E. & Gilbert, Jr. D.R. (2000). Management 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J; Prentice-Hall Inc. William, J.U. & Michael, E. (2012). Developing Entrepreneurial Skills through Business Education Programme to Curb Youth Restiveness for Sustainable Niger Delta Development, European Journal Business Management, 4(21). 2012 World Bank (2008). The Economic Development of Nigeria: Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. p.63.
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The Role of Essay Writing in Resolving National Conflicts for Economic Recovery and Educational Development in Nigeria
Samaila Yahaya Department of English Language and Literary Studies, Zamfara State Collegeof Education, Maru Corresponding Author: [email protected] Phone: +2348069214605
Abstract When human beings come together there is bound to be conflict. This is because human beings have different background, interest and world views. These lead to differences in opinion. These differences in opinion could sometimes degenerate into aggression and violence. Conflict may first be noticed at the individual level, but may eventually spread to the larger society. But it is important to note that just as peace and cooperation is desirable, conflict too could be moving forward when not allowed to become destructive. However, writing is part of the major instruments that should not be ignored. In all societies of the world it is generally known that writing is a means of recording experience on paper. Such records of facts, opinions, observations, etc. provide permanent records which can be referred to when we can no longer rely on our memory for an undistorted version of the incident. This paper intends to discuss the role of essay writing in resolving national conflicts for economic recovery and educational development in Nigeria. Causes and types of conflicts were also discussed. In the final note the paper shows that conflict may be favourable so long it leads to solving problems in our societies. The steps highlighted on how to write a good essay in the paper will definitely improve the performance of students in writing tasks and enable them to grasp the idea of writing educative essays that will lead to resolving national conflicts, economic challenges and enhance educational development in Nigeria. Keywords: Essay writing, National conflict, Economic recovery and Educational development.
Introduction Why would conflict exist at all in the society? Why do men seek peace within and after conflict in their societies? Politics and Economy are inextricably mixed and in any society there will be people who inevitably want to achieve their satisfaction by acquiring power or economic resources, legitimately or illegitimately. Where interest contradicts, there will be conflict. No society can be said to be conflict free, except that the severity of conflict varies from one society to the other,
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depending on the sophistry of institutions that manage conflict. Conflict stifles economic development. Conflicts cannot be totally eradicated in the society. Rather, what is important is that conflict is part of every society. From sociological point of view, conflict is a characteristic of every society. People will not accept dull agreement to everything. If they must show displeasure and disagree in some cases, there must be opportunity for resolution. Resolution is the most important aspect and it constitutes the positive side of conflict. English Language is also used as a medium of instruction right from Primary four to six, and throughout Secondary and Higher Institutions (National Policy on Education, 2010). The influence of English language in Nigeria will remain relevant as a language of education and business transactions. In this case, students need to be proficient in the language in order to function effectively in the scheme of affairs of the nation. It is imperative to note that in recent years, interest in writing has increased among second language learners (L2), and it is the skill of language that proves to be difficult (Williams, 2004). According to Schmitt (2002:251) ―writing remains one of the least well-understood, if not misunderstood subject in applied linguistics.‖ The reason behind the ambiguity of the term ‗writing‘ is because of the way people view it. Some regard writing as an orthography and written discourse. Schmitt (2002:251) further argues that the difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but in translating these ideas into readable text. In supporting the above argument, Richards and Renandya (2005:303) state that ―The skills involved in writing are highly complex; L2 writers have to pay attention to higher level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skills of spelling, punctuation, words choice, and so on.‖ In this case, the difficulty becomes so pronounced among the learners particularly if their language proficiency is weak. Organization in whatever one intends doing is very important hence it helps in producing quality outcome. This illuminates the fact that when one writes, it is necessary to put ideas in their right places. In writing, organization refers to the arrangement and ordering of sentences to form paragraphs and the unity of the paragraphs to make a whole composition. The flow of thoughts from the opening, through the middle, to the conclusion, as well as formal features are also considered (Oladimeji, 2014). The above definition explains how important organization in essay writing is. Learning to write in L2 (second language) mainly involves linguistic knowledge and vocabulary choice, knowledge of syntactic patterns, and cohesive device that comprise the essential building blocks of text (Hyland, 2003). It is imperative to note that by its very nature, writing is an active process because it involves commitment towards expressing one‘s opinion. Its physical aspect forces active involvement upon a writer. Writers perform the actions of picking up a pen and pencil (or using computer keyboard) and recording their thought (Trimbur, 2008). In ESL (English as a second language) context, reading and writing are the two skills used for getting and producing language. Writing as channel of producing language has always been problematic to students to learn. According to
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Gabrielatos (1993), writing is of two levels: language and organization. In the former level, the focus is on grammar and vocabulary used in the sentences. In the later level, focus is on lay out, punctuation and method of organization. (Obanya, 2005).
Writing Academic writing is knowledge-transforming (Kamal, 2001:62). Students transform the knowledge and skills acquired from their teachers or even from books or journal articles into their writing. Some higher institutions and universities adopt product-oriented approach in teaching writing to their students. As Kamal (2001:63) says ―The teaching of writing at Bayero University Kano is product-oriented. The teachers assign a number of topics and the students make choices, write and handover their first draft to the teachers who mark and return the scripts.‖ This is what White (1988:5) terms ―language focused‖ and students are ―language learners‖. (The teachers‘ concern is mainly on errors and surface structures) rather than ―developing writers‖ (That is students are not dwelling on meaning) (Zamel 1986:81-82, quoted by Kamal 2001:63). Thus, students develop hatred and lack of confidence in writing course since the approach kills their interest towards the writing activity. This shows that writing is far beyond errors and surface structure but also dwelling on meaning.
Definition and Characteristics Nature of Conflict Different scholars have defined conflict in many ways. Conflict could be defined as the pursuit of incompatibility of goals by individuals or groups as a result of the inability of social structure to allocate values objectively. (Ball, 1983) situates conflict as a political process that generates from diversity of choices and distribution of scarce resources in the society. (Stagner, 1995) adds that the occurrence of cheat and aggressive behaviour on the part of individuals or groups that lead to the frustration of others may cause conflict. It is disagreement that results from the allocation of scarce values or clashes regarding incompatibility of goals. It can also be regarded as disagreement that generates from distributive injustice. There are both positive and negative sides of conflict when it is resolved and when it exist respectively. The positive side can be used to minimize or resolve conflict. Similarly, the negative side can be used to exacerbate conflict. To promote conflict resolution and peaceful co-existence, one important tool is communication. Of course Otite and Albert (1999) have argued that adequate consultation and communication is one of the hallmarks of transforming conflict environment to manageable situation. Where communication is lacking either as a result of the inability of the mediator to initiate it or the principals‘ blatant refusal to talk to each other, resolution may be difficult. Consultation and communication aims to promote the positive side of conflict and deterring the negative side.
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Table 1 Positive side of conflict Negative side of conflict Clarification of individual view Distance between people increased Stimulation of interest and creativity Climate of mistrust and hatred developed Long-standing problems brought to Individuals and groups concentrate surface and resolved on their narrow objectives Peaceful Co-existence through Tolerance and accommodation Otite and Albert (1999)
Coser in Otite and Albert (1999) provides an elaborate definition: He states that; Social conflict may be defined as a struggle over values or claims to status power and scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values, but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals. Such conflicts may take place between individuals, collectivities or between individuals and collectivities. Intergroup and intra-group conflicts are perennial features of social life. However, conflict can be defined as the existence of non-compatibility or disagreements between two actors (individuals, groups, organizations or nations) in their interaction over issues of interests, values, beliefs, emotions, goals, space, positions, scarce resources etc. In his work, Fink, defines conflict as any ―situation or process in which two or more social entities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic psychological relation or at least one form of antagonistic interaction‖ (Fink; 1968: 456). The psychological antagonisms are such things as incompatible goals, mutually exclusive interests, emotional hostility, factual or value dissensions and traditional enmities; while antagonistic interactions range from the most direct, violent and unregulated struggle to the subtlest, indirect and highly regulated forms of mutual interference‖ (Fink; 1968: 456). Coser (1956: 8) also defines conflict as ―A struggle over values and claims to secure status, power and resources, a struggle in which the aims of opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate rivals‖.
Causes of Conflict The causes of conflict in societies where it has occurred and where it may potentially take place is similar. The available literature on causes of conflict in the West Africa sub-region, for example, are tied to the struggle for economic resources, boundary disputes, environmental degradation and struggle for political power between or among ethnic groups, religious sentiments. Elsewhere in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern European countries and the Americas, the story is the same or similar. For example, the conflict in Liberia in which late Samuel Doe was accused of dominating the government with members of his ethnic Kahn people is much related to tribal sentiments and struggle for political power; the conflict
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between Nigeria and Cameroun over the oil rich Bakassi Peninsular, which was concluded in 2006 was as a result of boundary dispute and the accompanying natural resources/economic resources located therein.
Types of Conflict Below are some of the types of conflict: We can begin to determine the causes of conflict and design resolution strategies that will have a higher probability of success.
Relationship Conflicts Relationship conflicts occur because of the presence of strong negative misperceptions or stereotypes, poor communication or miscommunication, repetitive behaviours. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an unnecessary escalating spiral of destructive conflict. Supporting the balanced expression of perspectives and emotions for acknowledgement (no one agreement) is one effective approach to managing relational conflict.
Data Conflicts Data conflicts arise when two profiles are merged but some of the information did not match. Instead of discharging any information we allow one to review these conflicts and choose the correct data to keep. Some of the conflicts may be unnecessary since they are caused by poor communication between the people in conflict. Other data conflicts may be genuine incompatibilities associated with data collection, interpretation or communication. Most data conflicts will have ―data solutions‖.
Interest Conflicts Interest conflicts are caused by competition over perceived incompatible norms. Conflicts of interest result when one or more of the parties believe that in order to satisfy his or her needs, the needs and interest of an opponent must be sacrificed. A variety of interests and intentions underlie and motivate positions in negative and must be addressed for maximized resolution. Interest-based conflicts occur over substantive issues (such as money, physical resources, time etc. procedural issues (the way the dispute is to be resolved); and psychological (perceptions of trust, fairness, desire for participation, respect, etc.). For an interest based dispute to be resolved, parties must be assisted to define and express their individual interests so that all of these interests may be jointly addressed. Interest-based conflict is best resolved through the maximizing of integration of the parties‘ respective interests, positive intentions and designating experiential outcomes.
Structural Conflicts Structural conflicts are caused by forces external to the people in dispute. Physical resources or authority, geographic constraints (distance or proximity, time too little or too much) organizational changes and so forth. These can make structural
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conflict seem like a crisis. It can be helpful to assist parties in conflict to appreciate the external forces and constraints bearing upon them.
Value Conflicts Value conflicts are caused by perceived or actual incompatible belief system. Values are beliefs that people use to give meaning to their lives. Values express what is ―good‖, ―right‖ or ―wrong‖, ―just or ―unjust‖. Differing values need not cause conflict. People can live together in harmony with different systems. Value disputes arise only when people attempt to force one set of values on others or lay claim to exclusive value system that do not allow for divergent beliefs. It is of no use to try to change value and belief systems during relating short and strategic mediation interventions. It can, however, be helpful to each participant‘s expression of their values and beliefs for acknowledgement to the other party. (Cook, 1956).
Theories of Conflict Theories of social conflict are interrelated just as much as we cannot separate politics, economics and social processes. In other words, no matter the degree by which we attempt to classify theories as structural, biological, economic, political, psychological or otherwise, their causal inter-relationships are inseparable, intertwine and interwoven. However, this research was guided by Structural Theory.
Structural Theory The structural theory of conflict drives its explanatory content from two sources. The first is linked to Karl Marx dialectical school of thought with expanded contributions of Engel and Lenin. The Marxian conflict perspective holds that there is a structured form of conflict in the society, which generates from the relationship between those who owns private property and means of production (the bourgeoisie) and those who are separated from this process of materialism, but work for the property class under exploitative and subordinated arrangements the Proletariat: the labouring class; especially the class of industrial workers who lack their own means of production and hence sell their labour to live (that is the lowest social or economic class). (Marx, 1959). Marx takes the argument further that such exploitative and domineering power of the bourgeoisies will evolve into conflict in which the proletariat will in revolutionary revolt overthrow the property class to establish socialist order that put the masses (workers) in control. Workers across national boundaries will merge and the state will wither away since it is only for the support of production processes that state exists. Miliband, Lenin etc, have expanded this, but showed pessimistic view about the liquidation of the state into the advantage possession of the proletariat (Cook, 1975).
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Resolving National Conflicts through Essay Writing It is human nature to disagree with people that one encounter with. Conflicts are common at home, among families, at workplace, between societies and between countries. It is, therefore, crucial to have the knowhow on how to write an essay on conflict. The important steps to follow when writing an essay about conflict include the following: Plan your Essay: The plan should involve the format of your essay and the key points to include in the various paragraphs. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to- write-a-conflict-essay 2019 Write your Essay: Start the essay with a detailed introduction that informs the readers on the contents of your essay. The introduction should have a definition that explains what an essay is. The paragraph should then include the points that your essay will address. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict- essay 2019 The body: The body should address all the issues that you want your reader to know about conflict. Each paragraph should handle a specific issue. The introductory sentence of each paragraph should inform the reader the contents of the paragraph. Remember to be elaborated and concise. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019 Assume that your audience lacks previous knowledge about conflict and that your essay is meant to educate the reader about it. Handle all issues in depth while avoiding ambiguous information. The body should include conflict types, the reasons, consequences, how to avoid and how to solve a conflict. Explain these points fully. Your essay should also include your viewpoint concerning conflict. Ensure that the reader will get your stand on conflict as they read your essay. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019 Recommendations Pertaining Conflicts: The recommendations may include living with conflict in cases where the conflicting parties were unable to solve or avoid the conflict. The recommendation can also include insight on how to benefit from a conflicting situation. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the major points of your essay. Highlight the types, reasons, consequences, solution for conflicts and recommendations. Also, highlight your thesis statement to show your reader that the essay has achieved the expected objective. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a- conflict-essay 2019 Follow all the requirements provided by the instructor on writing the essay: The requirements include the word limit, paper format (also includes font type, margins), the proper referencing style e.g APA, MLA, HARVARD etc. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019 Ensure that your Essay Lacks Plagiarism: You avoid plagiarism by citing information that you borrow from other people. Plagiarism is also avoided by
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reading and understanding the sources and writing your essay using your understanding. Remember to always cite outside sources in the text and in the reference page in alphabetical order. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a- conflict-essay 2019 Provide High-Quality Work: Quality involves originality, proper articulation of ideas, and a good command of the language used. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay2019 Avoid Spelling Mistakes and Grammar Errors: You should proofread your work upon completion. Use the ‗third person‘ unless instructed otherwise. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay 2019
Examples of some Essays in Resolving National Conflicts Nigeria Cattle Feud: Villagers killed in Plateau State by BBC News Africa, 2013 Nigeria: The Wase Crisis and Taroh People: The Truth of the Matter by Miner C.S, 2002 Muslim Ethnic Fulani Mount Attacks in Plateau State; Boko Haram strikes in Borno by Religious Freedom Coalition, 2013
Path to Economic Recovery in Nigeria According to Nwanku A. 2016 he painted a rosy economic future anchored on diversification and enhanced revenue from taxation. According to him, in three to five years, Nigerians will feel the impact of the present administration‘s policies on manufacturing, agriculture, entertainment and mining among others, because they will strengthen the naira and improve foreign reserves (are cash and other reserve assets held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate of its currency and to maintain confidence in financial markets).
Education and Development in Nigeria The introduction of Western Education in Nigeria was closely bound up with the activities of various Christian Missionaries who brought this system of education. By 1877, the British administration was firmly established in Lagos. However, education was still the monopoly of the Christian Missions. Some scholars observed that the school‘s curriculum was heavily religion based, internal and swallow in content. As a result, the missionaries were greatly restricted by Muslim Emirs in the North and South. https://www.christianpost.com/news/education-and- development-in-nigeria.html The concept of development on the other hand is subject to many definitions. For example, Rodney defined it as a many-sided process. At the level of individual it implies increase skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being. In fact, development is elusive; it is perceived not only as a condition of life but also as a goal to be attained, and as the
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capacity to grow and change and develop. Thus it also involves both a physical process and a state of mind. The transformation of institution is one aspect; the other aspect is that the thinking of the people must change. The importance of education to societal development cannot be overemphasized. For Plato, the ancient Greek Philosopher, he recommended education as the most important method of forming the state. And his system of education aims at equipping the citizens with the training skills needed for whatever position they are selected for. Aristotle in the same vein argued that education should be strictly controlled by the state, be senscored and made open to all citizens of the state.
Conclusion In conclusion, conflict has been considered an obstacle to progress, political stability, economic prosperity and overall socio-economic development of any society because of its destructive impact. This therefore means that conflict must be timely averted or managed properly as failure to do so will reflect a determined action or struggle over a goal, which may be overt or subtle; manifest or imaginary. To sum it all we could find out that although there are no generally acceptable definitions of conflict, but atleast we can identify the causes. Moreso, there is no particular cause for all conflicts. A particular conflict may have many issues as contributory factors to the cause such conflicts. One common denominator among all conflicts is that there is an incompatibility of interest between two or more contending parties.
References Cook, J.B. (1975). Compromise, conflict and Perspective. Department of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community service, University of Missouri. Coser, L. (1956). The Function of Social Conflict. Philadelphia: The Free Press. Fink, C. (1968). The World Transformed. Ohio State University. Gabrielatos, C. (1993). Learning how to fish: Fostering fluency and Independence. TESOL Greece Newsletter 38. (Also available online: www.gabrielatos.com/learning how to fish.htm) Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kamal, A. (2001). BUK English 2: A Primer for Advance Reading and Writing Skills. Kano: Myrrh. Kamal, A. (2001). Language for Academic Purposes: A Learning Centred Approach. Kano: Myrrh. National Policy on Education (2010)
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Nwankwo, A. (2016). Path to Economic Recovery in Nigeria. Real news Magazine. Marx K. (1959). Social Conflict. International Socialist Review. Vol. 20 No, 4 Obanya, P. (2005). Language Arts Methods: Associateship Certificate in Education Series. Ibadan: Institute of Education University. Heinemann Educational Books Nig. Oladimeji, O. (2014). National Examination Council (NECO). Marking Scheme. Otite, O. and Albert, I. (1999). Community Conflict in Nigeria. Spectrum Ibadan. Books Limited Richards, J. and Renandya, W.A. (2005). Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. 6th ed. Cambridge: University Press. Schmitt, N. (2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Hodder Education, Part of Hachette UK, London. Stagner, E. (1995). Union Pacific Steam in Colour. www.amazon.co.uk Trimbur, H. (2008). Portfolio Assessment in the Reading-Writing Classroom. Norwood, MA. White, R. V. (1988). Academic Writing: Process and Product. In Robinson (eds) 1988 (pp. 4-16). Williams, D. (2004). English Language Teaching: An Integrated Approach. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. Research in Written Composition. In Freedman et al. (eds.) 2004 (pp. 171- 177) writing. Javanovich University Press. Zamel, V. (1987). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL. Quarterly. 19:79-101. https://grademiners.com/blog/how-to-write-a-conflict-essay https://www.christianpost.com/news/education-and-development-in-nigeria.html
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Field Study in Geography: Understanding Urban Morphology, Agriculture, Water and Energy Supplies in the Desert City of Agadez, Niger Republic
Halliru Yahaya Department of Geography, Zamfara State College of Education Maru E-mail: [email protected], Mobile: 08065496662 Abstract Agadez, the largest city found in the largest desert of the world, is located on hyper arid environment. The field study explores qualitative methodology using geographical observations and unstructured interviews conducted during the journey from Metropolitan Kano (Nigeria) through Zinder (Damagaram), Tanoute, Adarbislam to Agadez City all in Niger Republic. The field study examined urban morphology, agriculture, water and energy supplies in Agadez city. The results identified eleven (11) important areas/quarters in the urban morphology of Agadez city. Agricultural practices along Telwa valley, a route to Dabaga Commune is connected with Ahagar Air Massive of the Sahara Desert, which leads to emergence of oases landform features along its valley. With fertile soil and shallow water table of oases, agro forestry and intensive irrigation agriculture are being practiced. Also, in areas around Air Massif, Irrigated gardening around Telwa River channel, covering Dabaga, AssalamSalam, Azel and Sabon Gari Villages all practiced both intensive rain fed and irrigation agriculture. Despite low rainfall in Agadez, (150- 200mm per annum), water supply was observed and rated efficient. The major source of water for domestic, industrial and irrigational purposes is from highland of Air massive, located North Western part of Niger Republic. Electricity remained steady throughout the period of field study in Agadez. The source was from Sonica coal electricity generating company established in the last 40 years as a joint venture between Nigerien government (69% shares) and other Banks (31% shares). 19 megawatts of electricity are produced daily and stored for distribution. The study concludes that human and natural resources are optimally utilized in the city of Agadez, however, solar energy potentials need to be harnessed in the desert environment to curtail the stress associated with fuel generators in irrigation activities and to complement hydro and thermos electricity in Niger. Also, there is the need for other developing countries to emulate from developments being exhibited in Agadez region particularly in areas of water supply, food security and energy provision. Keywords: Touareg, Commune, Department, Gandari, Gendermare
Introduction Agadez, the largest city found in the largest desert of the world, is located on the south-eastern fringes of the Sahara Desert in Africa. Geographically, the City is on the Coordinates of parallels 16.9742o N and Meridian 7.98650 E located at the southern fringe of the Aïr Massif. Agadez is the main city of Agadez region in Niger Republic, the largest of all the eight (8) existing administrative regions in the Country. The Agadez region, is the largest. Less populated, and the richest in
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mineral resources. It is also the main tourist area of the country par excellence. It contains the most beautiful desert in the world, which contained several landforms features of the desert environment. The study also explores the geographical observations made during the journey from Kano through Daura, (Katsina State, Nigeria), passed through a border town of Maimujiya, Zinder (Damagaram), Tanout, Adarbislam to Agadez City. At the start of the journey, Kano is generally considered as tropical continental climate. The Climate is characterized by high humidity from May to November (6 months) with rainfall throughout this period and a single maximum around the month of August. Rainfall of Kano are between 900-1000mm per annum. These figures continue to decline Northward position. Therefore, at Maimujiyya, a Boundary of Nigeria and Niger Republic Sahelian climate with rainfall below 500mm per annum is experienced. This is manifested from the nature of trees, cultivation and drier environment. From Zinder, Tanout, Aderbissalam and Agadez, drier environment can be observed, From arid towards hyper arid environment. At Agadez, the town‘s pollution level is low. Vehicles driven in the town raise a fine dust, but this does not have any particular negative impact on buildings. The impact of dust is far more intense during sandstorms, but in fact their effects seem to be beneficial for the conservation of mudbrick buildings, as they deposit a fine coating of mineral particles on the surfaces. People of the Sahel, are responding to climate and vegetation through pastoralist activities. Pastoralism is commonly practiced in areas around Tanout, Aderbissalam and areas around Agadez. Livestock migrate from destination to areas southward in search of pasture. People of Agadez and neighbourhood wears turbans covering their heads to neck leaving only their eyes. This is a protection from harsh weather and climatic condition. Houses in Agadez are seen to have small windows as protection from harsh weather and climatic conditions. Another important human response to environmental conditions was observed in constructions of a school, called Lecol in Niger. Some schools were built entirely with mud and some other schools are either local thatch grasses roofing or an open spaced with a National flag of Niger Republic mounted on a stick, just to give an impression of official place.
Aim and Objectives of the Field Study Field study is essential for a better comprehension of geographical phenomena that are being taught in the classroom environment. Hence, the aim of the study is to examine urban morphology, agriculture, water and energy supplies in the desert city of Agadez, Niger Republic. The aim could be achieved through the following objectives: Examine urban morphology of Agadez city in Niger Republic Identify agricultural practices and adaptation to hyper aridity in Agadez region.
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Determine water supply and distribution in Agadez city and its environs. Determine households‘ electricity supply in Agadez city.
Data Collection Instruments and Analysis Geographical field study involves actual geographical study or work carried out in the field that affords this opportunity. Hence data collection for the field study involves the close observation and unstructured interviews conducted in the study of geographical phenomena in the field. Even though the fieldwork begins from Kano metropolis through Nigeria- Niger boundary at Maimujiya town to Damagaram (Zinder, Niger Republic), then passing through the road to Tanoute town, Adarbislam to Agadez city. The main purpose of embarking on such trips is educational, that is, teaching, learning and researching. This makes the fieldwork participatory and exciting. Geographical observations made coupled with responses from unstructured interviewed done to residents, teachers and some resource persons have been analysed, presented and discussed.
Data Presentation and Discussion Data collections was made through field study observations, interviews and discussions with teachers on the field and these notes were carefully studied and analysed. Therefore, the data analysed were also sequentially presented.
Urban Morphology in Agadez City From Niger- Nigerian boundary at Daura to Agadez city, the road is characterized by four (4) urban settlements. They are: Zinder (Damagaram), Tanout, Adarbisalam and Agadez. All these settlements possessed urban Planning similar to those in Hausa urban settlements of Northern Nigeria. This is similar to observations made by Stock (2004) that at the beginning of the ninth century, Islamic cities were established at the end of trans-Saharan trade routes in West Africa. These cities flourished for a period, but then were largely abandoned as external entities wielded increasing power with the onset of the slave trade and the beginnings of colonization. However, at Agadez city, the settlement can be divided into eleven major areas/quarters, each possess its peculiar structures and functions. The quarters are as follows: Agar-garin saka (square of the caravans) This is a very large portion within the city centre where caravans are said to stationed their camels and products brought to Agadez. The square later transformed an important ground for learning. In this square, the remnants of ashes produced by night lightening of fire can still be observed and many people used the ashes for the cure of some ailments. Katanga (quarter of the Ramparts and the Sultan’s Palace) This includes Sultan palace and the grand mosque of Agadez, which took on its general present-day appearance in the early 16th century. It is located in the north- west of the old town, very close to the Sultan‘s Palace. This highly symbolic monument is still used for Friday prayers and five daily congregational prayers. Its
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27-metre-tall minaret is in the form of a truncated pyramid. The minaret is made entirely of mudbrick, and its surface is covered with projecting wooden stakes used as permanent supports for scaffolding. The Sudanese-style minaret is held to be the tallest minaret ever built entirely out of mudbrick, which is its distinctive feature. The Minaret contained 99 Staircases, which depicts 99 names of Allah. And the minaret possessed 7 windows that depicts how Allah put priority on ‗Seven‘ figure as in seven days and ‗‗sab‘a samawat wal Arli‘‘as in holy book of Qur‘an. It was discovered that the mosque provided with an outstanding minaret by Zakaria, a sheikh who was an architectural experts for his building prowess. The mosque and its dependencies, which include two oratories, a tomb and various courtyards and cemeteries, are surrounded by walls. The group of buildings occupies an area of 5600sqm. It was extended at various periods, respecting the traditional techniques and materials, in particular a there has been partial reconstruction of the minaret in the 19th century and new prayer rooms in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Figure 1: The Grand Mosque of Agadez with World‘s longest mud minaret. Two other mosques in the old town date from the 16th century: The Tendé mosque, with its two decorated monumental central pillars, and the Abawagé mosque, which is still used. Although These two mosques have no minaret as noted during field observations. On the other hand, the sultan‘s people comprise the sultan‘s family, and the descendants of the various socio-cultural groups directly linked to the history of the sultanate. In addition to the sultan himself, the sultan has followers such as the Dangaladima or vice-sultan, the Tourawa, a qadi in charge of justice, the Magagia, the sultan‘s sister, who is in charge of women‘s issues, and the sultan‘s secretary, etc. This social group includes the prominent figures and administrators of the sultanate, of various ranks, such as the head of military functions, and the Dogaris in charge of the police, etc. The imam is responsible for religious matters, assisted by the Naibi and other ulamas.
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The Palace of the Anastafidet The palace dates from the early 20th century. This represents the chieftaincy of a group of Tuaregs who played a leading role in the management of caravans. The palace has some twenty rooms and several courtyards, arranged around a large reception room, covered by a ribbed vault.
The House of Sidi Kâ, or Baker’s House It is a building with an upper floor and dates from 1917. It was richly decorated, in a style reflecting a mixture of cultural influences, by its designer, the merchant himself. The former residence of the Sultan Almoumine is still inhabited by his descendants; this is a place to stay for the future brides of the sultan‘s house.
The Hotel de l’Aïr This is a palace built in 1917 for Kaossen, the leader of the rebellion against the colonial power. It was later converted into a hotel. The hotel restaurant has remarkable ribbed vaults, supported by four large pillars. Other important places with important functions are: Amarewat (potters‘ quarter) Amdit (quarter of the Igdalen Tuaregs) Imourdan-Magass, Imourdan-Nafala and Akanfaya (Kel Away Tuaregs) Oungoual-Bayi (quarters of the servants) Founé-Imé; Obitara (the exterior market and the craftspeople) Hougoubéré (the former commercial centre of the grand market Tamallakoye). The original street layout, which is quite different from the hierarchical street system found in traditional Arab-Islamic towns, is linked to the Tuareg origins of the town, reflected in an urban layout comprising broader streets with many small squares. Furthermore, the continuous use of mudbrick, since the 15th century, has resulted in a remarkable level of knowhow which is reflected in the height of the minaret, held to be the tallest ever erected in the world exclusively with the aid of this construction technique. Houses in Agadez are made of Mud with kwungu, a round bricks made from Mud. Although, this differs from what is known in traditional Hausa construction that include Ramno. However, there are similarities of architectural designs which includes dakali, that serve as seats and also protect the base of the buildings from erosion. Building material is sometimes clayey earth (banco). It is utilised in the form of conical bricks shaped by hand (Kwungu) or more recently as rectangular moulded bricks (tubali). The bricks are laid using an earth-based mortar, and the walls are also plastered with earth.
Agriculture and Food Security in Agadez Millet production is the only thriving crop in the areas from Nigeria –Niger boundary through Zinder, Tanoute, Adarbislam to Agadez city. Generally,
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agricultural practices are primarily characterized by subsistence farming, and production of crops is based largely on rain-fed agriculture. Millet is the strongly preferred staple food and domestic millet production accounts for about 76 percent of cereal production in the country. An estimated 90 percent of all cultivated land is allocated to millet (World Bank, 2009) sandy soil dominates most areas mentioned. That revealed the facts that 80% of the Nigerien soils are infertile. Only 20% of the soils is cultivable ADBG (2013). Most of these fertile soils of Niger are at the southern part of the country and areas around oases in the desert region in the northern part of the country. However, the reddish- brown to white layers occurring in the desert soils otherwise known as caliche are observed on transit. One of the major challenge facing Nigerien people is barred soil, which made large portion of Niger‘s soil infertile and uncultivatable. Although, Nigerien government is trying hard to reclaimed and managed their barren soils. As pointed out by Smyth and Dumanski (1993) under the framework for evaluating sustainable land management (FESLM) defined sustainable land management as that which combines technologies, policies and activities aimed at integrating socio-economic principles with environmental concerns so as to simultaneously maintain or enhance production/services, reduce the level of production risk, protect the potential of natural resources and prevent degradation of soil and water quality be economically viable and Socially acceptable. In this regards, a crescent curve ditches of 5ft radius was introduced over a large hectares of land aimed at land reclamation for greening the soils of areas before and after Tanoute Town. These crescent curves are popularly called Gandari, or Gina Kaci. The naming of the crescent curve Gandari is connected to the ability of the programme to fertile the land and green the environment. It is a joint programme sponsored by FAO and Nigerien Government.
Figure 2: Crescent curves (Gandari) for land reclamation and greening of the soil areas before and after Tanoute Town, Niger.
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Areas after Zinder, moving towards Tanoute, Adarbislam and Agadez, only some portions of land are cultivable, reflecting climate and soil conditions of the area. Most of these areas are dry or drought affected due to rainfall variability. Most of the population lacks agricultural practices that provide food stuff for their livelihood. This can be attested by Beekhuis report in 2005 that Nigeria plays a dominant role in cereal availability for Nigeriens. An estimated 75-85 percent of millet/sorghum imports and 35 percent of maize are imported from Nigeria. Beekhuis, (2005). Therefore, Niger‘s national food system and import needs depend heavily on key markets in Nigeria, primarily for millet such as Dan Issa, Mai Adua, Illela, Dammassacki, and Jibia markets. Livestock production are observed to be practiced by pastoralist and Nomads at various points. Pastoralism has been the famous practice in dryland areas along the route of Tanoute, Adarbislam and Agadez. Livestock are mainly red and black cattle, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys. These livestock are significant in transportation of goods and people, drawing water from deep wells. One fascinating things about Pastoralists and nomads is the fact that small villages comprised of a small le col, clinik or hospital and a deep well. Pastoralists that moves around were provided with mobile schools with a mobile teacher to provide teaching and learning on their transits. Livestock production is an important economic activity in Niger as pointed out by World Bank Report, 2013 that Livestock production contributes about 14 percent to total GDP, and makes up about 40 percent of agricultural GDP, including goats, sheep, cattle, and camels. Niger has the largest herd of livestock per head in the Sahel region, with an estimated total 10.5 million tropical livestock units (TLUs) as pointed out by World Bank (2013). At Agadez region, the climate is extremely harsh and characterized by low rainfall around 150-200mm per annum spreads irregularly. In this regards, no any crop cultivation is observed in the city or its neighbourhood. However, North eastern oases along Telwa valley, a route to Sonicar coal processing company in Chenozerin Department, both rain fed and irrigation are practiced. Also, in areas around Aïr Massif irrigated gardening, following through Telwa River channel, covering Dabaga, AssalamSalam, Azel and Sabon Gari villages all practiced both rain fed and irrigation agriculture. Major crops produced are maize, millet wheat, carrots, Irish potato and onions This is because they lies along the valleys occupies by oases in the desert of Agadez region. Also, Agroforestry practices is well established at Dabaga farms with Date palm and other tree species. Food Security in Agadez Region The commonly accepted definition of food security as a situation where all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 1996). Domestic production of millet, the most important and preferred staple crop, has steadily increased to meet the robust demand generated by the sixth fastest growing population in the world. However, millet consumption in Niger outpaces available regional stocks and production, and ensuing pressure on prices has a direct impact on household access to this staple food.
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However, climate-related hazards pose a significant and chronic threat to household food supplies in Niger, and have direct and often immediate consequences on food insecurity, because rural households depend on agricultural production for up to 40 percent of household food consumption. Generally, Millets, the only staple crop produced through rain fed agriculture cannot meet the demands of population. Therefore, there is need for importation to complement the produce. However, Oases Areas of Dabaga in Cherozerin Department and the valley along Telwa River provides irrigation activity on their agroforestry practices. Date palm, wheat, maize, millet, carrots, Irish potatoes are all cultivated using hybrid crops. These irrigation activities are done 3 times in a year, with 3 harvesting periods. Upon all these efforts, the farmers cannot meet the demands of Agadez population. Supplies must be complemented through imports from neighbouring countries.
Hydrology and Water Resource Development Telwa River is the only water channel that can be observed in Agadez. This river valley originated from Air Massive highland. The area feed the oases of Dabaga and other areas along the valley. Since the area is hyper aridity, river channels are not prominent. Most of valleys are dry and not water course. They are Waddis otherwise called dry valleys, one of the common landforms feature in Desert environment. It is important to note that one time Telwa river was a tributary of River Niger. However, due to geological transformation, the other portion of the river disappeared. While today, Telwa River is no longer a tributary of Niger, but drain in a large portion of the desert near Agadez city. However, along the route from Damagaram (Zinder) through Tanoute and Adarbislam, no signs of drainage outlet are observed. It is only dry valleys that does not exist due to water movement. That explains the desert Climate characteristics.
Water Resources Development in Agadez About 90 percent of the area visited is in the extremely arid zone, almost entirely desert, and receives less than 150 mm of annual rainfall. Groundwater resources in oases and wadis (riverbeds that capture seasonal rain) allow for irrigated cultivation of some cash crops, dates, and fruits. These areas are mostly unsuitable for rain fed cultivation and more favourable for pastoral activities. In Niger Republic, approximately 67 percent of the population has access to improved water source (e.g., household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected well or spring, and rainwater collection). According to the 2012 DHS survey, there is a significant difference in use of improved water resources between rural (61 percent) and urban populations (97 percent), and in roughly 48 percent of households‘ country-wide, the average travel time to collect drinking water is about 30 minutes (NIS,2012). In Agadez, the major source of water supply for domestic, industrial and irrigational uses is from highland of Air massive, located North Western part of Niger. This aquifer has a large reserves of ground water that supplies Agadez city,
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9 important villages and Sonicar thermal electricity generation company in Chenozerin Department of Agadez. Over 10,000 litres of water is drawn daily from this aquifer 38 years of the establishment of the Sonicar power generation company. However, 18 years ago, Water level was measured in the Air Massive aquifer to determine loss, but it was discovered that only 1 metre was lost over the 20 years of drawing 10,000 litres of water daily for domestic, industrial and irrigational purposes. Agadez city is observed to be on adequate supply of potable and domestic water supply. Running tap water can be observed in virtually all residential, commercial, industrial and educational land uses visited. Also, recreational land uses as well as agricultural and religious land uses within the city have access to potable water supply.
Electricity Supply and Distribution Niger has significant energy potentials, rich and varied. It consists of biomass (firewood and agricultural residues, the main source used by households for cooking), uranium, mineral coal, oil, natural gas, hydroelectricity and solar energy. Proved reserves of uranium in the north region of Agadez are estimated at about 450 000 tonnes. Also, Niger imports about 86.6% of its electricity consumption from Nigeria, under an agreement signed in 1972 and renegotiated in 2010 (ADBG, 2013). Solar energy is possible throughout the territory where the average insolation level is 5 to 7 kW/ m2/ day with an average of 8.5 hours per day. Wind speeds, ranging from 2.5 m/s in the south to 5 m/s in the north, are in favour of wind turbines to pump water Table 1: Energy Resources in Niger Republic as at 2016 Resources Reserves Uranium 450 000 tonnes (Reserves proven) Mineral coal 90 million tons Crude oil 1.18 billion barrels oil in place Natural gas 18.6 billion m3 Hydropower 280 MW Solar energy 6 to 7 kWh/m2/day
Source: Adapted from SIE/MEP (2016) Electricity is very efficient in Niger Republic. As observed, in the field trip, Electricity remained steady at Zinder and Agadez, throughout our stay. Even though, Zinder generates its electricity from Nigeria, and Agadez is receiving its electricity from Sonicar coal electricity generating company. Mineral coal reserves located in northern Niger are over 90 million tons. Around 70 million tons are in Salkadamna (World Bank, 2012).
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Sonicar coal mining and thermo- electricity generating company was established in the last 38 years ago as a joint venture between Nigerien government (69% shares) and other banks (31% shares). The company used coal, air and water as raw materials to generate steam, which in turn turned the turbanes, which produced electricity. The company uses 10,000 metric tonnes of coal per day, extracted from the mining site. The company‘s employment capacity is around 130 workers engaged in different activities, over a 3 shifting periods. The process of generating thermo-electricity starts from extracting coal and move it to a reservoir. The coal will be conveyed to grinders through conveyor belt. The coal will be grinded and sieved using various sieves to a level of 5mm size. The refine coal will now be shifted to a boiler which will burn and provide enough heat on the boiler. This boiler carries lot of hot water and full of air, which produce very high steam that is capable of turning the turbans, which provide electric energy and stored in the alternator. 19 megawatts are provided and stored in the 3 transformers provided. The Transformers will have a share of the following electricity. Table 2: thermo-electricity provision by Sonicar Company. First Transformer 6,600 Kilovolts Second Transformer 132,000 Kilovolts Third Transformer 20,000 Kilovolts
Source: Field Study, 2018. Although the company is located in the desert, where water availability is a great challenge, the company received its water from Agarus village, close to Ahaggar Massive. This water connection has provided 9 communities with potable water for domestic and irrigational purposes. After the presentation, a mining quarry manager drove us to the coal quarry a few metres from the plant. Excavation of the top cover soil is followed by drilling where samples are obtained.
Conclusion Human and natural resources are optimally utilized in the city of Agadez. There exist a very strong historical and geographical relationships between Niger and Nigeria in general and particularly between Kano, Sokoto and Agadez City. These relationships manifested in the existing areas of Agadasawa (People of Agadez) in Kano and that of Kanawa (People from Kano) in Agadez City. Also, the modern Market of Agadez portrays linkages between the market and its relationships with other markets in Kano metropolis. Commodities/ goods were served to the Agadez market by Kano markets. Also, the history of Sheikh Usman Danfodio is incomplete without mentioning his Islamic educational pursuits in Agadez. This equally prompted Sardauna Ahmadu Bello to have built mosque in commemoration of his grandfather at Agar-garin-Saka area in Agadez. On entertainment Scene, kannywood have been in Agadez city for some decades. Posters of Kannywood actors and actresses can be seen in some streets of Agadez. Radio FMs of Tanout, Aderbislam and Agadez plays so many musical, religious
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cliffs of Nigeria. Marriages have equally continued to flourished between people of Nigeria and Agadez, Particularly, with Ladies of Touareg (Azbinawa) tribes. No doubt, the historical relationships between Nigeria and Niger in general and particularly between Kano, Sokoto and Agadez people will continued to be strengthened and cemented.
Recommendations Solar energy need to be harnessed in the desert environment to curtail the stress associated with fuel generators in irrigation activities and to complement hydro and thermos electricity in Niger. Also, there is the need for other developing countries to emulate from developments being exhibited in Agadez region particularly in areas of water supply, food security and energy provision.
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Stock, Robert. 2004. Africa South of the Sahara. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford. World Bank. (2009). ―Niger Food Security and Safety Nets.‖ Retrieved from http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/fullreport_154.pdf World Bank. (January 2013). ―Agriculture Sector Risk Assessment in Niger: Moving from Crisis Response to Long Term Risk Management.‖ Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13260. World Bank. (March 2013). Country Partnership Strategy for the Republic of Niger for the Period FY 13-FY16. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/03/17559205/niger- country-partnership-strategy-period-fy13- 16. World Bank. (October 2012). ―Niger: Investing for Prosperity- a Poverty Assessment.‖ Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/10/17081813/niger- investing-prosperity-poverty-assessment
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