243/244ISSN 0041-6436

An international journal of and industries Vol. 66 2015/1–2

Forests, and disasters 243/244ISSN 0041-6436

An international journal of forestry and forest industries Vol. 66 2015/1–2

Editor: S. Lapstun Editorial Advisory Board: S. Braatz, I. Buttoud, P. Csoka, L. Flejzor, T. Hofer, Contents F. Kafeero, W. Kollert, S. Lapstun, D. Mollicone, D. Reeb, S. Rose, J. Tissari, Editorial 2 P. van Lierop Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, M. Wahlström C. Palmberg-Lerche, L. Russo The critical role of trees and in disaster risk reduction 3 Regional Advisers: F. Bojang, P. Durst, A.A. Hamid, J. Meza P. B. Durst Trees and forests contribute to recovery from the world’s Unasylva is published in English, French and most powerful typhoon in the Philippines 6 Spanish. Free subscriptions can be obtained by sending an e-mail to [email protected]. J. Latham, R. Cumani and M. Bloise Subscription requests from institutions Remote sensing and geospatial systems supporting relief efforts (e.g. libraries, companies, organizations, after Typhoon Haiyan 17 universities) rather than individuals are preferred to make the journal accessible to G. Marquis more readers. Reducing disaster risk in Pakistan through watershed management 19 All issues of Unasylva are available online free of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/ R. Fankap and K.A. Daphnis unasylva. Comments and queries are welcome: Environmental and social reconstruction in Haiti: watershed [email protected]. management in Léogâne and Petit-Goâve following the 2010 earthquake 25 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information R. Schmidt product. Except where otherwise indicated, Forests – the green sentinels of the Alps 27 material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching G. Morgan and M. Leonard purposes, or for use in non-commercial Black Saturday: Australia’s deadliest bushfire 32 products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and S.V. Zibtsev, J.G. Goldammer, S. Robinson and O.A. Borsuk copyright holder is given and that FAO’s Fires in nuclear forests: silent threats to the environment endorsement of users’ views, products or and human security 40 services is not implied in any way. The designations employed and the A. Thulstrup and W.J. Henry presentation of material in this information Women’s access to energy during conflict and displacement: product do not imply the expression of any lessons from Yei County, South Sudan 52 opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United A. Thulstrup and W.J. Henry Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or Effects of the current crisis and war in South Sudan on access development status of any country, territory, to forest foods in Greater Akobo 61 city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. A. Oshiek The mention of specific companies or products Conflict and forest resources in Darfur 62 of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have M. Annette, J.-M. Poirson, J. Zingeser, P. Otto, K. de Balogh and H. Boulet been endorsed or recommended by FAO in Ebola virus disease in West Africa: a public health emergency preference to others of a similar that are becomes a complex crisis 67 not mentioned. The publications reviewed in Unasylva are D. Dague and P. Hirami available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/ The United States Forest Service’s Incident Command System publications) and can be purchased through 40 years on: from domestic to international disaster response 79 [email protected]. D. Burgeon, T. Hofer, P. van Lierop and S. Wabbes Trees and forests – lifelines for resilience 86 FAO Forestry 90 World of Forestry 93 Cover: Young mangrove plant © Wilfredo R. Rodriguez H. Books 96 40

Fires in nuclear forests: silent threats to the environment and human security

S.V. Zibtsev, J.G. Goldammer, S. Robinson and O.A. Borsuk T M © at S h alvatis

In the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, ver recent decades, a number the Ukrainian part, an area that is highly forest and fire management need of nuclear accidents resulting contaminated with long-living radionu- to be strengthened to reduce the in radioactive contamination of clides of plutonium (238Pu, 239+240Pu, 241Pu), risk of and corresponding Olarge areas of forest land have occurred 241Am, 137Cs and 90Sr. Up to 9 000 ha of radiation exposure. in different parts of the world. The grow- pine forests are completely dead and are ing number of new nuclear power plants in the highest wildfire risk category. In implies an increasing risk of similar most of the middle-aged pine , Sergiy V. Zibtsev is Head of the Regional events in the future. This article analyses 9–20 percent of trees have already died, Eastern European Fire Monitoring Center (REEFMC), National University of Life and wildfire risks and hazards for firefighters and another 31 percent are expected to Environmental Sciences of Ukraine (NULESU), and persons working in the Chernobyl die during the next decade. Combined Kiev, Ukraine. Exclusion Zone (CEZ), and for the envi- with the fact that nuclear radiation leads Johann Georg Goldammer is Head of the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), ronment, as well as the specificities of to a decreased speed of decomposition of Freiburg, Germany. current fire management in the best docu- dead organic material, this development Stephan Robinson is Unit Manager (Water, mented case – which is the CEZ. In the will increase available fuel and the cor- Legacy) with the Green Cross Switzerland, Zurich, Switzerland. CEZ, insufficient forest and fire manage- responding wildfire hazard. The numerous Olexandr A. Borsuk is Junior Researcher with ment during the past 28 years, along with wildfires that have already occurred in the the Regional Eastern European Fire Monitoring dead wood due to insects and diseases, has Center (REEFMC), National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine resulted in a high wildfire hazard in the Above: View of the (NULESU), Kiev, Ukraine. 260 000 ha of forests and grasslands of Chernobyl reactor, 2012

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CEZ, including the catastrophic fires of Ukraine on 26 April 1986 resulted in the were built along the most contaminated 1992 (17 000 ha), have revealed the exist- release of up to 12 000 PBq1 of radioactive locations of the Prypiat River. It has been ence of ignition sources across the whole material into the environment (IAEA, observed that radionuclides still migrate CEZ, including in the most contaminated 1996). Twenty-eight years after the disas- with floodwater during spring time, areas. Fire prevention and suppression ter, radioactive contamination continues although this poses a relatively low threat activities pose serious risks for firefighters, to be an important environmental issue in to the population due to a high level of who may reach their annual radiation dose Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. Shortly after dilution with clean water. limit over a relatively small number of the explosion, residents were permanently The significance of wildfires as a threat days. In addition, the current management evacuated from the most contaminated was fully realized only six years after infrastructure is inadequate to mitigate 30-km radius zone around the plant, a the accident, when large and numerous existing and future wildfire risks. Recom- zone that in 1996 was extended along the wildfires in August 1992 burned up to mendations for urgent steps to improve western contamination path. This area 17 000 ha of contaminated forests and fire management in the CEZ are therefore has been designated as the Chernobyl grasslands. Some of the fires crossed the proposed. Exclusion Zone (CEZ). The radioactive border into Belarus and spread into the elements 137Cs and 90Sr, with a half-life Belarusian part of the CEZ. Following History of nuclear accidents period of 30 and 29 years respectively, are these catastrophic wildfires, the special- Since the 1950s, three major nuclear inci- amongst the most widely spread. Because ized Chernobyl Forestry Enterprise, with a dents have led to wide-scale radioactive of their physical-chemical properties, total staff of 400, was established to carry contamination of the environment: releases they are the most likely to affect human out forest and fire management in the CEZ from the Mayak Production Association health. The 10-km zone surrounding the and prevent the migration of radionuclides in the Chelyabinsk region (Southern Ural Chernobyl NPP is in addition highly con- out of the zone. Mountains), Russia (Trabalka, Eyman and taminated by plutonium,2 with half-life Auerbach, 1980); the Chernobyl Nuclear times ranging from around one hundred to Naur t al conditions, forests Power Plant (NPP), USSR (1986); and thousands of years. The radioactive decay and land use in the CEZ the Fukushima NPP (2011) (Steinhauser, of 241Pu will generate contamination by Before the Chernobyl NPP accident, land Brandl and Johnson, 2014). In the last two another radionuclide of significance to use in the current territory of the CEZ was cases, exclusion zones were established for human health, 241Am, which is expected equally divided between agriculture and the most contaminated areas around the to increase over the next 100 years (IAEA, forestry. Now, all of the CEZ lands outside damaged reactors. 2006). of the villages, the towns of Chernobyl In addition, a number of minor nuclear and Prypiat, and the former NPP, have incidents have occurred, including the Ests abli hment of the CEZ been categorized as “forest lands” and Three Mile Island NPP accident in 1979, The main reasons for establishing the cover a total area of 240 000 ha. Of this, where major environmental contamination CEZ in 1986 were to restrict exposure of 150 000 ha (57 percent) is made up of was averted. However, the rapid growth in the population to contaminated areas and forest, while some consists of grasslands. new nuclear energy facilities, particularly to enforce a special protection regime to However, due to the natural regeneration in the Asia–Pacific area is leading to an minimize propagation of radionuclides of forests on former agricultural fields, increasing probability of accidents in outside the zone. An automated system especially in locations where disturbances the future and therefore calls for better (ASKRO), using 39 sensors, was estab- of the grass layer have occurred, forest documentation of available experience on lished to monitor aerial radioactivity. The area is increasing, primarily in areas the management of existing radioactive system covers the core of the CEZ. An adjacent to forests. The CEZ is largely contaminated territories. The Chernobyl additional environmental monitoring sys- characterized by dry sandy soils (glacial NPP disaster is the best studied of all tem was established to monitor the level outwash), and Scotch pine (Pinus sylves- the disasters mentioned above and will of radioactive contamination of soils, tris) forests therefore prevail, currently therefore be discussed in the following in underground and open water, vegetation representing 89 000 ha, while other forest more detail. and wildlife. Spring floods of the Prypiat River3 and The Chernobyl accident vegetation fires are the two most important 1 PBq = Peta-Becquerel = 1015 Becquerel. 2 238 239+240 241 and environmental factors that contribute to the migration of Pu, Pu, and Pu will be referred to below as “plutonium”. contamination radionuclides outside the CEZ. 3 The Prypiat river flows past the Chernobyl An explosion in reactor No. 4 of the Cher- To prevent the washing out of radionu- NPP and its water has been used for cooling nobyl Nuclear Power Plant in northern clides during spring floods, artificial dams the nuclear reactors.

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1 Distribution of main forest species in the CEZ

ChNPP

Pine Hard roads Oak Roads

Birch Village Alder Dead forests (pests) UKainianr part of the Chernobyl Aspen exclusion zone The most fire dangerous stands (pine up to 50 years with more than 20 m 3/ha dead wood and pine damaged by root diseases)

Note: The red-marked areas are Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests damaged by root rot (Heterobasidion annosum). Source: Zibtsev, Borsuk and Gilitukha, 2012.

lands are covered by deciduous softwoods a significant portion of planned silvi- Ftores health, insects and (mostly Betula pendula, Populus tremula cultural measures were not implemented diseases and Alnus glutinosa – 50 800 ha) and oak due to a lack of funding and personnel. Massive outbreaks of the pine lappet (Quercus robur – 7 500 ha) (Figure 1). For example, between 2004 and 2006 only moth (Dendrolimus pini) took place in 50 percent of planned early thinning in the CEZ in 1997 and 2006, of the nun Th innING young stands (up to 20 years old) was moth (Lymantria monacha) in 1995, and Historically, more than 50 percent of the undertaken, in middle-aged stands only of the common pine sawfly Diprion( pini) pine forests in the CEZ were monoculture 20 percent, and in premature stands 20 per- in 2003. Due to a lack of effective protec- plantations created in the 1950s and 1960s cent. Timber from the last-mentioned type tion measures, up to 8 500 ha in the most by a very dense scheme of planting (7 000 of thinning is of commercial use, primar- contaminated central part of the CEZ to 10 000 seedlings per ha). Since 1986, ily as pillars for coal mining. It needs to was damaged heavily by these insects. thinning operations have been dramati- be underlined that silvicultural measures Another 12 300 ha were damaged by root cally reduced or completely abandoned are only executed on sites approved by the rot (Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref.) in the majority of pine stands because of Radiological Control Service of the CEZ (Figure 1). data show that the present level of radiation. (“Ecocenter”) if the contamination of the 15 300 ha of forests in the CEZ have been The latter has significant consequences timber (roundwood without bark) is lower damaged by different agents, including for wildfire hazard. The magnitude of a than the allowable threshold of 1 000 Bq/kg 5 300 ha by pests (Ukrderglisproekt, 2007). wildfire depends on the amount of avail- (Ukraine Ministry of Health Protection, As a result, fire hazard in large areas of able fuel, which is essentially determined 2005). Failure to carry out minimum silvi- forest has increased substantially. Remote by the intensity of thinning and removal cultural interventions in forests increases sensing data have confirmed that 9000 ha of debris. With reference to the 2006 fuel loads and negatively impacts upon of forest are completely dead due to fires Plan for the CEZ, forest health. and pests (Zibtsev and Gilitukha, 2012).

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2 Locations of forest ranger districts in the different CEZ contamination zones

ChNPP

Borders of subdivision Categories of forest lands Roads Z one of restricted management Villages Zone of limited management Rivers Zone without limitations

Source: Zibtsev, Borsuk and Gilitukha, 2012.

D iSTRIBUTIon of radionuclides varies considerably between different by 90Sr exceeding 370 kBq/m2, or by in forests components of the vegetation. Depending 239Pu exceeding 11.1 kBq/m2); Threats to forest personnel, the population on site-specific characteristics and soil 2. Zone of limited management (31.20 and the environment from radioactive humidity, 70-85 percent of radionuclides percent of forest lands, thresholds for vegetation fires in the CEZ depend on are currently concentrated in the top soil 137Cs, 90Sr and 239Pu are 1 480, 111, and the distribution of contamination in layers of forests and grasslands, forest 3.7 kBq/m2, respectively); fuel, contaminated volumes available, litter and mosses, and 15-30 percent are 3. Zone of normal management (45.35 and types of fire. During the first month deposited in trees (bark, needles, timber percent of forest lands). after the accident in late April 1986, and branches) or grasses (Zibtsev, 2004; In every forest ranger district there are radioactive fallout was deposited on the Yoschenko et al., 2006). lands from all three zones ranging from plant surfaces, especially on Scotch pine high-contamination to low-contamination stands, since deciduous plants had not Rai d ological zoning of sites (Figure 2). Consequently, all for- yet produced spring foliage. Within 4 to the CEZ estry personnel of the Chernobyl Forest 6 months, most of the radionuclides had For the purposes of forest and fire manage- Enterprise are required to work in contami- migrated into the ground, accumulating ment, all CEZ forest lands were divided nated forest areas. If forest ranger districts in mosses and soils. The vegetation into seven forest ranger districts and into were instead delineated on the basis of root systems then gradually absorbed three zones of intensity of forest manage- radiological contamination criteria, it those radionuclides characterized by ment and protection: would allow at least a third of current forest a higher chemical availability and 1. Zone of restricted management (no personnel to work in relatively clean and mobility in the environment. Within forest management activities): the most safe forests. Furthermore, staff working three to four years, a stable state of contaminated, core part of the CEZ in contaminated areas need to be trained radionuclide distribution in soil and (23.45 percent of forest lands; defined more specifically on radiation protection, vegetation cover was reached. Today, the as the density of soil contamination receive special equipment and be part of a concentration of each radioactive element by 137Cs exceeding 3 700 kBq/m2, or special medical surveillance programme.

Unasylva 243/244, Vol. 66, 2015/1–2 44 RGIY © S e btsev i Z Z i btsev e © S RGIY 3 Fu el accumulation includes five classes (Hazard Class I – Example of a 35-year old Jack Pine An estimated 1.4 million m3 of dead, maximum; Hazard Class V – minimum) (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stand in the CEZ (Korogod forest ranger district) radioactively contaminated wood that and takes radioactive contamination into (left) and a 40-year old Scotch Pine could fuel wildfires has accumulated account. In particular, Class I fire hazards (Pinus sylvestris L.) (right) in the CEZ. Forecasts predict that the include all conifer forests less than 40 years documented in August 2014, both classified as Fire Hazard Class I quantity of contaminated dead wood old, all conifers on dry and sandy soils, will increase to 2.4 million m3 by 2020 sites affected previously by fires, clearcuts, (Zibtsev, 2013). Overcrowding of forests and grasslands (Figure 3). used in Ukraine with Fire Danger Class V is weakening trees and increasing wildfire According to official data, 66 percent of being the highest. The Fire Danger Class hazard (cf. next section on fire hazard). As the forests belong to Fire Hazard Class I, of determines the level of preparedness of fire of 2014, 6–20 percent of trees are dead which 38 percent are lands contaminated brigades and of the intensity of ground/air but still standing in middle-aged stands. with levels above 555 kBq/m2 137Cs, and patrols for forests. However, a compara- The dieback of another 8–31 percent is 13 percent of the forests belong to Class II. tive analysis of fire history and official expected over the next 5–10 years. Most Forests with the highest natural fire hazard Fire Danger Classes based on a modified of the pine plantations are at a stage of levels are concentrated in the central and Nesterov Index reveals that the current minimum increment due to the competi- southern parts of the CEZ, including the early warning system does not reflect a tion for space, light and nutrition between most contaminated territories west and realistic value of the fire-weather danger. trees in stands. The amount of downed and northeast of the Chernobyl NPP (Figure 4). A local fire danger scale based on the standing deadwood in the CEZ is esti- methodology by Kurbatsky (1963) was mated at 9–26 m3/ha. The total stock of Wae e th r-based fire danger therefore developed for the CEZ (Zibtsev forest combustible materials in pine stands For the assessment of weather-based (mete- and Gilitukha, 2012) (Table 1). It includes ranges from 110 t/ha in 22-year old stands orological) fire danger, a five-grade scale is a seasonal variation by introducing indices to 220-280 t/ha in 44–64-year old stands. Of these, 13–16 percent is ground fuel and TABLE 1. Comparative analysis of scales used in the current early warning 84–87 percent is above ground. Ground system and the local scales proposed for the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ) fuel is made up of forest litter (89–92 per- Fire-weather Value of Ukrainian fire-weather indices (modified Nesterov Index) cent), woody debris (8–10 percent), and Danger Class Local scale of fire-weather danger Current early living forest vegetation (up to 1 percent). proposed for the CEZ warning system used in Ukraine Spring–summer Summer–autumn Fir e hazard (10 March–10 June) (11 June–30 October) The level of fire hazard of forest lands I <250 <1400 <400 in the CEZ is assessed according to the II 251–1000 1401–3550 401–1000 official “Scale for assessment of natural III 1001–2100 3551–5400 1001–3000 fire hazard of forest lands”, approved by IV 2101–2800 5401–6400 3001–5000 the State Agency of Forest Resources of Ukraine (Rating scale, 2005). The Scale V >2800 >6400 >5000

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4 Natural Fire Hazard Classes of

Class I forest lands in the Class II Ukrainian part of the Class III Chernobyl Exclusion Class IV Class V Zone (Status: January 2013)

Source: Zibtsev, Borsuk and Gilitukha, 2012. for a spring–summer and a summer– due to deterioration, wildlife or damage crown fires burned up to 5 000 ha of for- autumn period. caused by people entering the CEZ ille- ests, particularly in the south-eastern part As can be seen from Table 1, the early gally. According to the current rules, only of the CEZ in the Opachichi forest ranger warning system currently used makes a professional staff of the CEZ (ca. 300 local district. Fires burning in Russia during lower assessment of weather-determined managers and researchers) and officially the extreme heat wave of summer 2010 fire danger, particularly for Fire Danger guided tourists are allowed to enter the are another example of such a situation. Classes IV and V (highest risk classes) dur- CEZ). ing the summer-autumn period, whereas An analysis of fire history based on sta- Fira e bre ks the official scale indicates a fire danger tistics available from the Chernobyl Forest The forestry administration in the CEZ one class lower than that demonstrated Enterprise shows that over 1 147 forest pays higher attention to the establishment by real fire occurrences. The reason is and grasslands fires occurred in the CEZ of fire breaks than to other standard tools that during the development of the cur- between 1993 and 2013 (Figure 5). of fire prevention. According to recom- rent system in 2011, no data was included The time and spatial distribution of the mendations by the Fire Management Plan from the large forest fires of 1992. Such fires shows that they occur more or less reg- (1994), a total of 111.9 km of fire breaks data, however, will need to be taken into ularly over the whole territory of the CEZ, were established during the late 1990s, account in developing a new, local early including the most contaminated areas in including 1.6 km of 10 m-wide breaks, warning system for the CEZ. the 10-km zone with the highest levels of 22.5 km of 11-20 m-wide breaks, 44.8 km 137Cs, 90Sr, plutonium, and 241Am contami- of 21-30 m-wide breaks, and 43 km of Fir e hiSTory nation. It is also clear that in the northern breaks wider than 30 m. Fire breaks were Forest and grass fires are regular occur- and north-eastern parts, fires have regu- placed mostly along the external perimeter rences in the CEZ despite the special larly crossed the borders between Ukraine of the CEZ and along main roads. It should territorial management regime which and Belarus. Wildfires have been recorded be mentioned that since the 1990s, natural restricts access and land use. In 1986, in grasslands (55 percent), forests (33 per- fire hazards in the CEZ have changed due the 10-km and 30-km zones around the cent), former villages and even in swamps to different types of disturbances (fires, Chernobyl NPP were fenced off and during periods of drought. The highest fire wildlife, floods, natural succession, etc.). checkpoints controlled by police were occurrence is in spring, between March Most of the above-mentioned fire breaks established on the main access roads and May, but the risk of catastrophic fires is are no longer maintained by regular around the CEZ. Since then, however, highest in the second part of the fire season removal of fuel and are therefore not fences have collapsed in some places (July and August), as in 1992. In that year, able to stop fires. During the past decade,

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mostly 1.6 m wide fire breaks were built smoke particles and mineral dust. Dust par- airborne radionuclides from 0.017 Bq/m3 with a total length of 1 750 km. These fire ticles are usually large (range: 2–100 µm to 1.5 Bq/m3 was recorded in the town of breaks are maintained 2–3 times per year in diameter; mean: ~10 µm) (Brasseur, Chernobyl, not far from the fire. The analy- by removing accumulated fuel. Orlando and Tyndall, 1999) and redepos- sis of available information on the 1992 fire However there is no digital map reflecting ited close to the source. In contrast, forest and inventories of radionuclides in the bio- the current locations of fire breaks and and grassland fires emit fine particles with mass burned showed that the 137Cs-activity the main criteria of their establishment is a bimodal size distribution of 0.04-0.07 µm released into the air in this period was in unknown. A special analysis is required and 0.1-0.3 µm (Chakrabarty et al., 2006). the range of 28-130 TBq.4 Hence, wildfires to define the effectiveness of the current While large particles are usually repelled with areas of up to 1 km2 in forests with fire-breaks system to mitigate existing by the respiratory system, fine particles a level of soil contamination higher than fire risks. This will enable the system are inhaled into the lungs. Over time, 40 MBq/m2 create a potential threat of to be optimized and reduce the risks of fine particles in smoke plumes often form air release and long-distance transport of large wildfires. large particles through coagulation and are up to 40 TBq of 137Cs. Radioactivity lev- deposited with cloud droplets downwind els in the air of 90Sr, 137Cs, and plutonium Thas re t to firefighters and from the fires. near an experimental forest fire and two fire management personnel Data from the Automatic Radiation grassland fires in the CEZ were found to from radionuclides contained Monitoring System managed by the be several orders of magnitude higher than in smoke and dust Ecological Center state enterprise show normal levels (Yoschenko et al., 2006). During forest fires in the exclusion zone, a clear increase in the concentration of The radionuclides emitted, especially plu- radionuclides deposited in forest fuel in radionuclides in the air in the CEZ during tonium, were concentrated in fine particles, 1986 are released into the atmosphere large wildfires. In particular, during the which would increase the inhalation risk with smoke. Resuspension of 90Sr, 137Cs, massive CEZ forest fires in the summer of and plutonium is occurring in two forms: 1992, an increase in the concentration of 4 TBq = Tera-Becquerel = 1012 Becquerel

Number of wildfires (1993–2010) 5 Distribution of wildfires < 40 (1993-2013) in 40–185 different zones 186–555 of radioactive 556–1480 contamination 1481–3700 UKainianr part of the > 3700 Chernobyl exclusion zone in the CEZ and location of forests killed Source: Evangeliou et al., 2015. by fires and pests

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for firefighters. The worst case scenario of fire breaks (Figure 6) in the exclusion conclusion, doses from inhalation should (i.e. a catastrophic forest fire burning all zone due to inhalation of radionuclides be taken into account during the planning fuel in the CEZ) shows a direct threat to the (calculated for a 50-year-old male person, of fire prevention measures in order to population and environment across a larger effective dose equivalent) is more than avoid personnel exceeding dose limits. region. Radionuclides could migrate over twice as high as the external dose to the Staying in the plume of dust and using a distance greater than 100 km, exposing body. The inhalation dose is almost entirely tractors without air-conditioning should the population to doses in excess of estab- due to the intake of transuranic elements. be avoided. lished limits (Hohl et al., 2012; Evangeliou Inhalation doses for personnel located et al., 2014). The risk of such catastrophic in the plume of dust or in a tractor cabin Fire detection fires increases with climate change and without an air-conditioning system will be Fire detection on CEZ forest lands before appropriate measures should therefore be up to two orders of magnitude higher than 2009 was based on daily helicopter patrols considered in emergency planning. for staff protected by an air-conditioning at midday, detection from tow- In 2013, an experimental assessment system and can reach significant values. ers and ground patrols during periods of of doses from the resuspension of radio- All these assessments show the importance high fire danger. During the past years, nuclides for personnel involved in the and health benefit of cabin air filtering, as helicopters have no longer been available. establishment of fire breaks was undertaken the dose contribution through inhalation Only seven lookout towers (H = 35 m), (Yoschenko et al., 2013). The research is the most important pathway. all established before the failure of the showed that the effective resuspension In the CEZ, the annual dose limit (5 mSv) Chernobyl reactor, are now used for fire coefficient for all radionuclides, calculated for personnel involved in the establishment detection across 260 000 ha of forests for the air inside the cabin of the tractor, is of fire breaks in areas with high contami- lands. However, most of them need repair of the order of 10-8 m-1. This means that the nation levels can be reached within a few or replacement. Spatial analysis shows that air-conditioning system reduces the con- weeks. At the moment, not all tractors only 26.8 percent of the CEZ is covered by centration of radionuclides by two orders in the CEZ are equipped with working ground fire detection (Figure 7). of magnitude compared to the air outside air-conditioning systems, and air-condi- The left map reveals that large areas in the the cabin. Internal doses to personnel in the tioning systems are not always regularly central, northern and eastern parts of the cabin of a tractor during the establishment maintained or new filters provided. In CEZ, which include highly contaminated

6

Establishment of fire SYL © V

breaks generates a radioactive dust Y

that can lead to o schenko an increase of inhalation doses for tractor drivers

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Note: On the top map only the white-coloured territory is covered by fire detection (26.8 percent of the CEZ territory). Source: Zibtsev, 2013.

7 lands with the highest levels of fire hazard, suppression purposes. Most of the aban- Current fire-detection coverage of cannot be monitored from the existing doned forest roads are now blocked by the CEZ using the existing seven fire towers. An improved monitoring system downed trees and natural regeneration outlook towers (left). The proposed fire detection coverage (right) is based on for early detection of fires in the CEZ (Figure 8). 13 observation towers with a coverage must also include buffer zones to prevent range of a radius of 15 km each, and the spread of grass and forest fires from Fire suppression capacity one receiving station outside the CEZ. In order to reduce the The Chernobyl Forest state enterprise is exposure of ground personnel to radia- responsible for prevention, patrolling, fire could also be involved. Common hand tion, the lookout system should be based infrastructure maintenance and initial fire tools, water and the construction of fire on automatic detection cameras and one suppression in the CEZ. In the case of lines around the fire are usually used receiving station connected to the dispatch a fire larger than 5 ha, professional fire- for ground fire suppression. The total center in the town of Chernobyl. However, fighters from the Chernobyl Fire Station capacity for vegetation fire suppression a lack of funding, secure equipment and adequate power are the most important obstacles to implementing the proposed fire detection system.

Roas d In general, the main paved roads in the CEZ connecting the town of Chernobyl with checkpoints and with the Chernobyl NPP are constantly maintained. These roads are used to transport local and inter- national personnel and local villagers who live permanently in the CEZ; to deliver construction materials for Confinement II (new sarcophagus); and for overall nuclear infrastructure and territorial management (power lines, pipelines, etc.). Many of the roads to remote, abandoned villages (Cherevach, Rozsoha, Denisovichi and oth- ers), however, are gradually deteriorating

and may soon be unusable for wildfire RGIY © S e

8 Z i

Downed trees and natural tree btsev regeneration make forest roads inaccessible for fire suppression forces

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Source: Evangeliou et al., 2015.

9 includes four forest fire stations located the CEZ can be divided into six main zones Zones with firefighter and fire truck response times (minutes) in the central and southern parts of the (Table 2). to potential fires from currently CEZ (villages Denisovichi, Lubjanske, The interpretation of the efficiency operating forest fire stations Paryshem, Opachichi) and seven points assessment needs to take into account that for hand tool storage which, however, do the response time analysis was based on the fires have occurred during the past not coincide with the highest fire hazard the road network as reported by the Forest decades, it would take up to 90 minutes. In areas. In total, only 33 permanent staff Management Plan in 1996. Based on this addition, 6.9 percent of forest lands in the (firefighters and drivers), with 15 fire road network analysis, only 40.9 percent of CEZ are completely inaccessible to ground trucks (ZIL 131 with a capacity of four forest lands in the CEZ could be reached by transportation. Heavily contaminated lands tonnes of water), 19 backpack pumps and fire brigades within 30 minutes, whereas in the central and northern parts of the hand tools (shovels and fire swatters) are to reach other sites, where 60 percent of zone are also in the category of lands with available. The equipment does not even correspond to official Ukrainian minimum TABLE 2. Response times from current fire stations to reach potential requirements for fire stations responsible fire locations for regular, non-contaminated forests. Efficiency Time of Average time Number Area of the Share of Water supply is provided by 16 fire ponds of response arrival of of arrival of of fires zone (ha) total CEZ firefighters firefighters (1993-2012) area (%) and points for replenishing water tanks. (min) (min) To assess the effectiveness of the cur- 1 Very fast <15 11 150 23 690 9.9 rent placing of fire stations in the CEZ in terms of firefighter response time and 2 Fast 16–30 23 190 74 315 31.0 water supply, a map was drawn up of the 3 Medium 31–45 37 259 65 118 27.2 road networks reported officially in 2006, 4 Slow 46–60 51 193 48 826 20.4 which could be used for fire suppression 5 Very slow 61–90 66 28 11 112 4.6 (Figure 9). 6 Inaccessible - - 21 16 627 6.9 On the basis of a statistical analysis of response time from current fire stations, Weighted average / total 33 841 239 688 100.0

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unsatisfactory response times (30 minutes solidification and long-term storage Poulter, B., Petkov, A., Yue, C., Cadule, P., and more). Furthermore, response time capacities. Without such a long-term Koffi, B., Kaiser, J.W. & Møller, A.P.2015. may now be much higher in many cases, strategy, it will be difficult to manage Fire evolution in the radioactive forests of as a number of roads from that time no forests and reduce fire risks through Ukraine and Belarus: Future risks for the longer exist. removal of dead wood. population and the environment. Ecological 5. A decision support system for fire Monographs, 85(1), 49–72. Rem com endations for suppression would allow the incident Gilitukha, D., Zibtsev, S. & Borsuk, O. urgent steps to improve commander to control exposure time 2011. Monitoring of forests damaged by fire management of firefighters on the fire line from fires and pests in the Chernobyl Exclusion In light of the current state of wildfire risks, the point of view of compliance with Zone using remote sensing data. Scientific threats and fire management capacity in individual radioactive safety norms. Bulletin of the National University of Life the CEZ, there is an obvious need to take 6. Methodologies should be established and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine proactive steps to prevent large fires and to assess fire behaviour and fire inten- (“ and Decorative Gardening” avoid overexposure of forestry and other sity, required amount of water, water series), 164(3), 71–78 [Ukrainian]. personnel working in the CEZ, as well as delivery time and optimized routes Hohl, А., Niccolai, A., Oliver, C., Melnychuk, D., secondary radioactive contamination of for fire trucks. Zibtsev, S., Goldammer, J.G. & Gulidov, V. other territories over large distances. To 7. 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Based on the proceedings of contamination, road and fire breaks of the IAEA/WHO/EC International network, fire history and fire response Conference, Vienna, April 1996 (available capacity. The fire management plan at www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/ needs to be economically realistic and PDF/PiA51r_web.pdf ). feasible. I Aea. 2006. Environmental consequences 2. An updated vegetation map of the CEZ References of the Chernobyl accident and their should be drawn up, based on remote remediation: twenty years of experience. sensing data. Brasseur, G.P., Orlando, J.J. & Tyndall, G.S. Report of the Chernobyl forum expert 3. A local early warning system should 1999. Atmospheric chemistry and global group “Environment”. Vienna, Austria, be in place, as well as reliable auto- change. New York, Oxford University Press. International Atomic Energy Agency matic fire detection and fast response Chakrabarty, R.K., Moosmüller, H., (available at www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/ capacities for the CEZ. Garro, M.A., Arnott, W.P., Walker, J., publications/pdf/pub1239_web.pdf). 4. A plan for the long-term reduction Susott, R.A., Babbitt, R.E., Wold, C.E., Kurbatskiy, N.P. 1963. Wildfire danger in of fire hazards and fuel management L incoln, E.N. & Hao, W.M. 2006. forest and its measurement at local scales. is needed, based on silvicultural and Emissions from the laboratory combustion of Forest fires and firefighting. Moscow, forest utilization methods using har- wildland fuels: particle morphology and size. Academy of Science of the USSR. vester/forwarder machines properly Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(D7). Steinhauser, G., Brandl, A. & Johnson, T. equipped with filters to avoid inha- E vangeliou, N., Balkanski, Y., Cozic, A., 2014. Comparison of the Chernobyl and lation doses for operators as well as H ao, W.M. & Møller, A.P. 2014. 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of radionuclides 137Cs and 90Sr in timber Y oschenko, V., Protsak, V. & Levchuk, S. for the obtaining of Doctor of Sci. degree and products from timber. Decree of the 2013. Analysis of potential ways of irradiation on Specialty 06.03.03. and Ukraine Ministry of Health Protection of personal of CEZ involved in fire Applied Silviculture. Kyiv. No. 573 (available at http://zakon4.rada.gov. prevention measures. In S. Zibtsev, ed. Zibtsev S., Borsuk O. & Gilitukha D. 2012. ua/laws/show/z1384-05). Scientific justification for the integrated Development of a scientifically based system Ukraine State Forestry Committee. 2005. fire management system in critical of measures to reduce the risk of catastrophic Rating scale of natural fire hazard of wildfire regions of Ukraine as the basis for forest fires in the zone of radioactive forest lands of Ukraine. In Rules of fire biodiversity protection and maintaining contamination after the Chernobyl disaster. safety in forests of Ukraine. Order No. 278 of resilience of forest ecosystems. Report Report. Kyiv, NULESU. from 27.12.2004. Ukraine State Forestry on first year of research project of the Zibtsev, S. & Gilitukha, D. 2012. Development Committee. Fire Laboratory of the Research Institute of a local scale for weather-based fire Ukrderglisproekt. 2007. Management plan for of Silviculture and Decorative Gardening hazard for the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. forests of the public enterprise “Chernobyl of the National University of Life and In S. Zibtsev, O. Borsuk & D. Gilitukha, Forest” for the period 2006-2016. Irpin city, Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Development of a scientifically based system Ukrderglisproekt. pp 98–116. Kyiv, NULESU. of measures to reduce the risk of catastrophic Y oschenko, V.I., Kashparov, V.A., Zibtsev, S. 2004. Comparative study of forest fires in the zone of radioactive Levchuk, S.E., Glukhovskiy, A.S., radionuclides accumulation in main tree contamination after the Chernobyl disaster. Khomutinin, Y.V., Protsak, V.P., species of central Polissia of Ukraine. Report. Kyiv, NULESU, pp 50–63. u Lundin, S.M. & Tschiersch, J. 2006. Scientific Bulletin of the National Agrarian Resuspension and redistribution of radio- University, 71, 18–26. nuclides during grassland and forest fires Zibtsev, S. 2013. Theoretical and methodo- in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone: Part II. logical justification of forest monitoring in Modeling the transport process. Journal zones of radioactive contamination after of Environmental Radioactivity, 87(3), disaster on Chernobyl Nuclear Station. 260–278. Autoreferat of the dissertation (summary)

Additional information on fire management on contaminated terrain

The following web page of the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC): http://www.fire. uni-freiburg.de/GlobalNetworks/SEEurope/SEEurope_1_radio.html includes an in- depth analysis of wildland fires and human security and a forthcoming (2015) report by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) on firefighting safety on contaminated terrain: Goldammer, J.G. 2013. Beyond climate change: Wildland fires and human security in cultural landscapes in transition – examples from temperate-boreal Eurasia. In J.G. Goldammer, ed. Vegetation fires and global change: Challenges for concerted international action. A White Paper directed to the United Nations and international organizations, pp. 285-311. Remagen, Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) and Kessel Publishing. Goldammer, J.G., Kashparov, V., Zibtsev, S. & Robinson, S. 2015. State-of-the-art assessment of best practices on fire suppression in contaminated areas, including recommendations on radioactive and chemical safety of firefighters. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) (in preparation).

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