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Gender, Eugenics, and the Welfare State in North Carolina, 1900-1940

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Gender, Eugenics, and the Welfare State in North Carolina, 1900-1940 THE REFORM IMAGINATION: GENDER, EUGENICS, AND THE WELFARE STATE IN NORTH CAROLINA, 1900-1940 Anna L. Krome-Lukens A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2014 Approved by: Jacquelyn Dowd Hall W. Fitzhugh Brundage Laura F. Edwards James L. Leloudis Johanna Schoen © 2014 Anna L. Krome-Lukens ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Anna L. Krome-Lukens: The Reform Imagination: Gender, Eugenics, and the Welfare State in North Carolina, 1900-1940 (Under the direction of Jacquelyn Dowd Hall) This dissertation provides a grassroots social and intellectual history of how a modern social welfare state emerged in tandem with a southern eugenics movement in the early twentieth century. In so doing, it demonstrates the lasting influence of eugenics in shaping welfare policies: by dividing the “fit” from the “unfit,” eugenics ideology helped rationalize decisions about who deserves the full benefits of the welfare state and whose reproduction must be regulated to protect the greater good. North Carolina stands out for its social welfare innovation and its long history of eugenic sterilization. Examining its eugenics and social welfare programs side by side reveals overlaps in personnel, assumptions, methods, and goals. A coalition of powerful, white, Progressive reformers (including clubwomen, doctors, middle-class businessmen, and social welfare professionals) embedded principles of eugenics in the welfare programs they built on local and state levels before the New Deal. Although eugenics never became the coalition’s primary focus, many of these reformers embraced eugenics as a tool of social policy, shaped by and shaping their other strategies for social change. Reformers at the vanguard encountered eugenics ideology in the first decade of the twentieth century as they sought ways to improve the state’s social welfare programs. Through efforts to create a school for the “feeble-minded,” they spread knowledge about eugenics to a wider circle of Progressives. When reformers succeeded in restructuring the state’s welfare bureaucracy, a new corps of social workers, mostly women, learned eugenics principles as part iii of their professional training. Throughout their campaigns, reformers’ gender and professional status shaped their understanding of and strategies for promoting welfare and eugenics. The passage of a series of sterilization laws from 1919 to 1933 reflected the success of earlier educational campaigns as well as the fact that many North Carolinians saw eugenics initiatives as efficient, affordable strategies in a state woefully lacking in meaningful social services. In linking eugenics and welfare, this dissertation offers new ways to think about southern Progressivism, gendered reform strategies, and the politics of state-building. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been the lucky beneficiary of a community of smart, generous people who helped make writing this dissertation not only possible, but enjoyable. Jacquelyn Hall has been an enthusiastic supporter of this project from the beginning. She has constantly nudged me in productive directions, read draft after draft with unflagging cheer, and encouraged me when I most needed it. Anyone who has crossed paths with her knows that her brilliance as a scholar is matched only by her warmth and dedication to her students. I am grateful to be one of her apprentices. I also benefited from the thoughtful comments and critiques of my committee. I appreciate the careful reading and expertise on southern history that Fitz Brundage and Jim Leloudis contributed. I have done my best to incorporate their excellent suggestions. Laura Edwards has an gift for seeing what I’m trying to do and helping me find my way there. She has helped me articulate many of the key points in this project, and I am grateful for her kindness, patience, and insightful feedback. Johanna Schoen, who knows more about this topic than anyone else, has been extraordinarily generous with her own knowledge and research, including sharing her office with me for two weeks one summer while I waded through materials she had collected. I am also grateful to other scholars who have read or offered suggestions on parts of this project as it has developed, including Simone Caron, Jennifer Donnally, Anne Williams Duncan, Kathleen Duval, Jerma Jackson, Joan Marie Johnson, Sarah Judson, Mazie Hough, Joey Fink, Lisa Materson, Sarah McNamara, Libby McRae, Sam Lucas, Theda Perdue, Don Reid, John v Sweet, Ben Waterhouse, Molly Worthen, and Karin Zipf. Thanks also to Matt Andrews, Lloyd Kramer, and Lisa Lindsay, and Beth Millwood for their faith in me. Although Lori Schuyler and Ira Bashkow have not been involved with this project, they are nevertheless responsible for its existence, since both helped me find joy in research and gave me confidence in my potential as a scholar. The research for and writing of this dissertation would not have been possible without the support of many individuals and institutions. Archival staff and librarians provided essential help in navigating collections. Of particular help were Matt Turi and the rest of the staff at the Southern Historical Collection, Jason Tomberlin at the North Carolina Collection, Nancy Adgent at the Rockefeller Archive Center, and Allison Thurman and Dick Lankford at the North Carolina State Archives. The Jacob K. Javits Fellowship helped give me time early in my graduate career to pursue leads and develop ideas. The Social Science Research Council’s Dissertation Proposal Development Fellowship provided funding and a stimulating group of colleagues as I was developing my dissertation prospectus. A grant from the Rockefeller Archive Center allowed me to complete essential research there (and on another trip north, Josiah and Darien Grover were delightful hosts). The Center for the Study of the American South has provided grants and travel funding for other research, as well as particularly timely support in the form of the McColl Dissertation Year Fellowship in Southern Studies. I am forever indebted to the members of my writing group: Liz Lundeen, Brad Proctor, and Jessie Wilkerson. Without the Prize Fighters, I would still be floundering somewhere in Chapter 2, and I would be short three wonderful friends. Brad fights fiercely for things he cares about. Liz’s sense of justice permeates her life and work. And Jessie embodies the community ethic of care about which she writes. Likewise, I am grateful to Jonathan Hancock for his humor vi and friendship. His company and levity spurred me through the most productive months of writing. Thanks, too, to Caela O’Connell, Heidi Dodson, Jon Duncan, Beth Fisher, and Nicole Davis for being regular and cheerful writing companions. The graduate student community at Carolina has supported and enriched my academic and personal life in many ways. I am grateful to more people than I can name here for meals, conversations, and friendship. The ladies of Pemberley in particular—Nora Doyle, Kim Kutz, Friederike Bruehoefener, and Rachel Hynson—remain a source of support, intellectual inspiration, and ridiculous fun. David Williard and Aaron Hale-Dorell have been steadfast allies, and Katy Smith’s luminous presence always brightened my day. Rob Ferguson was one of the first people to welcome me to the program, and he and Sara Stahlman and their delightful family have repeatedly confirmed my faith in the goodness of the world. My family have been my biggest supporters, and these acknowledgements are an entirely insufficient thanks to them. My sister Margaret threw her lot in with me when I moved to Chapel Hill to begin graduate school, and she has been a constant example to me of how fearless and capable a Krome-Lukens can be. My parents, Elizabeth Krome and Bob Lukens, have had unswerving faith in my ability. They have also been my most valiant and dedicated readers, no matter the time of day or the pressure of the deadline. The most recent addition to my family, Bobby Funk, has taught me more about partnership than I could ever learn from a book. His presence is a daily reminder of the things that truly matter. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ............................................................................................. xi INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1: “THE NEW FORCE IN MODERN CIVILIZATION”: WOMEN AND SOCIAL REFORM, 1900-1917 .......................................................................................... 33 Daisy Denson and the Legacy of Christian Charity .................................................................. 37 Claude Denson and the Board of Public Charities .................................................................... 42 “An Old Scholar of the New York School”: Denson as a Social Welfare Professional ........... 47 CHAPTER 2: “THE NEWEST SCIENCE”: THE APPEAL OF EUGENICS TO PROGRESSIVE MEN AND WOMEN ....................................................................................... 84 Daisy Denson and the Appeal of Eugenic Segregation in Southern Context ........................... 88 Ira Hardy and the Campaign for a School for Feeble-Minded Children .................................. 96 A Site for Eugenic Research ..................................................................................................
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