Changing the Game: Title IX, Gender and Athletics in American Universities
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Changing the Game: Title IX, Gender and Athletics in American Universities A Game in Development for Reacting to the Past Kelly McFall, Newman University Abigail Perkiss, Kean University v 4.0. 1 Table of Contents List of Abbreviations: .................................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 5 What is this Game About? ........................................................................................................................ 5 Opening Vignette ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Counterfactuals ....................................................................................................................................... 11 Historical Context and Background ............................................................................................................ 11 Sport, Gender and Equality: The Origins of Title IX ............................................................................... 11 The Emergence of Modern Sport ........................................................................................................ 11 Women in Sport .................................................................................................................................. 14 How does a university work? .................................................................................................................. 20 How to React ........................................................................................................................................... 26 Basic Features of Reacting to the Past ................................................................................................ 26 The Game .................................................................................................................................................... 29 Rules and Procedures ............................................................................................................................. 29 Objectives and Victory Conditions ...................................................................................................... 29 The Setting: What do we know about UNEU? .................................................................................... 30 A Note on Terminology: ...................................................................................................................... 31 Game Play ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Other locations for action: The Bar, The Quad, and the Kiosk .......................................................... 33 Demonstrations and other kinds of protests ...................................................................................... 34 Personal Influence Points (PIPs) .......................................................................................................... 35 What can you use PIPs for: Proxy votes and the auction .................................................................. 36 The University Budget and how it constrains your choices ................................................................ 38 Voting .................................................................................................................................................. 39 Boosters .............................................................................................................................................. 39 Reporters and Newspapers ................................................................................................................. 40 Factions and Roles .................................................................................................................................. 41 Basic outline of the game ....................................................................................................................... 42 2 Outline of Assignments and Duties ......................................................................................................... 43 The Texts ................................................................................................................................................. 46 CLARIFICATION OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS POLICY GUIDANCE: THE THREE-PART TEST ......... 46 Senda Berenson, The Significance of Basketball for Women ............................................................. 57 Dudley Sargent, Are Athletics Making Girls Masculine? ..................................................................... 60 All-American Girls . rules of conduct. .............................................................................................. 64 Heather Ross Miller, Half-court Basketball: Power and Sex .............................................................. 66 Gilbert and Williamson, Sports is Unfair to Women, Sports Illustrated. ........................................... 72 Policy Interpretation: Title IX and Intercollegiate Athletics (Dec11, 1979) ....................................... 83 Alexander Wolff, Football as the Third Sex, Sports Illustrated ........................................................... 85 Moms, Dads, and Daughters, Wilson Report ...................................................................................... 86 Summary of Carpenter/Acosta data ................................................................................................. 124 George Vecsey, The Man Behind the Glare and the Trash Talk ....................................................... 131 Gavora, How Women Beat Men at College Sports ........................................................................... 134 Commission hearings ........................................................................................................................ 138 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... 169 Selected Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 171 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... 172 3 List of Abbreviations: AD Athletic Director AIAW Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women BoD Board of Directors (of the University) GM Game Master HEW Department of Health, Education and Welfare NCAA National Collegiate Athletics Association OCR Office of Civil Rights PIPs Personal Influence Points 4 Introduction What is this Game About? What does it mean when we say society must treat people equally? If in fact society has discriminated against a group of people in the past, is it sufficient to eliminate the legal barriers to equality? Or should a society act positively to eliminate the effects of past discrimination? Are there times when ‘separate but equal’ is actually ok? Is it legitimate to favor one group over another if the purpose is to offer a chance to people previously discriminated against? If so, how much? Human history is, in part, the story of societies which treated groups of people differently. The particular identity of the groups changed, as did the nature and degree of discrimination. Occasionally, a society even offered its constituent groups something close to equal rights and burdens. But, with some exceptions, most societies have treated their citizens based on their membership in specific groups rather than as individuals. We often think the modern West is an exception to this pattern. After all, the philosophical grounding of the West, dating at least from Hobbes and Locke and perhaps earlier, rests on the individual. Yet, most western societies continued to divide their citizens into groups and to discriminate against members of some of these groups. Governments almost always structured this discrimination through legal prohibitions or restraints. Laws prevented the disadvantaged from voting, from pursuing an education, from serving in the military, and even from interacting with members of other races, ethnicities or genders (preventing intermarriage, for instance). Critically, however, these laws were merely the formal expression of deeply held cultural stereotypes and assumptions, ones which underlay the laws but went far beyond them. Not until the twentieth century did many of these societies gradually dismantle these discriminatory structures. This effort proceeded in fits and starts, went more quickly in some countries than in others, and involved significant political maneuvering and sacrifice. In most cases, opponents fought change bitterly. Still, reform continued throughout the century and throughout the western world. Increasingly, societies tried to live up to their rhetoric, to treat everyone as an individual (and treating these individuals equally), regardless of color, religion or gender. The questions this raised, however, were neither simple nor straightforward. Some people simply rejected the claim that members of other groups deserved equal rights or fought desperately to retain the benefits discrimination had given