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Active Tectonics, Earthquakes and Palaeoseismicity in Slowly Deforming Continents

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Active Tectonics, Earthquakes and Palaeoseismicity in Slowly Deforming Continents Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021 Active tectonics, earthquakes and palaeoseismicity in slowly deforming continents ANGELA LANDGRAF1*, SIMON KU¨ BLER2, ESTHER HINTERSBERGER3 & SETH STEIN4 1University of Potsdam, Earth and Environmental Science, Karl Liebknecht Str. 24–25, Potsdam, Brandenburg 14476, Germany 2LMU Munich, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Luisenstr 37, Munich, 80333, Germany 3University of Vienna, Department of Geodynamics and Sedimentology, Althanstrasse 14, Wien, 1090, Austria 4Northwestern University, Dept. of Geological Sciences, 1850 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL 60208-2150, USA *Correspondence: [email protected] Gold Open Access: This article is published under the terms of the CC-BY 3.0 license. Palaeoseismic records and instrumental data from be unpredictable, as is typically the case for com- continental interiors increasingly show that these plex dynamic systems. In particular, some of our areas of slow strain accumulation are more subject instincts developed for plate boundaries may not to seismic and associated natural hazards than pre- apply within plates. In Australia, Clark et al. (2012) viously thought (Tuttle & Schweig 1995; Johnston note that ‘periods of earthquake activity comprising 1996; Johnston & Schweig 1996; Crone et al. 1997, a finite number of large events are separated by 2003; Camelbeeck & Meghraoui 1998; Camelbeeck much longer periods of seismic quiescence, at the et al. 2000; Rastogi et al. 2001; Singh et al. 2004; scale of a single fault and of proximal faults’. As a England & Jackson 2011). This book explores result, ‘assigning an “active/inactive” label to a some of the key issues arising in attempts to under- fault in a slowly deforming area based upon the stand slowly deforming areas. occurrence (or non-occurrence) of an event in the Earthquakes in slowly-deforming areas behave last few thousands to tens of thousands of years quite differently in space and time from those at is not a useful indicator of future seismic poten- plate boundaries, owing to the geometry of faults tial’ (Clark et al. 2011). Moreover, ‘it is debatable and the rate at which they are loaded (Fig. 1). Faults whether a “recurrence interval” on individual faults at plate boundaries are loaded at constant rates by applies’ (Clark 2003), so if the term is used to steady relative plate motion. Consequently, earth- describe the idea that large earthquakes are sepa- quakes concentrate along the plate boundary faults, rated by long time intervals, it does not imply that and show quasi-periodic occurrences, although the these intervals are similar and that the earthquakes actual temporal patterns are often complicated. The are quasi-periodic. At the deepest level, it may not apparent ‘gaps’ that appear will be filled in over be useful to think in terms of a classic seismic cycle time. However, in midcontinents, the tectonic load- in which strain accumulates steadily and is released ing is shared by a complex system of interacting by quasi-periodic earthquakes. In other words, ‘the faults spread over a large region, such that a large fundamental assumption of earthquakes occurring earthquake on one fault could increase the loading due to progressive strain build-up, and thus being rates on remote faults in the system. Because the in some way predictable in their periodicity, is not low tectonic loading rate is shared by many faults satisfied’ (Clark et al. 2015). in midcontinents, individual faults may remain dor- Where ‘recurrence intervals’ of ground-ruptur- mant for a long time and then become active for a ing earthquakes are on the order of thousands to short period. The resulting earthquakes are therefore tens of thousands of years, slip rates on individual episodic and spatially migrating (Li et al. 2009; faults are below or barely at geodetic measurabil- Stein et al. 2009). ity. Consequently, decadal geodetic or seismicity As a result, the precise future spatiotemporal records may not reflect long-term deformation behavior of large mid-continental earthquakes may and seismicity (Friedrich et al. 2003; Stein & Liu From:Landgraf, A., Ku¨ bler, S., Hintersberger,E.&Stein, S. (eds) 2017. Seismicity, Fault Rupture and Earthquake Hazards in Slowly Deforming Regions. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 432, 1–12. First published online September 20, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP432.13 # 2017 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021 2 A. LANDGRAF ET AL. Fig. 1. Conceptual models for the difference between interplate (a) and intraplate or mid-continental (b) earthquakes. The plate boundary fault is loaded by steady relative plate motion, causing earthquakes are concentrated along the boundary. In mid-continents, slow far-field tectonic loading is shared by a complex system of interacting faults. Large earthquakes roam across widespread faults, as rupture of one fault zone may affect the loading on a distant fault. Modified from Liu et al. (2011). 2009; Stein et al. 2009). Even in areas with dense more occurs in extensive, tectonically active intra- space-geodetic coverage, the relationship between continental mountain belts or continental rift zones strain accumulation and strain release is poorly (Camelbeeck & Meghraoui 1996; McCalpin 2005; understood. Furthermore, records of historical seis- Zielke & Strecker 2009). If the resulting motion micity in these environments are too short to con- and deformation are large enough, such areas are strain the size of the largest possible earthquakes treated as diffuse plate boundary zones (Gordon & or their recurrence intervals (Schmedes et al. 2005; Stein 1992). Relatively recent historic occurrences Fa¨h et al. 2009). Even in densely populated regions of major earthquakes, some exceeding magnitude with long historical records, such as China or central 8, in low-strain regions of Central Asia or Mongolia Europe, earthquake catalogues do not cover more (e.g. Bogdanovich et al. 1914; Baljiinyam et al. than 1000 or 2000 years and thus, are not sufficient 1993; Schlupp & Cisternas 2007; Kalmetieva et al. to correctly assess how the seismicity and associ- 2009), provide the opportunity for detailed studies ated hazards vary in time and space (Stein & because they were reported, their effects were partly Mazotti 2007; Stein & Liu 2009; Liu et al. 2011). investigated only months afterwards and the rup- Liu et al. (2011) show that earthquakes in Central tures are still well preserved in the landscape. China have migrated over the past 2000 years, and Understanding these events that occurred unexpect- that no fault in this region has ruptured twice in this edly 150 and more years ago may lead to better time span. Accordingly, one of the most pressing assessment of where such earthquakes might strike and enigmatic problems in earthquake geology is in the future. assessing the spatiotemporal distribution of large Although seismic events in the interior of conti- earthquakes in low-strain (intraplate) regions. To nents and low-strain regions represent a small frac- extend the short records of seismicity, palaeoseis- tion of the total number of earthquakes and have mological and historical data are being used. lower magnitudes than the highest at plate bound- Although some seismicity occurs in cratonic aries, they pose a significant hazard to societies interiors (Crone et al. 1997; Clark et al. 2014), (England & Jackson 2011). Part of the reason is Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 30, 2021 INTRODUCTION 3 that many seismogenic sources in such settings were lost soon if not systematically collected and digi- unknown prior to rupture owing to a lack of expo- tized. Modern analyses have been performed on sure and thus were not included in hazard estimates. some historic seismograms (e.g. Schlupp & Cister- For example, the 2010 Canterbury (New Zealand) nas 2007; Kulikova & Kru¨ger 2015; Kulikova earthquake occurred on an unknown fault in a region et al. 2016), yielding estimates of magnitude, focal where no large historical earthquakes were known mechanism or other source parameters. Interest- (Gledhill et al. 2010), as did the 2012 Emilia earth- ingly, a new archive, reaching a few more centuries quake in the Bologna region, northern Italy (Alessio back, may be available. In this volume, Kru¨ger et al. 2010) and the 2012 Pernik earthquake in et al. (2015) combine magnetograms with seismic Western Bulgaria (Radulov 2012). Accordingly, records from 1889 and 1911 for new estimates of the numbers of fatalities reported from unexpected, the previously debated magnitude for an earth- moderate to large events in low-strain regions often quake in Central Asia. For yet older seismic events, exceed the death toll from earthquakes in high- macroseismic observations provide useful data. strain areas by multiples (Fig. 2). Where earthquake However, such observations are limited or might recurrence is short enough to be in human memory, be biased by population density, cultural and politi- prepared communities and safer infrastructure often cal changes, and other issues (e.g. Berberian 2014). reduce fatalities. Learning more about earthquakes Stein et al. (2015) and Zo¨ller et al. (2015) note in continental interiors and low-strain regions should the resulting difficulty in estimating how large the hopefully improve hazard assessments and achieve largest earthquakes to expect may be, which gives similar results. rise to uncertainties in hazard estimates. Zo¨ller et al. (2015) analyse the earthquake catalogue of Central Asia, derived from historically reported Types of slowly deforming regions and instrumentally measured data in the magnitude range between 4 and 8.3. They find high probabili- Papers in this volume address earthquakes and ties for occurrence of large magnitude events in deformation in slowly deforming regions world- short time intervals, even if such events are rare in wide. Such regions can be classified in several the catalogue and probably have not occurred within groups. One is stable continental regions of conti- the past c.
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