Notes and References

(Please see page 283 for List of Abbreviations.)

I THE QUESTION OF JEWISH EMANCIPATION

I. .I. Katz , From Prejudice /0 Destruction (Cambridge, Ma ssachusett s: 1980) p. 245. 2. H .-U. Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Cologne: 1969) p. 471. 3. H . Rosenberg, Grosse Depression und Bismarckzeit (Berlin: 1% 7) pp . 88-117. 4. A co ncise work ing definition of these terms is given by E. Mendelsohn, The Jews of Central Europe (Bloomington, Indian a : 1983) p. 2: acculturatio n (by which is meant the Jews ' ado ption of the external characteristics of the majority culture, above all its langu age) and assimilation (by which is meant the Jews' efforts to adopt the nati onal identi ty of the majority, to become Poles, Hungarians, Romanians 'of the Mosaic faith', o r even to aba ndon their Jewi sh identity altogether). 5. I am using 'Europe' and 'West'.•lS did Russians, to refer to the countries of Central as well as Western Europe. o. A.Funkenstein. 'Anti-Jewish Propaganda: Pagan . Christian and Modern', Jerusalem Quanrrlv. 19 (1981) pp, 05-72:F. Golczewski. Polnisch-Jiidischc Beziehungen. IXXI-19:!:! (Wiesbadcn: 1981) p. 0: S. l.ehr. Antiscminsmus - religiose Motive im sozialcn Vorurtcil (Mun ich: 1974) p. ~35 . 7. R. Pipes. 'Catherine II and the Jews' , X/A 5. no . 2 (1975) p. 4. Some students of the Russian Church hold that rising hostilit y to Jew s in late Imperial Russia was due to secularization , the decline of Chu rch influence and of Christianity. See D. V. Pospielovsk y. 'The Jewish Question in Russian Samizdat'. .\:/A 8, no . 2'( 1978) pp . 4-5. 14-15 . X. A. G. Duker's introd uction to B. D. Weinryb. Jewish Emancipat ion Under Attack (New York : 1942) pp. 8-30 surveys the history of emancipation. For Germany. and a discussion of the concept, see R. Rurup. Emanzipation und Antisemitismus (Gouingen: 1975): for Prussia . H. Holoczek, 'Die Judenemanzipation in Prcussen' , in B. Martin and E. Schulin (eds) Die Judcn all' Minderhcit in dcr Gcschichtc (Munich: 1981) pp . 1.11-00: for F ra nce, P. Girard, Lcs Juifs de France de 1789 iJ 18M) (Paris: 1970): for Austria . W. Hausler, 'To leranz, Emanzipat ion und Antisernitisrnus', in N . Vielmeui (cd .) Das osterrcichischc Judentum (Vienna: 1974) pp . 83-140.R. Mahler (ed.) Jewish Emancipation (New York : 1942) is a selection of documents. 9. Mahler, Jewish Emancipation, p. 18. 10. Katz. From Prejudice /() Destruction, pp . 102-4: Rurup, Emanzipauon, p, 22. II. S.W.Baron, 'The Impact of the Revolutions of 1848 on Jewish Ema ncipation', .ISS. II. no . 3 (1949) pp. 19>-248 . 12. Mahler, Jewish Emancipation, p. 01. 13. S. M. Dubnov, History ofthe Jews in Russia and Poland (Philadelphia: 1916--20) I. pp . 242-01 : lu . Gesscn,/l1oriia el'reel' I' Rossii (St Petersburg: 1914) pp . 1-19 : Sh. Ett inger , ' Histo rica l and Political Factors in Soviet Anti -Semitism', in J. M. Kelman (ed .) Anti­ Scmitism in the Soviet Union (Jerusalem: 1980) 2, pp , 45-7: Baron, The Russian .11'11 (New York : 19M) pp . 1-15.

233 234 Notes and References

14. The territories acquired as a result of the Polish partitions were incorporated at the beginning of the nineteenth century into the following provinces tgubemii: singular: gubemiiav: Vitebsk , Minsk and Mogilev: Vilna , Grodno and Kovno: Kiev, Volynia and Podolia. Until 1840, the first three were referred to as the Belorussian (White Russian) and the second group as the Lithuanian gunemii. After that year. they were called the western gubernii. In 1863, Vilna. Grodno and Kovno were designated as the North-west Region iseverozapadnyi kraii. with a Governor-General at Vilna: and Kiev, Volynia and Podolia, with a Governor-General at Kiev, as the South-west Region tiugozapadnvi krai). These nine provinces. sometimes referred to as the ' Polish' provinces, plus Bessarabia, Ekaterinoslav. Poltava, Tavrida, Kherson, Chernigov and the ten provinces of the Kingdom of Poland are usually included in the term Pale of Permanent Jewish Settlement - chcrta postoiannoi evrciskoi oscdlosti. Since the Kingdom of Poland (or Congress Poland, assigned to Russia by the Congress of Vienna) was administered separately from the rest of the empire and the legal status of its Jews differed from that in Russia proper. only the fifteen Russian gubcrnii. strictly speaking. made up the Palco It is with their Jewish inhabitants and those of the interior Russian provinces that the present work is concerned. 15. Pipes, 'Catherine II', p. 4: J. D . Klier. The Ambiguous Legal Status of Russian Jewry in the Reign of Catherine II', SR , 35, no. 3 (1976) pp. 504-17. 16. Demographic data for this period arc notoriously unreliable and vary from source to source. According to U. 13. p. 731. pre-partition Poland had between 7500000 and 900 ()()() Jews. Of these , it has been calculated. Russia received the largest share, between 320000 and 400000; Prussia the smallest, between 175 ()()() and 185 (x)() (but see note 22 below) and Austria between 260 000 and 315000; cf. A. Springer. 'Enlightened Absolutism and Jewish Reform', CSS. II (1980) p. 240. Pipes estimates that there were 600000 Jews in Russia in 17% but docs not indicate whether this figure includes the Kingdom of Poland. la. Lcshchinskii, 'Evreiskoe nasclcnic Rossii i evreiskii trud', in Kniga 0 russkom evreistve (New York: 1960) p. 183. gives a figure of 1.2 million for 1815, including Poland. In 1904, the Jewish Colonization Society (EKO) arrived at these numbers for Russia alone: 1.04 million in 1847, nearly 3 million in 1881 and 3.5 million in 1897. the inclusion of Poland brings the total to 5.2 million . /:'KO. Sbornik materialov(St Petersburg: 1904) I. p. xviii-xxiii . 17. Pipes. 'Catherine II', pp . II and 16-17; and Ktier . ,Ambiguous Legal Status' , pp . 508 fl. 18. See Hausler, 'Toleranz'; p, 84. 19. Mahler, Jewish Emancipation . p. 18. 20. Springer, 'Enlightened Absolutism'. pp. 252-8; Hausler 'Tolcranz, p. 84-9; .IF. 5. p. 552; S. Joseph. Jewish Immigration to the United States (New York : 1914) pp.77-9. 21. W. W. Hagen, Germans, Poles and Jell's (Chicago: 1980) pp. 46-7. 22. The lower figure is from M. Richarz (ed.) Judisches Leben in Deutschland (Stuttgart: 1986) I, p. 27, the higher one from Dubnov, Wcltgeschichte desjudischcn Volkes (Berlin : 1925-30) 8, p. 17. Both conflict with the numbers cited in note 16. Matters are confused further by Holeczek who writes i'Judenemanzipation', p. 138) that the number of Jews in Prussia almost doubled in the reign of Frederick II (1740-86) to reach 'about 60000 gainfully employed individuals'. D, 13, pp. 1290-92 states that there were 2100 Jewish families in Prussia in 1749. that through the first partition of Poland Prussia's Jewish population almost doubled and that the second and third partitions added about 53000 and 75 (X)() respectively for a total of 124000 in 1816. 23. Springer 'Enlightened Absolutism'. pp . 247-51; Holcczek , 'Judcncmanziparion'. pp. 151-2; I. Freund (cd .) Die Emanzipation der Judcn in Preussen (Berlin: 1912) 2. p, 509; P. S. Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland (Seattle: 1974) p. 15; Hagen, Germani. Poles and Jews, pp. 103-4 . 24. Citations to the first (PPSZ) or second (VPSZ) collection of laws will give volume numbers, the number of the law or decree and page references to the compilation of Notes and References 235

V. O. Levanda , Polnyi khronologicheskii sbornik zakonov i polozhenii kasaiushchikhsia evreev (St Petersburg: 1874). Thus. the 1804 statue is PPSZ 28. no. 21 547/Levanda, pp . 53-W . 25. Springer, 'G avriil Derzhavin's Jewish Reform Project of 1800', CASS, 10, no . I (1976) pp. 1-24. Emphasis added. 26. Pipes, 'Catherine II'. p. 3. 27. M. Rest. Die russische Judengesetzgebung (/772-1804) (Wiesbaden: 1975) pp. 229-40. 28. PPSZ. 28. no. 21 547/Levdnda, pp. 53-4. 29. VPSZ. ((), no . 8054/Levanda. pp. 359-74. In discussing the policies of Nicholas I, I have made extensive use of the excellent study of M. Stanislawski, Tsar Nicholas I and the .Iews (Philadelphia: 1983). 30. Stanislawski. Ear Nicholas I, p. 44. Emphasis added. 31. On colonization. see Chapter 5. section I. 32. This Iigure is derived from Stanislawski, Tsar Nicholas I, pp. 167, 100-1. In 1851. there were 27 469 Jews registered in the three merchant guilds . More than 95 per cent belonged to the third guild which was abolished in 1863 and whose members had only modest capital holdings and businesses. Membership in the first guild required a declared capital of at least 15000 rubles and in the second 5000-7000 rubles. The student numbers are described by Stanislawski as rough estimates. 33. Count N. D. Bludov, head of the Jewish Committee, quoted by Gessen, Zakon i zhizn' (St Petersburg: 1911) p. 112. On the reforms of Alexander II, see Gessen , Istoriia, pp . 207-99 and Dubnov, Historv 2. pp. 154--77. .14. See Chapter 4. section I and the following works of I. M. Aronson: ' Russian Bureaucratic Attitudes Towards Jews. 1881-94'. Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University (1973) pp. 58-00: 'The Altitudes of Russian Officials in the 1880s Toward Jewish Assimilation and Emigration'. SR. 34. no. 1(1975) pp. 1-18; 'Nationalism and Jewish Emancipation in Russia: The I880s·. Nationalities Papers 5. no. 2 (1977) pp . 107-82: 'Th e Prospects for the Emancipation of Russian Jewry during the I880s'. SEER 55. no . 3 (1977) pp . 348-09. 35. On Christian Wilhelm Dohrn, Count H. G . R. de Mirabeau and the Abbe Henri Gregoire see I. E. Barzilav, 'T he .Jew in the Literature of the Enlightenment',J'SS. 18. No .4 (1956) pp. 243-61 ; also R. F. Necheles, 'The Abbe Gregoire and the Jews'. JSS, 33. no. 2-3 (1971) pp. 120-40. 30. See H. Arendt. 'Privileged Jews'. JSS. 8. no. I (1946) p. 23. 37. Stanislawski, Ear Nicholas I. p. 45. 38. Dubnov, History. 2. p. 202; J. Silver. 'Some Demographic Characteristics of the Jewish Population in Russia at the End of the 19th Century'. JSS. 42. no. 3-4 (1980) pp. 209-80. concludes that the major factor in Jewish population growth was not fertility . which was higher in the general population. but a relatively low mortality level. 39. Nome Vrcmia, 15 June 1881. cited by Klier . 'The Times of London. the Russian Press and the Pogroms of 1881-82'. Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies (University of Pittsburgh). no. 308 (1984) p, 6. 40. 1'. Hcrzl, Theodor Herzl's Tagebucher. 1895-1904 (Berlin : 1924) 3. p. 478. See Chapter 4. section I. 41. Jean-Paul Sartre. Rcflcxions sur la question juive (Paris: 1946) p. 15. 42. Baron, A Social and Religious Historv of the Jews (New York: 1937) 2. p. 234. 43. When statistics were published in 1880 to show that the spectre of a mass of impoverished Jews descending upon Germany from the East was a fiction. Adolf Wagner. a leading anti-Semite and co-founder with Adolf Stoecker of the Christian Social Party publicly admitted that he had been in error. See Theodor Mommsen's Autsatzc und Rcdcn (Berlin : 1905) p. 413. 44. Girard. 1.1.'.\ Juifs de France. pp. 21-30.44--57; Baron. llistorv; 2. p. 226. 45. Rurup. Fmanzipation, pp . 22-3: Holeczek . 'J udenernanzipation'. pp . 151-2. 40. Dubnov, Wcltgcschichtc, 9. p, 138. 236 Notes and References

47. Baron, History , 2, p. 244; Mendelsohn, The Jews, pp. 174-5. 48. Springer, 'Gavriil Derzhavin', p. II. 49. Rest, Die russische Judengesetzgebung; pp. 24, 148. SO. Dubnov, History, 2, pp. 36-7 . 51. Rest, Die russische Judengesetzgebung; p. 24. 52. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 19/1 (Washington, DC: 19(8) pp. 697-9 ; cf. A. T. Vassilyev, The Ochrana (Philadelphia and London: (930) p. 100; H.-D . LOwe, Antisemitismus und reaktiondre Utopie (Hamburg: 1978) p. 159. 53. Klier, 'The Russian Press and the anti-Jewish Pogroms of 1881', forthcoming in CASS; Dubnov, History , 2, p. 193. 54. EKO, Sbornik . I, p. xxi. For data on the growth ofJewish poverty and pauperism in the 1890s see ibid ., 2, pp . 221-38 . L. Greenberg, The Jell's in Russia (New Haven: 1965) I, p. 160, quotes an official source to the effect that in the 1880s, 90 per cent of Jews const ituted a 'proletariat living from hand to mouth, in povert y and under the most trying and unhygienic conditions' . In Germany, by way ofcontrast, where around 1800 10 per cent of Jews had been well-to-do, 'considerably more than hair had a secure, middle-cla ss income by 1850. Towards the end of the century, two-thirds of the Jewish population had risen into the upper and middle levels of the bourgeoisie. (Holeczek, 'Judenernanzipation ', pp. 158-9. 55. A. Kahan, 'The Impact o f the Industrialization Process in Tsarist Russia Upon the Socio-Economic Conditions of the Jewish Population', unpublished paper (1972) and Greenberg, The Jell's in Russia, I, pp . 160-71. Although precise data are lacking to make quantitative comparison possible, the number and resources of Russia's Jewish entrepreneurs and bankers - and in particular their financial services to the state ­ appea r to have been considerably smaller than they were in the West. There was nothing. for example, to compare with the situation in Bavaria where , at the beginning of the nineteenth century. 80 per cent of all government loans were endorsed and negotiated by Jews. At the end of the century, 80 per cent of Austria's banking entrepreneurs were Jews or co nverted Jews . See H. Arendt. The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: (951) pp. 14-18 and A. J . Mayer , The Persistence ofthe Old Regime (New York : 1981) p. 144, cf. Greenberg, The Jews in Russia, I, p. 161, 'The low economic status of the Russian Jews is clearly evidenced by their disproportionately small representation in the commercial and industrial life of the country'. This fact did not , of course , keep them from being denounced for playing a disporportionately large and powerful role in the economy. It can be argued - and LOwe has done so in Antisemitismus - that official and unofficial anti-Semitism in Russia coincided with a nd expressed a conservative and agrarian reaction against the advance of industry and capital and in particular against their Jewish representatives. The opposition to big business and capital, especially when these were Jewish or foreign , was definitely a factor in Russian a nti-Semitism, but in terms of actu al laws or policies, the opposition was not very consistent or effective. During the years examined by Lowe - 1890-1917 - a reactionary. anti-capitalist anti-Semitism strengthened opponents of emancipation both inside and outside government. but neither before nor after 1890 was official resistance to it grounded primarily in anti-capitalism. Indeed, in both periods the laws favored Jewish capitalists over their less fortunate co-religionists. It is significant that Konstantin Pobedonostsev, who linked the ills of the age - materialism, financial power and corruption - with the Jews , rejoiced that there were none among the wealthy men he knew or met. 'Perhaps because he knew so man y Moscow and St Petersburg bankers and realized that few Jews lived in the capital, he did not decry their economic power in banking and industry.' (R. F. Byrnes, Pobedonostsev , [Bloomington, Indiana: 1968] p. 206). For positive assessments of the magnitude of the contribution Jewish capitalists made to Russian ecnomic development, see: I. M. Dizhur, 'Evrei v ekonomicheskoi zhizni' Rossii' in Kniga 0 russkom evreistve , pp . 155--82 and A. J. Rieber , Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, North Carolina : 1982) pp. 57-60 . Notes and References 237

56. 'Perepiska Nikolaia " i Marii Fedorovny', KA, 22 (1927) p. 169; A. E. Healy.'Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Ru ssian -American Relation s' . SR. 42. no . 3 (1983) p. 412. 57. R. J . Bryrn, The Jewish Intelligentsia and Ru ssian Marxism (New York: 1978) pp. 53-4: L. B. Schapiro, 'The Role of the Jews in the Ru ssian Revolutionary Movement'. SEER, 40, no. 94 (1961) pp . 151-60; Greenberg. The Jews in Russia, I, pp . 146-59; 2. pp. 139-59. 58. Quoted by S. Lambroza , 'T he Pogrom Movement in Tsarist Russia . 1903--06'. Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University (1981) p. 19K 59. Hau sler, 'Toleranz'. p. 118. W. Mendelsohn, The Jews, pp . 87- 94 a nd W. O . McCagg. Jr. Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary (Bo ulder. Colorado : 1972) pp . 36, 129. 199. 223. 61. F. Stem. Gold and Iron (New York: 1977) pp. 513-31 ; P. G . J . Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: 1964) pp. 97-100; Richarz• Judisches Leben in Deutschland . I. pp . 62- 3. 62. R. Strau ss, 'Th e Jews in the Economic Evolution of Central Europe'. JSS. 3. no . (1941 ) p. 38. 63. Baron. ' Newer Approache s to Jewish Emancipation'. Diogencs. 29 (1960) pp. 76-8. 64. There was in Russia no C hr istian- J ewish 'midd le-class svmbiosis' as there was in the West. For Germany, in particular, sec A . Leschnitzer', The Magic Background of Modern Anti-Semitism (New York: 1956) pp . 24-40. 65. Sec the petitions of Moscow and St Petersburg merchants in A . Scholz. (trans.) Die Juden In Russland (Berlin: 1900) pp . 244-8. On the am bivalent attitude of the merch antry 10 Jews see Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs, pp. 6 1- 2. 331-2. 66. Lowe. Antisemitismus, pp , 103-5 a nd S. Harcavc, 'The Jewish Question in the First Russian D uma', .ISS , 6. no. 2 (1944 ) pp. 408-25. 67. P. B. Struve. Po vekham (Moscow: 1909). reprinted in R. Pipe s (ed .) The Collected Works of P. B. Struve (An n Arbor . Mich igan : 1970) pp . 218 and 209; cf. A . la. Avrekh, St olyp in i Tret'ia Duma (Moscow: 19( 8) pp . 36-43. 68. P. N. Miliuk o v, 'T he Jewi sh Question in Ru ssia'. in M. Gor'kii ct al. (ed s) The Shield (Ne w York: 1917) p. 73. T he or igina l. published in Petrograd in 1916 under the title Shchit, has not been availab le to me. (f}. l.owc, Antiscmitismu s. p. 180. 70. M. T. F lorinsky, Russia: A History and an Interpretation (New York: 1953) 2. p. 947. 71. W. E. Mosse . Alexander /I and the Modernization of Russia (New York: 19(2) p. 113. 72. S. F . Starr. 'Tsarist G overnment: The Imperial Dimension', in J . R. Azrael (ed .) Soviet Nauonalitv Policies and Practices (Nil.' York : 1978) pp. 13 and 26. 'The fact that per capita expe nd itures o n police during the late nineteenth centu ry were far higher in pra ctically ever y non -Russian pro vince than in Moscow sho ws that the price o f empire was perpetual fear of violence' . Also see M . Raeff, ' Pa tterns of Russian Imperial Pol icy Towa rd the Na tio na lities'. in E. Allworth (cd.) Soviet Nationality Problems (New York: 1971) pp . 22-42. 73. Th ere were. of co u rse, no basic or 'inna te' rights o f citizenship until 1906. Before then , a ll ca tego ries of the empire' s subjects possessed o nly such right s - in effect. pri vileges ­ as the ruler had bestowed up on them. If Jews, there fore . were barred from the sta te service or denied a free choi ce of residence, such restri ction s applied also to peasants. Even so . th e situa tio n of Jews WdS special. They did not automatically and on the same footing enj oy the rights or privileges of other native merchants o r townsmen - the two socia l estates tsostoviivto whi ch 95 per cent o f .Iews formally belonged. Article 76 of the Fundament al Laws of 19(1) (in G . Vern adsky et 0/. (eds) A Source Book fo r Russian Historv, [New Ha ven : 1972J 3. p. 773) at last esta blished that ' Every Ru ssian subj ect has the right to freely choose his place of residence, to acq uire a nd dis po se of property a nd to travel beyond the frontiers of the sta te without hindrance'. Article 76 made these right s less than a bso lute by decl aring that th eir 'limitations ... are regulated by special laws' . As far .LS .lews were co nce rned , existing disa bilities, whether embo died in laws o r 238 Notes and References

in administrative regulations, remained on the books and in force. The status of Russian Jews as citizens whose rights were restricted by special legislation meant that emancipation required not positive laws to grant them civic and/or political rights but negative legislation, that is, the abolition of restrictions imposed upon them ; cf. Chapter 2, section I. 74. It was not a generalized anxiety alone that kept the tsarist government from making common cause with Jews against other minorities, as the Prussians and Hungarians had done. The Russians were loath to repeat similar experiments because of what had happened during the Polish Rebellion of 1863. Before its outbreak, assimilated and upper-class Jews. in expectation of equal rights in a free Poland, gave their support to the Polish cause. In order to weaken Jewish adherence to it, the tsar in 1862 approved exten sive concessions which succeeded in detaching most Jews from the rebellion. In spite of this, and although the Jewish masses did not join the fight for Polish independence, St Petersburg was less gratified by its success than frightened by the earli er act of disloyalty. Moreover, in Poland as well as in the Polish provinces of the empire, the Russian effort to combat dissident Polish landlords by winn ing the allegiance of their peasants precluded concessions to the Jews. SL'C .I. Meisl, Geschichtc der Juden in Polen und RUHland (Berlin : 1921-4) 3, pp. 316--32. 75. Dubnow,lIil/ofl'. 2, pp . IK7-90; Greenberg, The .11,, ·\, I, pp . 93-5. 76. See Kokovtsev's meeting with a Nationalist delegation in Chapter 4, section II; A. E. Alcktorov, lnorodtsv v Rossii (St Petersburg: 19(6); Avrekh, Tsarizm i Ch ctvcrtaia Duma (Moscow; 19iH) p. 38. Sazonov (see note 52) con sidered the Jews a menace to law and order as well as to the integrity of the empire. 77. H. Momrnscn. Arbeiterbcwegung und nationalc lruge (Gottingen: 1979) pp . 127-46 . 78. Katz, From Prejudice /0 Del/me/ion , p. 290. 79. That was also the view of Struve who thought that , unlike Austria-Hungary, Russia was a genuine national sta te (or 'na tiona l empire') like G reat Britain and the United States. See Pipes. Struve: liberul on th« Right (Cambridge. Massachusetts: 19KO) p. 211. SO. See Chapter 4, section I. 81. In 1897, non-Russians were 55.7 per cent of the empire's 122.() million people.S. I. Bruk and V. M. Kabuzan, ' Dina rnika i etnicheskii sostav nasdeniia Rossii . .. konels XIX v. - 1917 g.',l.l/oriia SSSR, no . 3 (19KO) pp. 74-9.l 82. J . Armstrong, 'Mobilized Diaspora in Tsarist Russia . The ( 'ase of the Baltic Germans'. in Azrael, Soviet Nationalitv Policies , p. X~.

2 THE JEWISH POLICY OF LATE TSARISM

I. 'The distinctive characteristics of antisemitism in tsarist Russia were determined by the fact that Russia was a bo ut 150 years behind the nations of Western Europe in its political, social and cultural development.' M. Vishniak , 'Antisemitism in Tsarisl Russia ', in K. S. Pinson (ed .) Essays on Antisemitism (New York : 1942) p. 121. 2. Pipes, The Forma/ion of the Soviet Union (Cambridge. Massachusetts: 1954) pp. (~7 . 3. For definitions of the term inorodtsy see S. Pushkarev (cornp.) Dictionarv of Russian Historical Terms (New Haven: 1970) p. 31: M . I. Mysh , Rukovodstvo k russkim zakonam o evreiakh (St Petersburg: i914) pp . 1-2; EE, 8, pp . 224-5. The peculiar legal situation created by inclusion of Jews in the category of inorodtsy is discussed by M. B. Ratner, 'Evreiskii vopros', Provo, no. 17 (I Ma y 1905) pp. 1358-76. Surveys of the legal status of Russian Jews may be found in N. M. Korkunov, Russkoe gosudarstvennoe pravo (St Petersburg: 1899) 3rd edn . I. pp. 330-40:N.D. Gradovskii. Otnoshcnic k evreiam r drcvnei i sovrcmennoi Rossii (St Petersburg: 1891) I. pp. 36 IT. : A. A. Gol 'denveizcr, 'Pravovoe polozhenie cvreev v Rossii' in Kniga 0 russkom cvreistve, pp . III-54. 4. Mysh, Rukovodstvo. pp . 35-6: El', K. pp . 150-3. Notes and References 239

5. V. I. Lenin. Sochineniia (M oscow: 1932) 3rd edn, 17. pp . 29 1- 2. 6. A . Kerensk ii, The Crucifixion ofLiberty (Lo ndon: 1934) pp. 75-6. 7. Miliukov, 'Th e Jewish Question'. p. 56. 8. Ibid.. pp . 57. 73: Pipe s. Formation. pp. 29-49: Y. Maor, The Jewish Question in the Liberal and Revolutionarv Mo vements in Russia (in Hebrew ) (J erusalem : 1964). 9. B. A. Enge l and C. N. Rosen thal (eds) FiveSis ter.': Women Against the E a r (Ne w York: 1975) pp . 230- 1: J . Fra nke l. Prophecy and Politics (C am bridg e: 1981) pp . 9S-102: Golczewski. Potnische-Judische Beziehungen , p. 56; E. G oldh agen, 'Co mm unism a nd Anti-Semitism'. in A . Brumberg (ed.) Russia under Khruschev (New York: 1962) p. 328. 10. Fo r o nly four of man y po ssible examples of this view see: Goldhagen, 'Jews' in Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (Ne w York: 1%1) p. 257; S. M . Dubnov a nd G . la. Krasnyi-Admoni (eds) Muteriul y dlia istorii anti cvreiskikh pogromov r' Rossii (Petrograd: 1919-23 ) I. p, ix: Joseph. Jewish Immigra tion , p. 63: J. l.estschinsk y (Ia, Leshc hinsk ii) 'The An ti-Jewish Program: Tsar ist Russi a , the Third Reich an d Indep endent Poland'. .ISS. 3. no. 2 (1941 ) p. 143. II. Miliukov. Con stitutional Government fo r Russia (New York: 1908) p. 29. 12. L. Wolf , Int roduct ion to E. Sernenoff, The Russian Go vernment and the Mas sacres (London : 1907) p. xviii. Dubnov. Materialv, I, p. xxxi, spea ks of the 'pog rom ideo logy' of the go vernment. 13. l.ambroza . 'T he Pog rom Movement': Lowe, Antivemitismus, pp, X7-9X. 14. .1 . H. Billingt o n. M ikhailovvk v and Ru v.iun l'opulivn (New York a nd O xford: 195X) p. 142. 15. Byrnes, Pobedonostvev, pp . 208-9: d . the letter Pobcdon ostsev wr ot e to P. A. Tv erskoi a sho rt time after the Kishinev pog ro m . ' W ha t happened is scandalous - not because of the Jews but like a ny kind of vio lence by a n enraged mob, like the vio lence of th e haiduks or that o f peasan ts aga inst the lan d ed ge ntry . Sca nda lo us also is the inac tio n of the loca l authorities who d id not know how to ' lo p the horrors that lasted for two da ys'. Vl'; no . 12 ( 1907 ( pp . (,65-6.) A I,o sec Pobedon oxtvev'v lett er to Pleve o f 8 May 1903 in Dubnov, Mut crialv; I. p. 225. 16. S. lu . Ville . Vospominaniia (Mo scow: 19fJO ) 2. p. 214: I:F. 12. p. 6 16. 17. 'P osle pervogo mana IXX lg'. A'A . 4 ~ (19.11) p. )(,2: P. A. Za iorll:hko v,kii, Kr izi» samodcrzhaviia (Moscow: 1(64) p. 3X5; H. [)lOur. ' Igna t'ev 's Plan , ' (He brew) itcavur, 10 (1963 ) pp . 5-60: E. A. Pereus. Dncvn ik (Mo,cow- I.eningrad: 1927 ) p. IX3. IX. Zaion chk o vskii . 'Aleksandr III i ego blizhaishee ok ru zhe nic'. VI. no . X( 19I>{,) p. 1.12: A. Poliakov, "Tsar-mirotvorets: if rezoliutsii Alek-andra III' . (;" /01 M inul'lhogo. no, 1- 3 ( 19 18) p. 228; Komitet Mini strov, lstorichcvku oh::"r dC'imd/101ti komitrtu ministrov (St Pet ersburg: 1902) 4. p. 312: B. N. Chicherin. Vovpom manua (Moscow: 1934) p. 140:1., '\ Juifs de Runic (Paris: 1891) p. 397. 19. Die Judcnpogrome in RUHland (Cologne: 19 10) I. pp, 2611. a nd Dubno v, Mutcn alv, I. p. xvi where a distinction is made between the govcrnrnc ru' s "ind irect" guilt for the outb rea ks o f 1881-2. mainl y for its fai lure to take stern measures lor (heir suppression. a nd its resp on sibil ity for Kishincv and lat er po groms. 20. G reenbe rg. Jews in Russia , 2. p. 24: Baron. The Russian Jcu, p. 52: d . Vixhn iak , 'Antisemitism in Tsarist Rus sia'. p. 102 and Dinur. 'Ignat 'cv's Plans', pp. 12-15. 21. S. Lukashe vich, The Holy Brotherhood: 1881-IXX3' , ASU:R IX, no. 4 (1959) pp . 491-509: idem . 11'0/1 Aksak ov (Cambridge. Massachusetts: 19(5) p. 15.1. 22. Greenberg, Jews in Russia, 2. p. 19. 23. Ibid , pp . 22-3; Zaionchkovskii. Krizis , p. 379. 24. K. K. Arsen'ev, Za chctvcrt' veka (Petr ograd: 1915) PI' . 73. 104.3(,1. 25. The most recent. a nd best , study is I. M . Aronson . 'G eo gra phica l a nd So cio-econ omic Factor s in the 18XI Anti-Jewish Pog roms in Rus sia' . RR . 39. no . I (1980) pp. 18-3!. 26. Dubnov, Materialy, I. pp . xviii, xxi. 27. S. D . Urusov. Zap iski gubernatora (Berl in: n. d.) pp . 78. 100. 28. D . N. Liubimov, ' Russ ka ia sm uta . . . 1902-06', undated rns in Columbia University Ar chi ve o f Ru ssian a nd Eas t Euro pea n H isto ry and Culture. pp . 6 1-2. 240 Notes and References

29. Th e Gomel pogrom of September 1903 demonstrated that anti-Jewish excesses could erupt even after Pleve, in the wake of Kishinev, had categorically instructed governors to prevent them and in spite of energetic efforts by the police to stop them . Concerning Kishinev, E. H. Judge, in his Plehve (Syracuse, New York: 1983) p. 101, concludes: 'The evidence might not be enough to convict Plehve of first-degree murder, but it presents a strong case for negligent homicide'. LOwe. Antisemitismus, p . 65. asks: 'Why should Pleve dirty his fingers , since there were those who took his wishes as orders?' 30. Baron, The Russian Jell", p. 67. 31. On the origins of the URP see D. C. Rawson. 'The Union of the Russi an People', Ph .D . dissertation, University of Washington (1971) and Chapter 7, section III. On the URP\ part in the staging of pogroms. Rawson writes , p. 195: 'It would be extremely d ifficult to show that the central leadership of the Union dir ected any of the pogroms or used its boevaia druzhina [combat organization] specifically for that purpose. This does not mean that Union leaders opposed pogroms, but only that most pogroms occurred without the planning of a central organizational or conspiratorial network. Probably, the Union contributed most to the pogroms by its constant outpouring of anti-Semitic propaganda which encouraged " true Russians" to turn their wrath on the Jews '. 32. Letter of Nicholas , 27 October 1905, in E. J. Bing (ed.) The Secret Letters of the Last Tsar (New York: 1938) p. 187. On the printing press, see Vine , Vospominamiia. pp. 85-8; A. A. Lopukhin, Otrvvki iz vospominanii (Moscow: 1923) pp. 88-91; and Lowe, Antisemitismus. pp. 96-7, who points out that the press began its activities only after the issuance of the October Manifesto . 33. General F. V. Dubasov, for example, reported that the agrarian disturbances in Chernigov province had begun with a peasant pogrom against the Jews. Lowe. Antisemitismus , pp. 95, 239 (n .20). 34. Byrnes . Pobcdonostsev: p. 209. 35. H. Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire, /801 -1917 (Oxford: 1967) p. 268. 36. L. Kristoff. 'The Russian Image of Russia ' . in C. A. Fisher (ed.) Essays in Political Geography. (London: 19(8) p. 350. 37. J . Saussy, 'L'apostasie des Tatars christianises en 1866', Cahiers du monde russe 1'1 sovieuquc, 9, no. I (1968) pp . 20-45. 38. Byrnes , Pobedonostscv, p. 187; J . S. Curtiss, Church and Stale in RU.\I·ia (New York : 1940) p. 227. 39. I. Birman, 'Jewish Emigration from the USSR', .s:/A, 9, no . 2 (1979) p . 50; L. Schapiro, 'The Soviet Jews', Nell' York Review, 19 Jul y 1973. p. 3; D. V. Pospielovsky , Russian Police Trade Unionism (London: 1971) p. 56. 40. The higher figure is from /:E. 11. pp . 893-4. the lower one from Byrnes. Pobcdonostsc v, p. 207. The Hol y Synod recorded a total of 58 582 Jewish conversions between 1836 and 1897 of which approximately 30000 took place in the reign of Nicholas I; of these , all but about 5000 were involuntary. Stanislawski, Ear Nicholas I. p. 141 and N. Sarntcr, Judentaufcn im 191enJahrhundert (Berlin: 19(6) p. n 41. Lukashevich, Aksakov, p. 107; Byrnes, Pobedonostsev; p. 207. 42. This was true even under Nicholas I, when the prohibition on changing famil y names upon conversion was first introd uced (see note 4 and Stanislawski, Tsar Nicholas I. p. 148). Conversion became mor e difficult in the reign of Nicholas II and residential restrictions were maintained for five years after it had taken place (Samter, Judentaufen , p. 145: Mysh. Rukovodstvo, pp. 561-6). That the missionary effort of the Orthodox Church among Jew s was weak and poorly supported by the state is pointed out by M.S. Agurskii, ' Die Judcnchristen in der Russisch-Orthodoxcn Kirche', Ostkirchliche Studien, 23. nos 2-3 (1974) pp . 137-76 . 43. VPSZ. 41. no . 440221Levanda. p. Ion 44. E. M. Feoktistov. Vosponnnaniia (Leningrad: 1929) p. 201. 45. S. L. Kucherov, Courts, l .awvcrs and Trials under the l.ast Three Ears (New York : 1953) pp . 278-9; Lowe . Antiscmitismus , p. 166. Notes and References 241

46. 'Iz dnevnika Konstantina Romanova'. KA, 43 (1930) p. 100. 47. A. V. Bogdanovich , Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa (Leningrad: 1924) p. 470. 48. 'Sovet o bed inennykh dvoriansk ikh obshchestv' , Svod postanovlenii I-X s'ezdov (Pet ro­ grad: 1915) pp . 3S--41: M. M. Kovalevskii, 'J ewish Rights a nd Their Enemies', in Gor'kii , The Shield, pp . 103-4 . 49. Rech', 15 March 1912, p. 5. 50. Ezhegodnik gazety Rech' na 1913 g.. p. 331: G. G. lurskii. Pravve " tret'ci Gosudarstvennoi Dumc (Khar'k ov: 1912) pp . 89- 130. 51. S. la . Elpat'evski i, ' Evreiskii vo pros', RB, no. 10 (1913) p. 354: R. Maura ch, Russische Judenpolitik (Berlin: 1939) p. 379: A. A. Poli van ov ,lz dnevnikov (Mosc ow : 1924) p. 36. Even during the war. when the need for o fficers was desperate. a yo ung man suspected of being Jewish had to pro ve that his parents and grandparents were Christ ians. (P . Ken ez, 'A Profile of the Pre-revolution ary Officer Corps', CSS, 7 (19 73) p. 14K. 52. Lowe, Antiscmiusm us, p. 138. 53. Lukashevich, Aksakov, pp . 107, 109. In 1883. when Ak sak ov was told that the 'Crernieux Manifesto' (a forerunner of the protocols of the Elders of Zion ) was a forgery, he replied that it did not matter, fo r this was the kind of thin g Je ws would do (Rawson, 'Union of Russia People'. p. 144). 54. Obshchaia zapiska, p. 271 (see note 14 of chapter 4. for full title) . 55. K. A. Skal'kovskii, Sovremennaia Rossia (St Petersburg: 1891) p. xix. 56. L. Slonimskii, 'S otsial'nyi roman g. Sergeia Shar apova', VI:'. no. 4 (1903) 1'1'.774-1<1< a nd Sharapov's paper S vidctet (June 1908) pp . 52-3. 57. P. de Arman , Temv dnia (Odessa: 1906) pp. 26-32: J . Kruk (cd.) Great Russian san" the Jewish Question. 5!!. S. L. Burg, The Calculus o f So viet Antisemitism'. in Azrael, Soviet NationalitvPolicn-s, pp . 191- 2 a nd L. Schapiro , 'Antisemitism in the Communist Wo rld' , S.lA . 9. no. I (1979) pp .42-52. 59. Pulzer, Ri.H' of Political Anti-Se mitism, pp . 11-15.

3 ANTI-SEMITISM IN THE REIGN OF NICHOLAS II

1. For example, by R. Cha rqucs. The Twilight of Imperial Russia (Lond on : 195X) p. 194. 2. A. S. Tager . Tsarskaia Rossiia i delo Beilisa (Mos cow : 1933: 2nd cdn . Moscow: 19.14): Eng lish tran slati on : The Decoy of Czarism. The netus Trial (Ph ialdclphi a: 19.1 5) Referen ces are to the first Russian edit ion . M. Samuel's Blood Accusution (New Yor k: 1966) appeared after the co mpletio n o f the present art icle. In his ;I' scssmclll 01 IIIl' motives fo r staging the trial , Samuel follows Tage r. 3. G . V. Barandov, Stolvpinskaia reaktsiia (M oscow : 1931<) pp . 36-7. 4. L. H. Haimson , 'The Problem of Social Stability in Urb an Russia . 1905-191 7'. SR . 23. no. 4 (19M) pp . 624-7. 5. Tager, Tsarkaia Rossiia, p. 43. On 20 December 1910. the Council 01 Ministers discussed the bill introduced by 166 Duma members on 10 Ma y 1910 Ior removing Jewi sh residence restrictions and instructed the Min istry 01 thc lrucr ior to oppose it as 'unacceptable'. See Sovct Ministrov, Spravka po voprosu o pruvovom polozhenii C'I'rI'c'I ' \' R'I' ,i (St Petersburg: 1914) p. 53. 6. Kicvlianin, 24 Oc to ber 1913: Rcch', 20 October 191.l: :\', ' \1 Yor]. l imn . 14 Nove mber 1913- 7. G . B. Sliozberg, De/a minu vshikh dnci (Pa ris: 1933) 3, PI'. 312-1 3: ( i . A. Hosking. The Ru ssian Constitutional Experiment (Ca mbridge: 1973) p. 207. 242 Notes and References

8. G . W. Sirnrnonds, 'The Congress of Representatives of the Nobles' Associations. 1906--1916'. Ph.D. dissertation. Columbia University (1964) pp. 162. 172.220;G.A. Hosking and R. T. Manning. 'What Was the United Nobility'. in L. H. Haimson (ed .) The Politics ofRural Russia (Bloomington. Indiana: 1979) pp . 142-83 . 9. See Chapter 8. 10. Quoted in Kicvlianin , 24 October 1913. II. E. Chmielewski. 'Stolypin's Last Cri sis'. CSS. 3 (1904) pp. 95--126; Novyi voskhod, no . 18 (15 May 1911) p. 3. 12. Kicvlianin , 24 October 1913: R. Edelman. Gentrv Politics on the Eve of the Revolut ion (New Brunswick, New Jersey: 1980) pp . 187-8 . 1.1. V.A. Maklakov, 'Spasitel'noe prcdosrorezhenie: smysl dela Beilisa', Russkaia myst. no. II (1913) pp . 139-41 ; S.1. Elpat'evskii, Vospominaniia za 50 tet (Leningrad : 1929) pp . 3fh.. 7 14. Quoted in N. V. Krylenko, Sudebynye rechi (Moscow : 1964) p. 44. 15. P. E. Shchegolev (ed.) Padenie tsarskogorezhima (Moscow-Leningrad: 1924-7) p. 104. 16. Ibid . p. 359. 17. Ibid . p. 368. 18. Tager. Tsarskaia Rossiia . pp . 59-60 and 'Protsess Beilisa v otsenke departarnenta pol itsii' , KA . 44 (1931) pp. 85--9. 19. J . Mase, Memoirs (in Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv: 1936) 2. pp . 65--6. 20. Sliozbcrg, Dcta. 3. pp . 36--7: I. V. Gesscn.I' dvukh vckakh (Berlin: 1937; Arkhiv russkoi rcvoliutsii, vol. XX I) pp. 30.'--5. 21. For the preva iling view. in addition to Tager and Barandov, see Charques, Twilight , p. 194. and DUI'0gmm de Kichinev iI l'attairc Bcilis (Paris: 19(3) p. 3. 22. A. I. Spiridovich, l.c» dcrnicre» annecs de la coal' de Tsarskoic-Selo (Paris: 1928) 2. p.447. 23. 'Perepiska N. A. Rornanova i P. A. Stolypina·.KA. 5 (1924) pp . 105-7;cf. pp . 91-94 in ch . 4. 24. Quoted by Vishniak, 'Antisemitism'. p. 97. Also see Baron. The Russian Jell' . p. 54 and Sliozberg. Dcta. I. pp . 115-18 . 25. On Shcheglovitov's earlier effort (1903) to give credibility to a ritual murder accusation. see Lowe . Antis emitismus, pp. 59. 134. 26. M. Kilcoyne. 'T he Political Influence of Rasputin', Ph.D. dissertation. University of Washington (1%1); A. S. Simanovich. Rasputin i cvrei (Riga : n.d .) pp . 57. 110; Lowe. Antisemitismus. pp . 191-2.277 (n .62). 27. Sp iridovich, IRS dem iercs annees, 2. p. 472; E. Seraphim. Russische Portrdt s (Vienna: 1943) I. pp . 120-1 ; Hosking. Russian Constitutional Experiment, p. 201. On Meshcherskii:W.E. Mosse, 'Imperial Favourite.V.P. Meshchersky and ..G razhdanin'", SEER. 59. no. 4 (1981) pp. 529-47. 28. Shchcgolev, Padenie, 7. pp . 221-2; Lowe. Antiscmitismus. p. 112. 29. Baron. The Russian Jew, pp . 75-6; Sliozberg, Dela, 2. p. 93; A. V.' Gerassirnoff (Gerasimov), Del' Kamprgegm die erstc russische Revolution (Frauenfeld und Leipzig: 1934) p. 146: Urusov, Zapiski, pp . 12-13 : Seraphim. Portrats. 1. pp . 97-8 and 'Zar Nikolaus II und Graf Witte'. Historische Zeitschrift, 161. no . 2 (1940) p. 285; H . Rollin . /.'Ap oca~rpse de notre temps (Paris: 1940) p. 13: Germany. Auswartiges Arnt , Akten, film series I. reel 306. nos 318 a nd 207. 19 June 1903 and 22 October 1913. 30. Shchegolev, Padcnie. 2. pp . 296--7. 31. Ibid. 7. p. 276: Mase , Memoirs. pp . 65--6; Krvlenko. Sudcbvnvc rrchi . p. 43. 32. Shchegolev, Pat/mil'. 2. pp . 339-51. . 33. Cf. Avrekh, Stolypin, p. 38 for a similar interpretation. 34. Tager. Tsarskaia Rossiia, p. 37. 35. Shchegolcv, Padcnie, 2. p. 354: 4. p. 379. 36. Tager. Tsarskaia Rossiia , pp . 273-4. 37. Ibid . p. 192. Notes and References 243

38. O. O . Gruzenberg, Ocherki i rechi (New York : 1944) p. 207; V. Klimov, Ra spravy i razstrely (Moscow: 1906) p. 30; E. 1. Kozlynina, Za polveka (/862-/9/2) (Moscow: 1913) p. 526; A. Margolin, The Jews ofEastern europe (New York: 1926) pp . 21&-17;Sliozberg, Dela, 3. p. 79; Elpat'evskii, Vospom inaniia , p. 371. 39. Tager, Tsarskaia Rossiia, p. 272. 40. V. V. Rozanov, Oboniatefnoe i osiazateinoe otnoshenie evreev k krovi (St Petersburg: 1914) p. viii. 41. Letter to N. V. Pleve, I November 1913, in V. P. Viktorov (ed.) and A. Ch ernovskii (comp.) Soiuz russkogo naroda (Moscow-Leningrad: 1929) pp. 162-3. 42. Letter to Skvortsov , cited by V. A. Maevskii. Revoliutsioner-monarkhist (Novi Sad: 1934) pp. 71-2. 43. Same, Reflexions, p. 20. 44. Volkischer Beobachter, 14 January 1926. This issue carried the first instalment of a series of six articles which the newspaper of the National Socialist German Workers' party devoted to the Beilis Affair.

4 RUSSIAN MINISTERS AND THE JEWISH QUESTION

I. There has been important new work, most of it on earlier periods, since this was written. See Bibliography for studies by Aronson, Klier. l.ambroza, Lowe , Pipes. Rest, Springer and Stanislawski. The standard treatment of the years under discussion in the present chapter is Dubnov , Evrei v Rossii i zapadnoi Evrope I' cpokhu anusemitskoi reaktsii (Moscow-Petrograd: 1923). 2. On Alexander III : Dubnov, 'Furor judophobicus', f-S , to (1918) p. 28; Komitet ministrov, lstoricheskii obzor, 4, pp. 183-4, 436; R. M. Kantor. 'Aleksandr III 0 evreiskikh pogrornakh'. EL I (\923) pp. 149-58 ; A. Orbach, 'The Pogroms of 1881-lQ; The Response from St Petersburg Jewry', Carl Beck Papers, no . 308 (1984) pp . 12-14 ; Poliakov, 'Tsar' rnirotvorets'. pp. 219-99; A. A. Polovtsov, Dncvnik (Moscow: 1966) 2, pp. 276,390; Sliozberg, De/a, I, pp . 115-18 ; A. S. Suvorin, Das Geheimtagebuch (Berlin: 1925) pp . 117-18; Zaionchkovskii, 'Aleksandr III'. p. 132. On Nicholas: Chapter 3, n.29: Dubnov, No vcishaia istoriia cvrciskogo naroda (Berlin: 1923) 3rd edn , 3, p. 345; Bing, Secret Leiters, p. 187; A . N . Kuropatkin, ' D nevnik'. KA , 2 (\922) p. 43; Sliozberg, Dela. 3, p. 93; Spiridovich.I.esdernieresannees. 2. pp. 447. 472-6. 3. Nicholas, on occasion, went further than this . telling one Gennan ambassador, for example. that internatio nal Jewry, in league with 'demagogy'. had been the driving force of the 1905 Revolution and another that the connections between Jews and Freemasons presented Russia with great dangers. His pardon of three convicted right­ wing terrorists who had killed a Jewish Duma deputy and his acceptance of the badge of the URP were additional and more public expressions of his anti-Semitism. Lowe. An tisemitismus, pp . 99-100. 4. lgnat'ev had spent twenty-five years in the fore ign service. most of them abroad. and before becoming Minister of the Interior had served as Minister of State Domains. Zaionchkovskii, Krizis. pp . 379-84; Byrnes. Pobcdonostscv, pp . 118-19 . 151. 162-3 : Hans Heilbronner. 'T he Administrations of l.ori s-Melikov and lgnat'ev', Ph .D . dissertation . University of Michigan (1954); Lukashevich. Aksakov, pp. 153-7 ; Rogger, 'Reflections on Russian Conservatism'. Jahrbuchcr .lilr Geschichte Ostcuropas. 14, no. 2 (1966) pp . 206-7. 5. Zaionchkovskii. Krizis. p. 338; ct. p. 380. A Soviet historian . writing that several newspapers of liberal tendency were established or supported by Jewish business interests. menti ons three examples - one daily in Moscow and two in Kiev. None was notably successful. V. la . l.averychev. Krupnaia burzhuaziia \. poreformennoi Rossti. 18nl-1900 (Moscow: 1974) pp. 132-3. 244 Notes and References

6. Zaionchkovsk ii, Kr izis, pp . 385. 389; Hcilbronner, 'Administrations', p. 47X; M. Davitt; Within the Pale (Philadelphia: 1903) p. 185. 7. The fullest account of lgnar'ev's views and plans on the Jewish question is by lu. I. Gessen, 'G raf N. P. Ignat'ev i "Vremennye pravila" 0 evreiakh 3 maia 1882 goda', Pravo, nos 30 and 31 (1908) pp . 1631-7 and 1878-87. On what follow s, see also his Zakon, pp . 15J-61 and his lstoriia evreiskago naroda v Rossii (Leningrad: 1925-7) 2nd edn , 2, pp. 215-27: Zaionchkovskii, Krizis, pp. 413-19;V.M. Khizhniakov, Vospominaniia zemskago deiatelia (Petrograd: 1916) pp . 109-14 : J . Eckhardt. Russische Wandlungen (Leipzig: 1882) pp. 389-90: EE. I. p. 130. 5. pp . 815-22, 9. pp. 690-91 : Peretts, Dnevnik, pp . 130-33 . 8. The committee and its cha irman acknowledged an intellectual debt to the 'anti-Jewish movement abroad'. Dubnov, 'Anti-evreiskoe dvizhenie 1881-/882 g.', ES. I (1909) p .266. 9. Aronson ('Geographical and Socio-economic Factors') confirms that the pogroms were 'initially and perhaps essentially an urban phenomenon. the result of Russia 's accelerating modernizati on and industrialization process.' He also points out that many of the rioters were displ aced peasants. that once the rioting began villagers and villages were drawn in and that official s who agreed with proposals for keep ing Jews out of the countryside could and did cite the fact that of 259 pogroms. 219 had taken place in villages , 4 in Jewi sh agricultural colonies a nd onl y 36 in cities and small towns. 10. From Peretts, Dnevnik. p. 133. wo based his account ofthe meeting on what hewas told by one o r more participants. On Reutern, see EE. 13. pp . 36J-4 and Gesscn , Zakon, pp . 124-5 . 127-33, 150. A kulak is a well-to-do peasant. The word. which literally means 'fist', suggests a hard-hearted usurer and exploiter and many kulaks . like man y Jews. were engaged in money-lending. innkeeping and rural trade. II. Mysh , Rukovodstvo , pp. 118. 394: Judenpogrome, I. pp . 105-6. 12. On Tolstoi, see p. 75-6, ch . 4. 13. Cited by Gessen , 'Ignat'ev', 3 I. p. 1682: ef. Komitet rninistrov. lstorichcskii obzor, 4. p. 183. 14. The official title of the Pahlen Commission was : Vvsshaia komissiia dlia pcrcsmotra deist vuiushchikh 0 cvreiakh v Imperii zak onov , L. S.Makov, its first chairman and a former Minister of the Interior. was replaced after his death in April IX83 by Count Pah len. The commission's members and consultants. including sever al Jew ish 'experts', are listed in EE. 5. pp . 862-3. Zaionchkovskii, in Rossiiskocsamodcrzhavic (Moscow: 1970) p. 16. reports his failure to find the materials ofthe commission (or of its successor. chaired by Pleve) in the archives. Onl y the printed summary of its findings and recommendations, intended for official usc. was available to me: Obshchaia zapiska vvsshei komissii dlia peresmotra dcistvuiushrhikh 0 cvrciakh v Imperii zakonov (/883-1888). Its conclusions and recommendations arc on pp . 252 to 295. Subsequent citations will be to Obshchaia zapiska. The copy which I consulted in the Bodleian Library of Oxford University is inscribed . in an unknown Russian hand. To his Excellency. K. P. Pobedonostsev' . It bears on its final page the names of eight members who favored the commission's recommendations and five for the minority view. One of the latter is written in by hand. Zaionchkovskii cites archival evidence to the effect that one member of the majority adhered. in fact . to the opposition: cf. Aronson. 'Russia n Bureaucratic Altitudes'. pp. 5X-61. and Obshchaia zapiska. p. I. 15. Old Believers (or Old Ritualists) - a schismatic sect of Orthodox Christians who had split ofTfrom the state church in the seventeenth century in a dispute over changes in its practices and prayer books. Official persecution and exclus ion of the Old Believers . their sobriety and solida rity. tended to make them. like religiou s dissenters and minorities in other countries, successful traders. manufacturers and farmers. 16. Sliozberg, Dcla, 3. p. 256: Zaionchkovskii, Rossiiskoesamoderzhavie, p. 134. 17. G . L. Yaney . The Urge to Mobilize (Urbana. lIinois : 1982) p. 51: 'These rural guardians represented the MVD's [Ministry of the Interior] belief that the central go vern ment Notes and References 245

had somehow to protect peasant institutions from the rest of society and to guide them through the travails and pitfalls of modernization.' 18. 'Pobedonostsev and Alexander III', SEER , 7, no . 19 (1928) p. 43. 19. A. E. Adams, 'Pobedonostsev and the Rule of Firmness', SEER , 32, no . 78 (1953) p. 132. 20. Heilbronner, 'Adm inistra tio ns', p. 528; Byrnes, Pobedonostsev, pp . 131,205-6. 21. P. L. Alston, Education and the State in Tsarist Russia (Stanford: 1969) p. 127; Peretts, Dnevnik , p. 39; Sliozberg, Dela, 2, p. 252; Byrnes, Pobedonostsev ; pp. 206--7; Dubnov, Evrei v Rossii, 2, pp . 6--7; J. Eppel , In the Midst ofthe Beginning ofthe Great Awakening (in Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv: 1936) p. 256. 22. H. L. von Schweinitz, Denkwiirdigkeiten (Berlin: 1927) 2, p. 424. By way of illustration, Pobedonostsev told Schweinitz a story which, if he believed it, reveals more than a touch of pathology: in one of the larger d istricts of Mogilev guberniia, the local women did not know how to sew. The making or mending of the most simple articles of clothing had to be done by Jewish tailors.A well-to-do local noble had therefore arranged instruction in needlework for a number of young Christian women and had sent them at his expense into the villages of the district to teach others the use of the needle. Upon this, the Jews set fire to the house and farm buildings of the philanthropic landowner who lost all his property and barely managed to save his life. 23. Byrnes, Pobedonostsev; pp . 301-2, 331. 24. Pobedonostsev , Pis'ma...k Aleksandru III (Moscow: 1925-6) I, p. 344; cf. Chapter 2, n.15. 25. Byrnes, Pobedonostsev pp. 208-9. 26. Among the many letters Pobedonostsev addressed to Alexander, those touching on the Jews were su rprisingly few. In November 1886 he opposed shifting Rostov and Taganrog districts fro m Ekaterinoslav guberniia to the Don Cossack Army region because this would. inter alia , mean extending to the two cities and their environs, the residence restrictions applicable in non-Pale provinces. As a result , large numbers of poor Jews would have to be moved out, probably at government expense, while a signific ant number of well-to-do Jewish homeowners and professionals would nonetheless be allowed to enter the Don Cossack Army region. (K. P. Pobedonostsev i ('go k orrespondrntv [Moscow: 19231 I. p. 569.) In December. Pobedonostsev transmitted to his master a financial spe cialist's memorandum on how to break Russia's bondage to the Berlin bourse. Only two names were mentioned in the letter, the Russian bankers Stieglitz and Zak (the former a descendant of converts, the latter a Jew), but when Pobedonostsev spo ke of the bosses of the Berlin stock exchange his reader would certainly think of Bleichroder in the first place. iPis'ma...k Aleksandru 111.2, pp . 122-3 .) In March 1887, the Director of the Holy Synod complained that the Ministers of Finance and State Domains had failed to defend Russian interests when they approved oil pipeline and processing concessions for which the capital was mainly fore ign . If that were allowed. the process of delivering the resources of the Caucusus into the hands of the Rothschilds would soon be completed. 27. Gosudartsvcnnyi Sover . Dciatcttnost:. 11IXI-IX94 (St Petersburg: 1900) p. 135. 28. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, pp . 467-8. 29. Polovtsov, Dnevnik. I. p. 143; 2, p. 444, 516. 30, Judenpogrome, I. p. Ill. 31. Mysh, Rukovodstvo. p. 448. Two additional schools were allowed to open in 1910 and 1911. 32, Ibid. pp . 483-5. No Jew could be foreman of a jury. 33. Ibid , pp . 357-9: Kom itet Ministrov, Istorichesk ii obzor , 4. p. 183; Sovet Ministrov, Spravka . pp . 15-16 . 34. Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp . 47~ 7 ; Korn itet Ministrov, Istoricheskii obzor, 4, p. 245; Sovet Ministrov, Osobyi zhurnal, 1907, no , 175, records relaxations of the se rules adopted in 1905 and 1907. 35. Mysh . Rukovodstvo . pp. 506-8. 246 Notes and References

36. Ibid. pp. 136-7.297-8. 37. Ibid. pp. 421-32; Alston. Education and the State. pp. 121-3, 130, 138; P. M. Johnson, 'I. D. Delianov and Russian Educational Policy', Ph.D. dissertation, Emory University (1971) pp. 133-6,187-91. 38. Mysh, Rukovodstvo . p. 383. 39. Ibid, pp. 112-13. 40. Ibid, pp. 489-91; Kucherov , 'Evrei v russkoi advokature', in Kniga 0 russkom evreistvc, pp. 402-7. 41. Mysh, Rukovodstvo. pp. 145-6. 42. Ibid. pp. 478-80 . 43. ibid. pp. 211-12, 318-19. 44. Ibid, pp. 16, 354. 45. Ibid, pp. 264-5. 46. Ibid, p. 554; Judenpogrome, I, p. 125. 47. Mysh, Rukovodstvo. p. 252. 48. Ibid. p. 320. 49. Judenpogromc, I. p. 131 ; Dubnov, Evrei v Rossii, 2, p. 16. 50. The Pleve project remains undiscovered or. at any rate, unpublished. Descriptions of its prob able contents in Zaionchkovskii. Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, p. 135; Sliozberg, De/a. 2, pp. 165-8; Dubnov, 'Furor judophobicus', pp. 27-59. 51. On Bunge, Peretts, Dnevnik, pp. 73. 130-1; H. Frederic , The New Exodus (New York: 1892) p. 116; Gessen, 'Ignat'ev', 31, pp. 1679-81; Snow, n. 53 this chapter. 52. Sliozberg, De/a, 2, pp. 128-9. 53. The Bunge memoir was printed and circulated in government circles after the death of Alexander III for whom it was prepared . There is an undated copy in the Harvard l.aw School Library (/88/-94 gg. Zapiska naidcnnaia I' bumagakhN. Kh. Bunge) which was kindly made available to me by Professor Theodore Taranovsky (University of Puget Sound) who also compared the printed version with the manuscript draft in Moscow. The printed text comprises 130 pages; of these, pages 22.-41 deal with Jewish affairs. The memorandum was also circulated to members of the Committee of Ministers in 1904. On its history and author, see G. E. Snow. The Yean /88/-/894 in Russia: A Memorandum Found in the Papers of N. Kh. Runge. A Trans/arion and Commcn tarv, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. (Philadelphia, 1981) vol. 71. part 6. 54. Polovtsov, Dnevnik. 2. p. 59. 55. Ibid. p. 314. 56. V. N. Larnzdorf, Dnevnik (Moscow-Leningrad: 1934) pp. 52-3 , 72. 57. Ibid. pp. 105. 107; Sliozberg, De/a, 2, pp. 173-4; idem. Baron G. 0. Gintsburg (Paris : 1933) p. 109. 58. Zaionchkovskii. Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, p. 135; Bogdanovich. Tri pos/ednikh samoderzhtsa, p. 141 ; Polovtsov , Dnevnik. 2. p. 312. W. L. Langer in The Franco­ Russian Alliance. /890-/894 (Cambridge. Massachusetts : 1929) p. 179, does not rule out the possibility that the interests of French diplomacy had as much to do with the Rothschild withdrawal from the Russian loan as did the interests of their co­ religionists. For a conflicting view. see O. Crisp. 'T he Financial Aspects of the Franco­ Russian Alliance, 1894-1914'. Ph.D. dissertation, University of london (1954) p. 128: 'When in 1891 the Rothschilds brok e their contract with the Russian Government because of Jewish persecut ion, the Credit l.vonnais, apparently with the direct encouragement of the French Foreign Office. undertook the transaction because national interest demanded it'. Th ere were also occasions when national interest persuaded French and English Jewish bankers, including the Rothschilds, to assist the Russians. See C. C. Aronsfeld , 'Jewish Bankers and the Tsar'. .ISS, 35. no. 2 (1973) pp.87-104. 59. Polovtsov , Dnevnik. 2, p. 280; Seton-Watson. The Russian Empire, p. 518; T. H. Von Laue. Sergei Wille (New York: 1963) pp. 22-32. Notes and References 247

60. Crisp, 'Financial Aspects', pp . 114,308,316,463; POIOVlSOV, 'Iz dnevnika', KA , 67 (1934) p. 178; idem, Dnevnik, 2, p. 390; V. N. Kokovtsev, Iz moego proshlago: Vospominaniia (Paris: 1933) I, pp . 59-60;'K peregovoram Kokovtseva 0 zaime v 1905--1906 gg.', KA , 10 (1925) p. 25; EE, 13, p. 693; Z. Szajkowski, 'Paul Nathan, Lucien Wolf, Jacob H. Schiff and the Jewish Revolutionary Movement in Eastern Europe, 1903-191 7' , iSS, 29, no . 2 (1967) pp . 75-7. Aronsfeld, 'J ewish Bankers', p. 98, points out that only America's Jewish bankers denied their financial services; cr. A.J. Sherman, 'German-Jewish Bankers in World Politics: The Financing of the Russo-Japanese War'. Publications ofthe I.eo Baeck Institute, Year Book 28 (1983) pp . 59- 73 61. Polovtsov , Dnevnik, 2, pp . 416-17. 62. Ibid, p. 433. The prefect of St Petersburg, General P.A. Gresser, had said much the same thing to an English journalist a few years earlier:W. T. Stead, The Truth About Russ ia (London: 1888) p. 247. In April 1909, the Minister of the Imperial Court, Baron Fredericks, expressed the o pinion that the grant of the Duma had been premature. Twice during the revolutionary disturbances of 1905 and 1906, he said, prominent Jews like Poliakov and Guenzburg had called on him and had asked that he transmit to the tsar their promise that all disorders would cease with the grant of equal rights to the Jews. A. A . Polivanov, Iz dnevnikov (Moscow: 1924) p. 68. 63. Polovtsov, Dnevnik; 2, p. 463; and p. 390 for a similar opinion voiced by Alexander III. 64. Ibid , 2, pp. 82, 367. 65 . On Tolstoi\ attitude and pol icies toward .Icwx, sec: Bunge, Zapiska. p. 27; Aronson . 'Prospects' , p. 361; .I. F Baddeley, Ruvaa tn the Eighticv ; .I. C. McClelland. Autocrats and Academics (Ch icago : 1979) p. 14; Gesscn. Zukon, p. 162; M. I.. Peskovskii, Rokovoe nedoruzumenic (St Petersburg: 1891) p. 389; I:F. I, p. 130;.1. Taylor , 'D. A. Tolstoi and the Mini stry 01 the Interior. 1882-1889'. Ph.D . dissertation, New York University (1970) pp . 41\-55; M. Wischnitzer. Tn OWI'I/ in Satctv (Philadelphia: 1948) p. 48 . See Alst on . Education and the State. pp, DO and 280 (n . 4X) tor individ ual relaxations of the numerus clauIaI' by Minister 01 Education I klianov: also G. Genkel', 'Iz chinovnich'ego mira' , II, I (1923) pp . 87-103 and T I. Shaulov. ' Epizod y iz zhizni ev reev studcnto v' , U .. I (192.1) 2. pp. 14(,. 51. 66. PolOVlSOV, Dnevnik , 2, p. 429; Vine . Vospominuniia, 2. p. 214: Dubnov. Novcishaia istoriia, 3, p. 177: Zaionchkov skii , ROII;ilkol'wmtNkrzhav;t·. pp . 1.11>. 151. 421>: Sliozberg, Dela , 2. p. 175; idem . t hntsburg; p. 139: P. Son-m-k, ' K istorii lishen iia evreev izbiratel'nykh prav', lOS , 4 (191 1) pp . 109---D. It was during I. N. Durnovos ministry that an opinion of the State Council became law hy virtue 01 imperial approval which established criminal 'respo nsibility lor o pcn attuckx 01 one pa rt olthe population upon another'. (Mysh, Rukovodstvo; p. 119.) 67. Prefa ce by H . Rosenthal to S. D . Urusov, Memoirs of a Russian Governor (London: 1908) pp. vi-vii . This is at variance with what Urusov hirnselt writes in the En~l ish (pp. 7-8) and Russian (p . 17) versions: 'I'. N. Durnovo . at the time 1190(}-19051 Assistant Minister ofthe Interior. spoke out with spec ial sharpnessand directness tor a n expansion of Jewish rights and against the existing "senseless" Jewish legislat ion'. On Durnovo's conduct as Witte's Min ister of the Interior in 1905--6, sec W. D. Santoni. 'I'. N. Durnovo as Minister of the Interi or in the Witte Cabinet' , Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas (1968) pp . 34-4, 134,611. 613 . Santoni shows that Durnovo was indeed alarmed by the activities of Jewish revolu tionaries a nd proceeded rigorously against them, but also that he removed one of his subordinates for spreading anti­ Sem itic literature and warned governors a few days after assuming office that they would be removed if pogroms occurred. Evidence on Durnovo' s role in the formation of right-wing organizations is even more contradictory; cf. Lowe, Antisemitismus, pp . 84, 10. 245 (note 15). 68. M. Aldanov, 'I'. N. Durnovo --- Prophet of War and Revolution'. in D. von Mohrenschildt (ed.] The Russian Revolution of 1917 (New York: 1971) p. 73: Sliozberg, 248 Notes and References

Dela, 2. pp . 143. 175-6. IXI. P. J . Rollins. in Modern Encyclopedia of Rus sian and So viet History . 10 (1979) p. 60. describes Durnovo 'as a defender of Jews and a pragmatist o n national que stions' . 69. Sliozberg, Dela, 2, p. 272; L. M. Kliachk o, 'Za cherto i: v Moskvc '. El.. J. pp . 112-1 !!. 70. I have come to think that what were ca lled 'police riot s' in the United Sta tes during the protests aga inst the Vietnam War also took place in Russia . Not o nly were the police. espec ially in the countryside. woefull y inad equate in numbers and train ing. but o n more than o ne occasion the y outra n the co ntrol of their superiors and staged or participated in pogr oms. Even the army co uld not alw ays be tru sted to proceed against rioters. In Kishinev, the presence of tro op s at times contributed to the disturbances rather than lessenin g them. 71. The much-debated quest ion of Pleve's responsibility for Kishincv is discussed in Chapter 2. In addition to the literature cited there (notes 26 to 29), sec V. I. Gurko , Features and Figures of the Past (Stanford : 1939) pp, 24~ X ; A. A. Lopukhin, Otrvvk i iz vospominanii (Moscow-Petrograd : 1923) pp . 14-15 ; Ambassador Alvcn sleben to Chancellor von Bulow . 18 Ma y 1903 G erma ny. Auswartiges Arnt , Ak tcn , film series I. reel 306. no. 291. 72. Bogdanovich, Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa. p. 290; l.. M. Aizenbcrg, ' Vidy pravitel 'stva v evreiskom voprose'. El.. I (1923) pp . 37-51. 73. S. Kh . Beilin. 'Snoshcniia Prof. [an/hula s Plevc po evreiskomu voprosu; 1902 g.'. !:S. 9 (1916) p. 329. 74. Greenberg, Jews in Russia. 2. p. 130: Sliozbcrg, (antsburg, p, 107: Ville . Vospominaniia, 2. pp . 21~16 ; Zaionchovski i. Rossiiskoe samodcrzhavic, p, 153. 75. As a staff member of the journal Trudovaia pomoshch'. the jurist A. I:. Koni a ttended the meeting at which . on 7 J anuary 1903. Plcve and Witte aired their views o n the Jewi sh question . His notes are in A. F. Koni , Na zhizncnnom puti (Leningrad: 1929) 5. pp . 283-6; cf. J. Schneiderman. Se rgei Zubatov and Rcvolutionar v Marxism (lthaca . New York: 1976) pp . 227-58. 27K-XI a nd Pospiclovsky. Polir« Tracie' Unionism , pp . 70-72.88, 111-43 . 76. Heilbronner. 'Count Aehrenthal and Russian Jewry, 1903-1907'. Journal ot Modern Histor y; 38. no . 4 (1966) pp . 394-406. For examples of Plcvc's tact ical Ilexihility o n o ther issues . see E. C. Thaden (cd .) Russification in the Haiti,' Provinrrv and Finland. 1855-1914 (Princeton: 1981) p. X3 and Yanc y. Urge to Mobilize. p. 2(14. 77. Mysh, Rukovo dstvo ; pp, 113-14. 120-3:' Dubno v. Evrci v Rovsii, 2. p. 47; G csscn , Zakon, pp. 172-3 ; Judge, Pichve , p. 215; I. I. Tolstoi, Der Antisrmitivnus in Russland (F rankfurt: 1909) p. 8 1. 78. Kuropatkin. ' Dncvnik'. p. 43. 79. Herzl , Tagebucher, 3. pp, 463-66. 477-X3; Judge. Plchvc; rp. 104-110: d . I Jubuov, Evrei I' Rossii, 2. pp. 48--9. 80. Sliozberg, Deta. 3. p. 97. 101; Judge. Plehvc, p, 109. 8 1. Urus ov , Zapiski, p. 209; M. B. Slut skii, V skorbnye dni (Kishinev: 1( 30) p. 8.1; I:F.9. p. 692; Miliukov, 'T he Jewish Question '. p. 65. For a different reading of Plevc's intentions. see Dubnov, No vcishaia istoriia, 3, p. 3KO and Evrci I' Rossii , 2. p. 54; also. Lowe . Antisemitismus, p. 55. X2. See note 80. 83. A. I. Braude. ' Bcscda V. K. Plcve s L. Vol'forn (1903)'. I:S. 9 (1916) pp , 121-5 . The text of Pleve's circular of 24 June 1903. warn ing against the growth l'l' Zion isl tendencies because they were hostile to assimilation. in I:S. X(1915) pp , 412-14. There is a mimeographed copy in the Hoover Libr ary. Okhrana Archives. Index XVIII b. Folder 2. 84. Liubimov. 'O tryvki i/ vosp orn inanii ', lstorich cskii Arkhiv; no. 6 (1962) pp. 82-3. 85. P. Korzec (ed .) 'Un document ined it sur la question juiv c en Russie', Cahirrs du mondc russe et sovietique, 5. no. 2 (1970) pp. 278-91 ; d . 1:'1:'.5. p. X21 ; Gcsscn, Zakon, p. 172. 86. I. Smolitsch , Geschichn:der russischcn Kirchdl.eiden: 1964) I. p. 316; G urko. l·i·aw re.\ and Figures , p. 279; S. E. Kr yzhanovskii, Vospominaniia (Berlin : 193X) pp . 17. 21. 26; Notes and References 249

Dubno v, Noveis haia istoriia, 3. p. 383: Idem. Evrei v Rossii, 2. p. 62; Bogdan ovich, Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa, pp . 303. 309: S. Levin. The Arena (New York: 1932) p. 277. 87. Mysh, Ruk ovodstvo; p. 123. Slio zberg, De/a. 3. p. 102. gives main cred it for these measures 10 Kok ov tsev, as d id Kok ovt sev him self. Since the y affected a lmost exclusively professionals a nd a rtisans (and o nly as long as the latter plied the ir crafts) the y co uld not cause a substa ntia l influx int o rur al districts o r lead 10 land purchases there. 88. Gurko, Features and Figures. p. 320. 89. He had don e so in 1899. when . a fter first resisting it. he agreed to the demand of the Grand Duke Sergei. G overnor-General of Moscow. that the number of J ewish first­ guild mer chants in that city be redu ced . (Lowe. Antisemitismus, p. 45 .) 90. Kuropatkin. 'Dnevnik ', p. 26; Pol ovtsov, ' Dnevnik", KA . 3 (1923) p . 99 ; G . O . Raukh, ' Dnevnik', ibid . 19 (1926) pp . 90--1: L. A. Tikhomiro v, '25 let nazad', ibid . 39 (1930) pp . 55.57; Seraphim. 'Za r Nik olau s'. p. 285; Velik aia vsem irnaia liga (M oscow: 1906) pp. 3. 17; Velikii zagovor (M oscow: 1907) pp . 73--4. 91. Ville . Vospom inaniia, 2. pp . 210-12 and I, pp . 40 . 144. 92. Ibid . I. pp . 40 , 88; 'Perepiska S. lu . Ville s K. P. Pobedonostsevyrn', KA. 30 (1928) p. 90 93 . Herzl, Herzl'» Tagebuch er. 3. p. 472 . 94 . Ville. Vospom inaniia. I. pp . 40 . 144; 'Ookladnaia zapiska Ville Nik olaiu II'. in Khr estomatiia istorii SSSR (M oscow: 1952) 3. p. 227; Sliozberg. De/a. 2. pp. 264-6; idem . Gintsburg pp . 135-6. 95. Komitct min istro v 0 evreiskom voprosc (St Petersburg: n.d.); Dubnov, No veishaia istoriia. 3. p. 387; Lowe, Antisemitismus, pp . 79- 80. 96. Pctergofsk ie soveshchaniia 0 proekte gosudarstvennoi dumy pod lichnym ego impera­ torsk ogo velichcstva prcdscdatel 'st vom: sekretnye protokoly (Berlin: n.d.) pp . 112-13. 162-3. Kok ovtsev, at o ne of the sessions. rem arked that for so me reason it had become the traditi onal duty o f the Min ister o f Finance to de fend the Jews: he would not shirk that o bliga tio n. Abo see Slioz berg. De/a. 3. pp . 173--4; Kryzhan ovsk ii, Vospominaniia, p. 40: Dubnov, lstoriia el'reel'. 2. p. 72; ' Po rtsm ut' . KA . 6 (1924 ) p. 27. 97. Ihid . p. 33. 91< . Th e text o f the letter. signed hy Jaco h Sc hiff, Isaa c Seligm an. Oscar Stra us. Adolph l.ewisohn a nd Adolph Kraus. in C. Adler a nd A. M. Margalith, With Firmness in the Right (New York: 1946) pp . 26&-8. A sho rter vers ion. described as a' promemoria, a ppea red on 20 September 1905 in Ru ssische Korrespondenz in Berlin. Th is was one of three informational bulletins published by J ewish orga nizatio ns in Western Euro pe to bring the pligh t of the Ru ssian Jews to the attention of public opinion; cr. Slioz berg, De/a. 3. p. 163. 99. Ihid. pp . 179- 80. 188: Lopukhin, Otryvki, pp. 82- 90; Russische Korresponden z: 13 Octo be r 1906: Santon i. P. N. Dum ovo, pp . 164.314. 100. Ville. Vospominaniia, 3. pp. 327- 9. 2. p. 440 . 10I. Bogdan ovi ch . Tri poslcdnikh sam oderzht sa, pp. 388-9. In the letter in which on 14 April 1906 Wille asked Nich olas to relieve him of his post . he did, how ever, give as o ne of the reaso ns for his inab ility to sta y the ' incompatibility of his views with the extremely con servative o nes of Durnovo o n the pr oblems of the Jews. the ag ra rian question and others. If Wille thought in th is way to give his mini stry a more liberal co mp lexion. he miscalculated tVospominaniia. 3. p. 338.) A passage in the mem oirs of P. L. Bark. Minister o f Finance from 1913 to 1917. may stand as a summary of the difficulties that a fair assessment of Wille 's words and deeds on the Jewish qu est ions present s:

I remember that at a meet ing of the Finan ce Com mitt ee lin 1905 o r 1906). Co unt Will e openly decl ared' his d eep belief in the necess ity o f giving eq ua l right s to Jews and that su ch a measure would lead to the resto ra tion o f norma lcy in the empire. 250 Notes and References

Unfortunately. however. poltiical condition s were such that he thought the realizat ion of this reform impossible. I have no specific information about what steps were taken by the Ch airman of the Council of Ministers to ease the plight of the Jews. but do not doubt that he tried to convince the Emperor to take the appropriate steps and that the reacti onaries prevented this . (P. L. Bark . ' Vospomina niia', Vozrozhdenie, no. 172 rl9661 p, 97).

102. Ville. Vospom inaniia, 2. p. 214. 103. Kryzh anovskii, Vospominaniia, p. 73. note. gives this excerpt in Russian. An Engish version of the entire letter in Bing. The Secret Letters. p. 211. 104. A. S. lzgocv, 'V Rossii i za granitsei', RM . no. 10 (1911) p. 2. 105. C. N. Shipov , Vospominaniia (Moscow: 1918) pp. 461-6. 106. Koni . Sohranie sochinenii (Moscow : 1966) 2. p. 367; L. Men ashe, 'Alexander Gu chk ov' . Ph.D. dissertat ion. New York University (1964) p. 170. note; Harcave , 'The Jew ish Question'. p. 162. At about the same time. Stolypin said to Sir Arthur Nichols on . ' As to equality of rights for a ll. th is no doubt was a que stion which to the Eur opean mind seemed an elementary right. But in Russia . in view of the backward state of education and of the traditional antipathy of the Russian for the Jew . the questi on must be dealt with cautiously'.M.S. Conroy. P. A. Stolypin (Boulder. Colorado: 1976) p. 153. 107. Dubnov, Evrei v Rossii, 2. p. 83 and Novcishaia istoriia, 3. p. 405. 108. Gurko, Features and Figures, pp. 504-6: Kokovtsev , Vospominaniia. I. pp. 236--9. Th e journal of the council's deliberations of 27 a nd 31 October and I December 1906 in Sovet Ministrov, Osobyi zhurnal, /906 . no. 157. It comprises sixty pages; of these. pp . 56-60 contain the council's specific prop osals. The more importa nt ofthcse were the abolition of the 1882 rules for the Pale and of the fines imposed on families of draft­ evaders: the reaffirm ation or restoration of the property. occu pa tional and residence rights outside the Pale granted in the reign of Alexander II. It was also prop osed to make it easier for corporati ons and partnerships to obt ain from the relevant ministry pennission to include Jews in their man agem ent and to end the practice of entering their former religion in the documents of Jews co nverted to Christianity. If ad opted. these measures would have been less important for thems elves than as an earnest of the government's intentions. 109. The journal. being a summary rather than a true record of the ministers' discussi ons and views. makes it impossible to determine how they voted on each of the specific proposals before them . Kokovtse v remembers that onl y A. P. Izvol'sk ii (Foreign Minister) and P. Kh . Shvanebakh (State Comptroller) opposed the final recom­ mend ations. the former because they did not go far enough in the direction of the total abo lition of restrictions . the latter because they went too far too qui ckly. In spite of what G urko heard . Stolyp in was not in the minorit y. except on one point co ncerning land rental . and the document sub mitted to the tsar contai ns no indication of dissent by an y member of the co uncil; cf. Lowe. Antisemitismus, p. 248 and He ilbronner, ' P. K. von Schwanebach a nd the D issoluti on of the First Tw o Dumas'. Canadian Slavoni c Papers II . no. I (1966) p. 40. 110. Kokovtscv reproduces the tsar's letter in the Russian and English versions of his recollecti ons. The present translation is based on the text in Krasnvi Arkhiv (see Chapter 3. n. 23) which a lso contains Stol ypin's reply . Lowe iAntiscmnismus. pp . I 11-12) states that the decision of Nicholas to reject the council's recommendations was strongly influenced by representations of the URP a nd the ' United Nobility'. It LS unlikel y, however. that he required persuasion o r pressure to act as his prejudices dictated and as he had made clear to Stolypin earl ier in the year (Koni , Sohranie sochincnii. 2, p. 373). In a similar case in which both Pleve and the Dowager Empress had urged the tsar to soften policy towards the Finn s. he wrote to the latt er on 20 October 1902. 'In the sight of my ma ker. I have to ca rry the burden o f a terr ible Notes and References 251

responsibilit y, and at all times, therefore, be ready to render an account to Him of my actio ns. I must always keep firmly to my cnvictions and follow the dictates of my conscience'. Bing, The Secret Letters, p. 162. III. KA , 5 (1924) p. 106. 112. la . L. Teitel',lz moei zhizni (Pans: 1925) p. 183. To a French newspaperman in the fall of 1906, Stolypin expl ain ed that the postponement of emancipation of the Jews was for their own good. An immediate solution of this complicated question would arouse a storm of public protest. M . A. Reisner, ' Rossiia za granitsei', Vsemirnvi Vestnik. no . 10 (1906) p. 119; cf. Aronsfeld, 'J ewish Bankers' , p. 94, n. 25. III After Bialystok, Stolypin sent a circular to all governors, which was published in the newspapers, warning that all officials who were ineffective or inefficient in the suppression of agrarian or anti-Jewish disorders would be held strictly accountable. Despatches of US Ministers 10 Russia, 1808-1906. National Archives, Microfilm Publications. Reel 66, 25 June 1906. 114. Bogdanovich, Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa , pp . 379,385,414. 115. Avrekh, Tsarism i tret'eiunskaia sistema (Moscow: 1966); Edelman. Gentrv Politics, pp . 65-93; Iurskii, Pravye v Tiet'ei. 116. Admirers as well as enemies. Jews a well as Russians, have described Stol ypin as everything from a friend of the Jews and advocate of emancipation to a rabid anti­ Semite. For a sampling of these divergent views see: Kniga 0 russkom evreistve, p. 58; A. V. Zen'kovskii. Pravda 0 Stolypinc (New York: 1956) pp . 79-80,85.108;M.P. Bok , Vospominaniia 0 moem otse (New York: 1953) p. 73; A.V. Obolenskii, 'Moi vos po rninaniia', Vozrozhdenie, no . 47 (1955) p. 98; A. F. Girs. 'Svetlye i chernye dni '. Chasovoi, no . 330 (1953) p. 10; S. K. Gogel. Die Ursachcn dcr russischen Revolution (Berlin: 1926) p. 68; P. G . Kurlov, Das Endc des russischcn Kaiscrtums (Berlin: 1920) pp . 166-8 ; A. P. Stolypin (cd .) P. A. Stolypin (Paris: 1927) p. 50; Russischc KorrespondcnzA August 1911. 117. Dubnov, Evrci \' Rossii. 2. p. 84. 118. Ibid . 83; idem. Noveishaia istoriia, 3. p. 433; Mysh . Rukovodstvo, p. 271; Viktorov, Soiu: Russkogo Naroda , p. 313. Gessen. Zakon, p. 177. sees the circular in a more favorable light than Dubnov. 119. Conroy. 51011pin. p. 50 and 'Stolyin's Attitude to Local Scll-Ciovernrnent '. Sf.'[:'R 46. no . 107 (1968) p. 452 . 120. Avrekh. Stolvpin, p. 37, n. 41; Dubnov, Evrei \' Rossii, 2. p. 90 . 12l. Ib id. pp. 93-4; Greenberg. The Jell's in Russia. 2, p. Xh: Conroy. Stolvpin, p. 50; Mysh . Rukovodstvo, pp . 425-7. 122. Polivanov, I: Dncvnikov, pp . 44-5. 123. Mysh. Rukovodstvo. p. 322. Copy of Stolypin letter . dated 15 December 1901'. to Shcheglovitov in Archives. Alliance Israelite Universellc, Pa ris. 124. Greenberg. The Jews in Russia . 2. p. 84. 125. Chmielewski, 'Stolypin's Last Crisis'. p. 101: Bogdanovich. Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa. p. 470. 126. Avrekh. .Stolvpin, pp . 407-15; Lowe , Antisemitismus. p. 132. Jews were still to be kept out of the countryside. 127. Dubnov, Novcishaia istoriia , 2, pp . 92-3; Gessen . Zakon. p. 179; fT. 7. p. 375: Conroy (Stolypin , p. 51) believes that when Stolypin's assistant Kryzhanovskii said in the Council of Ministers thai the proposal of the 166 was unacceptable. he was probably representing his chief: cf. Chapter 3. n. 5. 128. P. N. Balashev, 'Pis'rno k Stol ypinu'. KA. 9 (1925) pp . 291-4. 129. S. N. Paleolog. 0"010 Vlasti (Belgrade: 1928) p. 157; A. F. G irs, ' Evreiskii vopros'. undated ms in Columbia University Archives of Rus sian and East European History and Culture, p. 15. 130. Kokovtscv, Vospominaniia , I. p. 411' and ' Irueresna ia nakhodka', VI. no . 4 (19M) pp . 99, 103-4 . 252 Notes and References

131. Kokovtscv, Vospominaniia . I. pp . 483--6; Avrekh, Stolypin, p. 28. 132. Chmielewski. The Polish Question in the Russian State Duma (Knoxville. Tennessee: 1970) pp . 114-15; Tager. TsarskaiaRossiia, p. 157; Lowe. Antisemitismus. pp . 138-40. 133. E. A. Preobrazhenskii (ed.) Russkiefinansv i evropeiskaia birzha (Moscow-Leningrad: 1926) pp. 103. 113. 214. 344. 134. B. V. Anan'ich , 'Vneshnie zaimy tsarizma'.lslOricheskieZapiski, no. 81 (1968) p. 178. 135. Kokovtsev. 'Perepiska', KA . 4 (1923) pp. 134-5. 136. 'Iz chernoi knigi rossiiskago evreistva' , ES, 9 (1916) pp. 195--296; B. D. Brutskus, 'Ekonomicheskoe polozhenie evreev i voina ', RM, no . 4 (1915) pp . 27-45; Baron. The RussianJev.., pp . 187-200 ; G . Katk ov, Russia 1917(New York : 1967) pp. 55--62. E. M. Kulischer, Europe on the Move (New York : 1948) p. 31. gives the number of Jews evacu ated by the summer of 1915 as having surpassed 600 000. TheJewsin theEastern War Zone (New York: 1916) states on p. II. 'A million Jews were driven from their homes in a state of absolute destitution'. 137. A. N. lakhontov, 'Tiazhelye dn i', Arkhiv Russkoi Revoliutsii, 18 (1926) pp . 15-136. There is an English translation. with an introduction by M. Cherruavsky: Prologueto Revolution (Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: 1967). A typescript of lakhonov's notes . covering sessions from July 1914 through August 1916. is in the Columbia University Archives of Russian and East European History and Culture. For Sliozberg's recollections of these events see Dela, 3, pp . 334-42. 138. lakhontov typescript. meetingsof6 February 1915, p. 96; 12June 1915,p.150; 10July 1915. p. 170. All subsequent citations to the notes as published in Arkhiv Russkoi Revoliutsii. 139. Ibid, pp. 20,37.32-3. 140. Ibid, pp. 42-6. 141. When the government's decision was announced, Shcherbatov, expect ing that it would lead to pogroms. addressed a circular to governors ordering their suppression. Lowe, Antisemitismus, p. 263, n. 15. 142. Bark had played an important part in impressing the seriousness of the problem created by the army upon his colleagues. He himself was made aware of it by Jewish bankers and industrialists in Russia as well as by the Rothschilds and others when he attended Allied economic conferences in Paris and London. Jewish abilit y seriously to impede the now of funds to Russia was exaggerated by friend and foe alike. Bark . ' Vosporninaniia' , no. 165 (1965) p. 78; no. 172 (1966) pp . 92-9; no . 177 (1966) pp . 105-{,. 143. Arkhiv Russkoi Rcvoliutsii. 18. pp . 47-51. 144. Ibid , p. 57. the Council's journal (Osobyi zhumal, 1915. no. 140) in recording the decision taken. made clear that it did not touch on the question of the general and permanent revision of existing Jewish laws and that it grew out of 'the extraordinary circumstances created by the war'. Although Nicholas approved the action of his ministers . the journal does not carry a notation to that effect. On its conditional and temporary nature cf. Lowe, Antisemitismus, pp . 155. 164. For an English translation see The Jews in the Eastern War Zone. pp . 21-2. 145. When the council on 26 August discussed the demands of the Progressive Bloc for further conce ssions to minority religions and nationalities, its chairman. Gorcmykin, reported that the emperor was not prep ared to go beyond what had already been done for the Jews . and Shcherbatov pointed out that the Duma too was not likely to pronounce in favor of Jewish emancipation. He believed that what had been granted had already produced beneficial polit ical and financial effects. Selected additional relaxat ions of unnecessary a nd antiquated restrict ions should. howeve r, be considered . Educational quotas had alread y been rela xed on 10 August 1915 for invalided or decorated soldiers and their children as well a" for children of employees in the M inistrv of Education and the med ical services; in December. adm issions to the bar became ' somewhat easier (/<..'niea 0 russkom evreistvc . pp. 137. 408-9; Lowe , Notes and References 253

Ant isemitismus, pp. 151. 166.) At a conference of governors of the central province'S called in Ma y 1916 by Gorernykin's successo r Boris Stucrmer, the part icipant s expressed a desire for the restorati on of the Pale which had been breached by circumstances created by the war. 'Soveshchanie guberna rorov' KA. 33 ( 1929) p. 160. 146. A. A. Oznobishin , Vospominaniia (Paris : 1927) p. 243. Protopop ov's belief in the necessity of placat ing wealth y Je ws appea rs to beco nnected with meetings he had with the Rothschild s in London and Par is in early 1916. See Bark. 'Vosporn inan iia' . no . 177 (1966) p. 106; V. S. Diakin. 'K vopros u 0 "za govore tsar izma" nakanune fevral' skoi revoliutsii', in N. E. Nosov et al. (eds) Vnutrennaia politika tsarizma (Leningrad: 19(7) p. 377; Sliozberg . Dcla, 3. p. 352. 147. V. P. Semennikov (ed .) Nikolai /I i velikic kniaz'ia (Leningrad-M oscow: 1925) p. 120. 148. N. Cohn. Warrant/ or GenociddLondo n: 19(7) p, 52: cf. TheJews in the Eastern War Z one. p. 9, 'It was the openl y expressed policy of the reactionaries who ruled Russia to solve the Jewi sh question by ridding the co untry of its .lews'. 149. See Chapter 6. 150. Arendt. 'From the Dre yfus Affair to France Today' . in Pinson. Essav on Antisemitism , p. 181. 151. O. Fenichel. 'Elements of a Psychoanalytic Theory of Anti-Semitism'. in E. Simmel (ed .) Anti-Semitism: A Social Disease (New York : 1946) pp. 11 -32. Fenichel himself. after citing the Russian example. refers to 'thi s undoubtedly co rrect. hut neither sufficiently deep nor sufficiently specific theory of a nti-Semitism (whi ch) we shall call the "scapegoat" theory'. 152. V. Burtsev, Protokoly sionsk ikh mudretsov (Paris: 1938) pp. 105- 6: Co hn. Warrant fo r Genocide. p. 115; Sliozberg. Dela, 3. p. 283. On the use made of the ' Pro tocols' hy the Russian Right see E. R. Zimmerm an . 'T he Right Rad ical Movement in Russia', D. Phil. dissertation. University of l.ondon (1968) who observes (p , 2(0) . 'Th e use of the "Protocols" by Right Radicals is not surprising: what is surprising is the tact that they made so little use of them. especially du ring the yea rs 190710 191 7'. l-or the 1891 law see Mysh, Rukol'Od.51I'O, p. 119. 153. For example. Leon Trotsky. 'Therrnidor a nd Ant i-Sem itism' (1937) in On the .,.·u'ish Question (New York : 1970) p. 22; A. Yannolinsky. Road to Revolution (Ne w Yor k: 1959) pp. 305-10, for La vrov and others; U :, I. p, 820 lor the opinio n of Alexande r II's liber al M iniste r of War , D . A. Miliutin. tha t .lews. even if the civil service were opened 10 them , sho uld not be allowed to becom e o ffice rs in the a rmy since peasa nt soldiers would lack respect for them . 154. It sho uld be noted. however, tha t some Jews abro ad shared the delusio ns of the tsar 's ministers and gave financial aid to the o ppositio na l movement. See S/ajowski. 'Paul Nathan' , especially two excerpt s from letters o f Ja cob Schill. dated 19 .Iuly 1904 and 29 Ma rch 1905 (p. 75, n. 121).

Pleh...e und seine Genossen fa ngen endlich an zu fuchlcn, duv. I i<' el mil dcm intcrnationalen Judentum gruendlich verdorben habcn, und ich glalihe, duss dir russische Regierung jetzt sehr weit gchen wucrdc. um den gutcn Willen del internationalen Judentums zu gcwinncn.' 'Wenn die russischc Rcgicruni; ucbcrhuupt <'III'Q.' lernen kann. so muesscn die Erfahrungender II'/Z/en z...ocl]Monon dicEinsicht gebracht haben. doss das intcmationalc Judcntum doch cine Macht iv.

ISS, Byme s,PohedonoslJel'. p. 108; H , Kohn , Pan-Slavism (New York : 19W) 2nd cdn, p.410: Bunge. Zapiska. p. 33, 151i, Baron . The Russian Jew, p. Ii ), 157. B. Par es. Russia 81'/11'1'1'11 Reform and Revolution (New York : 1%2) p. 154. 158. l Ieilbronner. 'Aehrcnth al' , p. 398, Such opinions were not held exclusively hv a nti­ Jewish ministers of hackward Russia. See Darkest Ruwiu (London] no , 129 (17.1une 1914): 254 Notes and References

In the rem arkable lead ing article wh ich we discussed last week. the Tim es suppo rted its un worthy cha mpio nship of the disabilit ies imposed on th e great m ass of Russian Jew ry by an a rgu men t wh ich - to bor row its own phrase - " betrays utter ignorance of the real situation." According to the writer of that article. the Jews are right ly kept in bo ndage becau se o therwise they would exploit the peasa nts. There ca nnot be much doubt". it was sta ted. "that . were the Jews free to move an d trade amongst the m at pleasure. the y wou ld very soon ' eat up ' the tillers of the so il'."

159. Sec for exa mple. A. Subbotin, 'Evreiskii vopros v ego pravil'nom osves hchenii. Trudy I. S. Bliokha· . l:"l're;Ika ia Bibliotcka, 10 ( 1902) pp . 63- 124. esp. pp . 103- 9.

5 J EWS AFTER THE LIBERATION OF THE SERFS

I. O n the war-time lifting of the Pale. see pp. 101-4 . ch . 4. 2. R. P. Browder and A. F. Kcrcnsky (cd s) The Russian Provisional Government (Stanford: 19(1) I. p. 211. 3. Weinrvb. Ncucstc Winschaftsgcschichte (Breslau : 1934) p. 128: G esscn. Zakon, p, 32: Rest. Oil' russischc .Iudcngesel:gehung . pp . 16-25. 4. For th e ea rlier pe riod . in addi tion to Rest. see: Dubnov, History, vol. I: G rado vskii, Otnoshenie, part I: (Jes sen. lstoriia cvrciskogo naroda, vol. I: I. l.cvitats, The Jewish Communit v in Russia. I 77:!- 11i44 (New Yor k: 1943): I. G. Orshan sk ii. l:"vrei I' Rossii (St Petersbu rg: 11'72): ide m. Russkoc zuko nodatcl'stvo 0 cvreiakh (St Petersbu rg: IB77): Sta nislawsk i. Tsar Nicholas I. 5. Pipes. "Catherine II' . p. 7: Golczewski. Polnisch-Judisch c Beziehu ngen , p. 19. 6, On the Pale and the size of its Jewish populatio n. see Cha pter I. not es 14 and 16. As Russian officia ls repeatedly co m plained a nd Jewi sh sources ad mit. it was the tendency of Jewish comm unities to und erestimat e their numbers in o rde r to red uce th e payment of ta xes o r the levies of recruits. Lcvitats, fo r exa mple. writes (The Jewish Commu nity, p. IB) that beca use the Jews refused to supply co rrect figures. the numbers usually given for Wh ite Russia in 1772 (25016) or for all Russia in 1803 (350 000) must be co nsidered suspect. In Pod olia . in IBIB. o nly 17 816 were report ed . but two years later . under pr essure. the co unt was ra ised to 66 015. For the seco nd hal f of the nineteent h centu ry. official and Jewish estima tes do not diverge widely. altho ugh the belief persists in the bureau cracy th at the real nu mber of J ews in the em pire was very mu ch larger. perh aps twice as lar ge. as suggested by the sta tistics, This 'demog ra phic fear' is a consta nt in a nti-Semi tic literatu re. 7. Mendelsohn. Class St ruggle in the Pall' (Ca mbridge: 1970) pp . 2- 3: Weinryb, Wirtschaftsgeschichte, pp . 26-7. Th e occ upa tiona l distribution of the J ewish po pulation in the annexed territories around IBOOwas: innkeepers and leaseholders. 30 per cent : trad ers and brokers. 30 per cent: craftsmen 15 per cent : farmers. I per cent : no fixed occ upa tion. 21 per cent: religious officials. 3 per cent. EJ. 14. p. 435. R. According to laws which were still in force in 1914. mer chants and mcshchanc were obliged to be registered in their respective co rpo ra tions in towns. even if the y lived in villages or townlets. (M ysh , Ruk ovodstvo , p. 49: Rest. Die russischc Judengesctzgcbung, p. 97.) I a m using townlet as the closest equiva lent for mestechk o, mia stcczk o, o r shtetl. T he townlet was a hybrid betwe en village and town. had its o rigin o n privat e lands of the Polish nobility and could ha ve fewer than 1000 o r more than 20000 inh abit ants. ' In man y of such pri vate towns the J ews soon formed a preponderant majority . . . Their occupation in arcnda led many J ews to settle in the villages. Hence both the eco no my as well as the sty le of living in such towns had close links with the villages ' . EI. 14. pp. 1470-1. Notes and References 255

9. Gessen. Zakon, pp, 31-8 : idem . Evrci v Rossii (St Petersburg: 1906) pp. 337-9: EE. 3. p. 78. Even Catherine was concerned that peasants should be protected from traders but did not single out Jewish traders. 10. N. D. Gradovskii, Torgovye i drugie prava evreel' v Rossii (St Petersburg: 1886) pp. 18'7. 192: Dubnov, History. I. pp . 319. 322-6. 343: Mysh , Rukovodstvo, p. 5: Orshanskii. Zakonodatetstvo, pp. 205-13:N.V. Varadinov, Istoriia ministerstva vnutrennikh del (St Petersburg: 1858--62). 2. pt. 2. pp . 574-5; EE. 5. p. 858; Gessen, Evrei, pp. 125-6: idem . Istoriia evreiskogo naroda, 2. pp . 37-9. When . for example. the governor of Belorussia began to carry out an imperial decree of September 1795 to resettle Jews in the towns. many of the nobility protested that the depopulation of townlets located on their lands would spell economic ruin . The administration decided. therefore. to leave the Jews in the townlets and to expel them only from villages and roadside taverns. It was at this time that townlets began to be cons idered as urban communities for purposes of Jewish residence. Gessen, lstoriia. I. p. 125. II . Thus. the villages of Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces were ordered cleared in 1823. Gessen ilstoriia. I. pp . 206--7)writes that about 200 000 individuals were expelled from the Belorussian countryside in that year and that in the following eight years up to 40000 roamed the roads in whole families . In July 1830. Nicholas I ordered Jews to be cleared from the villages of Kiev gubcrniia. VPSZ 5. no . 3778ILevanda. pp. 269-70; cf. Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp . 107. 388--9. 12. Weinryb, Wirtschaftsgcschichtc: p. 147. n. 4. According to Jewish communal leaders who pleaded in St Petersburg that they be stopped. the expulsions had affected 2lX) om individuals as earlv as 1807-9 . (V. N. Nikitin, Evrei zemtedettsy 1St Petersburg; 1887J p. 103.) The number of families subject to expulsion on the basis of the Statute (If 1804 is given as 60 000 in FF. 5. p. 858. 13. Varadinov, lstoriia. 3. pt . 2. p. 136. 14. Ibid . 2. pt . 2. pp . 38-43: 1:'1:'. 3. p. 81. 7. pp. 732-3. II . pp, 49~ ; Gradovskii, Prava,pp . 272.280. 2116. The prohihition against employing Christian domestics remained in force until 1887. when it was replaced by a penalty for hindering Christian servants. employees or apprentices from observing their religious holidays or duties. (Mysh, Rukovodstvo, p. 537.) The 1835Statue permitted the hiring of Christians in agriculture. man ufacturing and certain commercial activ ities as well as of female cooks and launderesses. provided they did not live under the same roof as their Jewish employers (VPSZ 10. no . 8054/Levanda. p. 362.) The holding of Christian slaves by Jews was first forbidden in the Roman Empire in 398 AD. 15. See pp. 10-. ch . I. 16. VP...,Z 10. no . 8054/Levanda. p. 361: la . I. Gimpel'son (comp.) Zakony 0 evreiakh (St Petersburg: 1914-15) I. pp. 371-2. 17. VPSZ 15. no . 13 547 and 20. no . 19 2119/Levanda. pp . 497-8 and 629-34; EE. 3. p. 112:Varadinov. lstonia, 3. pt. 4. p. 70. Stanislawski (Tsar Nicholas. pp . 172-3) makes the point that the 1845 rules also allowed Jewish guild merchants to engage in the sale of vodka anywhere they chose (actually. only through Christian agents in state villages) whereas Jewish meshchane were allowed to lease only enterprises that had no connection with liquor. The reason for this. he believes. was less the state's con cern for the peasantry than its need for revenu e by replacing the :

many small -scale liquor traders with large-scale commercial distillers and distributors [that is. the guild merchants]. In accord with this decision. gradual restrictions on the participation of Jews in the distilling and sale of vodka in the countryside were reintroduced. while at the same time Jew ish businessmen were encouraged to enter the ranks of large-scale otkupshchiki, or lcasers, even controlling areas in which they were not permitted to live. 256 Notes and References

Since the number of Jewish gui ld merchants. especially those in the first two guilds who were most likely to have enough capital to become otkupshchiki, was much smaller than the number of meshchane, the 1845 regulation. whatever its ultimate motive or purpose. had the effect of reducing the Jewish presence in the countryside. Out of a total of 27 469 Jewish guild merchants in 1851. 466 were enrolled in the first and 754 in the second guilds . Stanislawski notes that despite the rise in liquor production. the number of distilleries decreased from 2489 in 1801 to 723 in 1860. with large-scale commercial enterprises overtaking the local stills on estates. ' Nicholas's government had. therefore. succeeded where his brother Alexander's had failed: Jewish mcshchane [that is. most Jews] were gradually driven out of the vodka industry and the countryside in general. wh ile the state's revenues from liquor continued to mount.'

18. VPSZ 28. nos . 27050 and 27 322/Levanda. pp. 799-800 and 806. 19. Gessen, Istoriia evreiskogo naroda, 2. p. 40. 20. Ibid. VPSZ 30, no. 29 902ILevanda. p. 852. 21. VPSZ 28. no . 27 322/Levanda. pp. 804-7. 22. VPSZ 30. no . 29 277/Levanda. pp. 839-41 ; Varadinov. lstoriia, 3. pI. 4. p. 195. 23. On Jewish colonization see Nikitin, Evrci zemledettsv; Orshanski i, Evrei, pp . 110-33 ; J. Elk . Die Juedischen Kolonien in RUHland (Frankfurt: 1886); S. la . Borovoi, Evreiskaia zemlcdetcheskaia kolonizatsiia (Moscow: 1928); Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp. 406--18. 24. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, p. 305; VPSZ 12. no . 9843/Levanda. pp. 400-1 : Greenberg, The JClI'S in Russia. I. p. 45. 25. Varadinov, Istoriia, 3, pt. 2. pp. 30&-7. Nicholas II. in 1911. reiterated his ancestor's sentiments and affirmed a decision of the Council of Ministers which barred Jews from trading at Siberian fairs by stating: ' Everything must be done to keep the Jews from overrunning Siberia'. Sovet Ministrov, Spravka. p. 54-5 26. Varadinov tlstoriia , 3. pt. 2. p. 556) gives the number of mcschchanc without definite occupation in 1833 as 310000 males and 245 om females in a total Jewish population of 650 000 . 27. Varadinov , lstoriia, 2. pt. I. p. 84; 2. pt. 2. p. 575; Kornitet Ministrov , Zhurnalv (St Petersburg: 1905) p. 444. 28. M. Raeff, Sib eria and the Reforms of 1822 (Seattle: 1956) p. 349; S. Monas. 'Bureaucracy in Russia under Nicholas 1'. in M. Cherniavsky (ed.) The Structure oj' Russian History (New York: 1970) p. 278. 29. f.KO . Sbornik, I. p. 4: Weinryb, Wirtschaftsgeschichte , pp. 215-18: I:F. 7. pp . 75&-9. For legislative inhibitions on the colonies see Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp. 354,408: Orshanskii , Zakonodatelstvo, p. 326; Levanda. Sbomik, pp . 839-41. 921. 1059. 174. 1090. 30. EE. I. pp. 808-15; Dubnov./listory. 2. pp. 154-8. 31. Gessen, Istoriia evreel' I' Rossii (St Peter sburg: 1914) p. 273. 32. Ibid . pp . 274-7: Dubnov, History . 2. p. 169: Greenberg. The Iews in Russia, I. p. 89. Count P.A. Shuvalov, later Chief of Gendarmes and Governor-General of the Baltic provinces from 1864 to 1866. also favored unrestricted residence rights throughout the empire. His views. and those of Stroganov, are recorded in VI'SZ 40. no. 42 264/Levanda. pp . 1036-8. 33. Gcssen, Zakon, p. III : Greenberg. The Jews in Russia. I. p. 89. 34. Mysh, Rukovodstvo, p. 164: Greenberg, The .IC1I'S in Russia, I. p. 75: Dubnov, Historv; 2. pp. 161-n 35. Yaney. The Systematization of Russian Government (Urbana, Illinois : 1973) p. 188. Even more important may have been the memory of peasant disorders in several Pale provinces in the I840s. S. Monas. The Third Section (Cambridge, Massa­ chusetts: 1961) pp . 275-6. 36. Gessert . Zakon, p. 128. Notes and References 257

37. Ibid. p. 118; Greenberg. The Jews In Russia . 2. p. 90; E£:. I, pp. 813-15. 38. Gessen, Zakon, p. 124; idem.l.woriia evreev. pp . 284-7. 39. VPSZ 32. no . 31 4OO/Levanda. p. 857 40. VPSZ 33. no . 33 659/Levanda. pp. 901-3. 41. VPSZ 43. no. 35 016/Levanda. pp. 925~ . 42. Peasant allotments tnadelv) or allotment land s inadetnye zemlis were assigned at the emancipation not to individuals or households but to peasant communities. These had the right to distribute and redistribute them among members but not to sell or mortgage them . Although the government realized the disadvantages of making peasant allotments inalienable - unable to mortgage them . their owners could not raise credit - it took addit ional steps in 1893 to 'prevent alien ation of peasant allotment lands' and intensifying their clamor for more. Even when it was recommended in 1903. by a conference chaired by Wille . that the peasants' legal separateness be ended as quickly as possible . it was nonetheless thought necessary to retain prohibitions on the sale and mortgaging of allotment lands to non­ peasants. Thi s was to change onl y in 1906. See Yaney. The Urge 10 Mobilize. pp . 175. 203. 254-5. 43. VPSZ 36. nos 36659 and 36674/Levanda. pp. 945-6; Mysh , Rukovodstvo, pp . 348-9 . 44. Mysh , Rukovodstvo. p. 350; VPSZ 37. no. 38 214/Levanda. pp. 980-1. 45. Sliozberg, Dcla. 2. pp. 154-5. 46. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, pp. 354-5. 371; VPSZ 39. no. 40 656/Levanda. pp . 1013-14. 47. VPSZ 39. no. 41 039/Levanda, p. 1016; 'Otnoshenie ministra vnutrennikh del . . ot 12 iilulia 1864 g.'. in Matcriatv komissii po ustroistvu byta evreev (hereafter Materialyi (St Petersburg: 1872) I. pp . 1-2. 48. Materialv I, pp . 4-5; VPSZ 42. no. 45 257/Levanda. pp. 1002-3. 49. Matcrialv, I. p. 7. 50. Ibid . I. pp . 1-2; Orshanskii. Evrei. pp . 123-5; Weinryb, Wirtschaftsgeschichte , pp . 56--61, 217-18. 51. 'Vypiska iz vsepoddanneishei zapiski 0 bolee vazhnykh voprosakh po upravleniiu iugo-z.apadnym kraem 1872 g.'. in Materialy, I, p. 12 (separate pagin ation). 52. Matenaly, I. pp. 1-7. 53. VPSZ 38. no. 39 368/Levanda. p. 999 and VPSZ 40. no . 47774/Levanda. p. 1026; Mysh . Rukovodstvo. pp. 117. 389. 54. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, pp. 390. 393-5; EE. 5. pp . 613-14; Trudv gubenskikh komissii po evreiskomu voprosu , 2 vols (St Petersburg: 1884). Subsequent citations. since pagination is not consecutive. will be to Trudy . the name of the province. to volume and page ; in this case. Trudy . Kovno, I. p. 5. 55. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, p. 108; Gimpel'son, Zakony. p. 308; E£:. 5. p. 643; II. p. 149. 56. The following account is drawn from Gessen, lstoriia evreiskogo naroda, 2. p. 21 I; idem. Zakon, pp. 151-2; idem. Istoriia evrel'l'. pp. 323-4; Mysh, Rukovodstvo , pp .295-7. 57. Mysh . Rukovodstvo, p. 301. 58. Sovet ministrov, Osobyi zhurnal. 19()1j . no. 157. p. 7. 59. Trudl'. ViIna. I. pp . 65-70; Mogilev , I. pp . 68-70. 60. The 1873 rep ort of the Valuev Commission. which had been appointed for the 'investigatio n of the present state of agricultural and rural productivity in Russia'. must have reinforced the concerns voiced by Dondukov-Korsakov and contributed to the measures taken in 1874 and subsequent years . According to Yaney (The Urge 10 Mobilize. p. 42) the malign influence of the Jews was an almost universal theme in the reports from the western provinces.

It seems that the Jews ran many of the landed estates. either as stewards or as tenants. Moreover. they operated ' most of the taverns and monopolized the buying and selling of grain. According to all reports that mentioned Jews. they did only 258 Notes and References

harm. They reaped their profits heedless of consequences, while gentry, peasantry and soil aU went to ruin. As subsantive information such reports were of doubtful validity, to say the least, but they were informative. Apart from their value as a reflection of anti-Semitic sentiment. they indicated clearly the inept itude and irrespo nsibility of the Polish gentry in the western gubemiias.

61. Obshchaia zapiska, pp . 86-91. 62. Ibid . pp. 82-4. 63. ibid , pp . 80-2; V. lu. Skalon, Po zcmskim voprosam (St Petersburg: 1905) I. pp . 338-52. 64. M . Goldberg, Die Jahre /88/-/882 (Berlin: 1934) p. 45. 65. Gessen , 'Ignat'ev', no. 30. p. 1632. 66. Dubnov, ' Anti-evreiskoe dvizhenie'. pp. 268-74. 67. Zaionchkovskii, Krizis, p. 379; Aronson. 'Geographical and Socioeconomic Factors': Dubnov, Mate.iaty, 2, pp. 529-41. It deserves to be mentioned that General E. l. Totleben. whose determined action had forestalled pogroms in the north-west. agreed with lgnat 'ev - with whom he agreed on little else -that Jews should be forbidden to settle in the villages. Dubnov, History, 2. p. 276. 68. In summarizing the conclusions of the provincial commissions, I have used . besides their Trudy. the Obshchaia zapiska of the Pahlen Commission. pp. 97-206. 212-1 7. 228-39 and Dubnov, ' Anti-evreiskoe dvizhcnie'. pp . 88-109. 69. Gessen, lstoriia evreiskogo naroda , 2. pp. 219-20. 70. Trudy , Kherson, 2, pp . 1091-3. 1105; Obshchaia zapiska, p. 213. 71. Trudy, Vitebsk, I, pp . 25, 35. 72. Ibid . Mogilev, I, pp . 9-10. 23. 29; Obshchaia zapiska. p. 212. 73. Trudy , Vilna, I. pp. 60-76; Obshcha ia zapiska, pp. 228-9. 74. Trudy . Grodno, I. pp. 4-5. 9-10. 21: Obshchaia zapiska , pp . 212, 229. 75. Khizhniakov, Vospominaniia, pp . 109-14 . 76. Trudy, Khar'kov, 2. p. 27: cf. Vilna, I, pp. 88-113. 119-23. 178 and M. E. Mandel'shtam, 'Ignat'cvskaia komissiia v Kievc' . Pcrezhitoe, 4 (1913) p. 56. 77. Gossen, 'Ignar'ev', no. 31. pp. 1678-85. 78. See Chapter 4 n. 10. 79. Gossen . 'Ignat'ev', no . 31. p. 1682: Komitet Ministrov, Istorichcskii obzor, 4. p. 183. 80. Komitet Mini strov, Zhurnaly . .. po ispolnenitu ukaza tI-ogo dekabria /904 goda (St Petersburg: 1905) p. 444. For other examples of the acceptance of lgnar'ev's explanation of pogroms and of his proposed remedies, see Ministerstvo iustitsii za SIO let (St Petersburg: 1902) pp . 213-14: Ministerstvo vnutrennikh del. Spravka ob ogranicheniiakh I' . . . pravakh ('I'reev (St Petersburg: 1906) p. 5: 'Rcshenie o bshchago sobraniia Senata, 1888 g.. no. 25', Pram, no . 17 (1905) p. 1365. 81. Zaionchkovskii. Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, pp. 131-2: EE. I. p. 832: Dubnov./lis/ory. 2. pp. 309-12. 82. Obshchaia zapiska. pp . 2-24 . cr. n. 51. Ch . I. 83. Ibid. pp. 5-6. 84. Ibid . p. 58; I. M . Bikerrnan, Chaw evreiskoi osedlosti (St Petersburg: 1911) pp . 44-5: EE. 3. pp. 86-7: EKO, Sb ornik . I, pp . xxvi-xxviii , 171. 178-81. According to the 1897 census, 48.84 per cent of all Russia's Jews, including those in Poland. lived in towns. 33.05 per cent in townlets and 18.11 per cent in villages. 85. Obshchaia zapiska . pp . 9}-5. 86. Ibid . pp. 110-30 . 87. Ibid . pp. 102-3 , 132. 147. 88. Ibid . pp. 150--3. 89. Ibid. pp. 271-2, 290. 90. Ibid , p. 286. 91. Ibid . pp . 289. 293. Notes and References 259

92. Ibid, p. 294. 93. EE, 3, p. 85. 94. Ellinger, 'The Image of the Jews in Russian Public Opinion', in Modern Anti-Semitism (in Hebrew) (Tel-Aviv: 1978) pp . 145-67; V. V. Bervi, 'Vosporninaniia'. Golos minuvshago. no. 5/6 (1916) p. 267; W. G . Moss, 'Vladimir Soloviev and the Jews', RR, 29, no . 2 (1970) p. 186;S. N. Iuzhakov, 'Evreiskii vopros', Otechestvennye zapiski. no . 5 (1882) pp . 5-6,9,13,25; A.M. Pushchin, Ocherk poslednikh itogov razrabotki evreiskago voprosa (St Petersburg 82) pp . 18-21. 95. P. Bigelow, The BorderlandofCzar and Kaiser (New York: 1894) pp. 107-8,113: cf. the remarks of Foreign Minister N.K. Girs to US Minister C. E. Smith, Foreign Relations 0/ the United States, 1890-1891 (Washington. 1892) p. 735. 96. Taylor, 'Tolstoy', p. 48; Komitet Ministrov, Osobyi zhumal, 19015, no . 157, pp. 11-12: EE, 7, p. 734; Mysh, Rukovodstvo; pp. 151-2; Sliozberg. Dela , 2. pp. 4-5. 97. Polovtsov, Dnevnik. 2, pp. 59,473. 98. Foreign Relations 0/ the United States , p. 741. 99. Zaionchkovskii, Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, p. 135: Sliozberg, Dcla, 2, pp. 165-1{: Dubnov, 'Furor judophobicus', pp. 27-59. 100. Polovtsov, Dnevnik. 2, pp. 59, 314; Lamzdorf, Dnevnik, pp. 52-3,72; H. O. Klibanski, Handbuch des gesamten russischen Zivilrechts (Berlin : 1911-17) I, p. 434; 2. 469; Mysh, Rukovodstvo , pp. 384-5; L. Wolf, The Legal Sufferings ofthe.lell's(London: 1912)pp. 2. 101. K. Korol'kov, Zhizn' i tsarstvovanieAleksandra III (Kiev: 1901) pp . 176--7: Larnzdort, Dnevnik. p. 386; Sliozberg, Dela, 2, p. 1{2 ; Komitet Ministrov ,lstoricheskii obzor, 4. pp. 165-82,5, pp. 27-8; Von Laue, Witte, pp. 185, 11{9; Girnpel'son. Zakonv. pp. 392-5 : Sovet Ministrov , Spravka , pp. 119-20. 102. Kornitet Ministrov, Istoricheskii obzor, 5, pp . 12~ ; Mysh, Rukovodstvo, p. 397. E. B. Levin (ed.) Sbornik ogranichitel'nykh zakonov i postanovlenii 0 evrciakh (St Petersburg: 1902) contains a list of companies whose articles of incorporation or by­ laws included restrictions on Jews. 103. Von Laue . Witte, p. 124; Sovet Ministrov, Spravka , pp . 131-61. I.. E. Shcpelcv. Aktsionernye kompanii v Rossii (Leningrad: 1973) p. 122, writes that the substa ntial changes in government regulation of joint stock companies introduced in the 11{7(b and ISI{Os were designed. as the Ministry of Finance declared. for 'the protection of agriculture in certain localities and of several branches of industry from the intrusion of undesirable elements', by which . Shepelev notes. were meant foreigners, .lews and Poles. These regulations were modified in 1905 and 1907. See Chapter 4. n..l4 . 104. Vitte, 'Vsepoddanneishi i doklad', ES. 8 (1915) pp . 405-10 . On Witte, see pr. X4-9. Chapter 4. 105. Dubnov, History, 3. pp. 22-3 ; FL, 5. p. 614 gives the number of those displaced from the trade in spirits by the state monopoly a.s 100000. There was. in addition. a substantial reduction in the number of Jewish distilleries and breweries and. consequently, of the hands employed by them. The Governor-General of Khar'kov estimated in 1882, that there were 150000 Jews in the drink trade. 106. Bunge . Zapiska, pp . 31. 37-9: Mysh. Rukovodstvo; p. 49. point s out that .lcwx were also removed from the jurisdiction of the land captains. 107. Brutskus , 'Ekonomicheskoe' polozhenic, pp. 21{, 41-2 ; D. Drutvkoi-Sokol'ninsku. 'Antisernitizrn', VE. no. 7 (1900) pp. 96-111{; Dubnov, llistorv, 3. p. 339: Baron. The Russian.IeII' , p. 64; L. Errera. Die russischen Juden(Leipzig: 19(3) pp . 10.l-4; lrcdcric. The Nell' Exodus. pp. 102-3. 101{. Komitet Ministrov, Osobyi zhurnal. 1906 . no . 157. p. I. 109. Svod vysochaishikhotmetok ... za 1895g. (St Petersburg: IX(7) pp. 29-31; SWill. .. za 1897g. (St Petersburg: 1899) p. 42: Svod . .. za 1898g. (St Petersburg: 19(1) p. 127. 110. Gessen, Zakon . p. 171 ; F.E. 3. pp . 1{5-6, 5. p. 1{21. 111. Mysh , Rukovodstvo, pp. 120-3. 346. 354: Gessen. Zakon . pp. 172-J 260 NOles and References

112. Sviatopolk-Mirskii's report was first published by the Bund: Tainaia dokladnaia zapiska Vilenskogo gubernatora 0 polozhenii evreev v Rossii (Geneva: 1904). A French translation appeared in 1970(see Chapter 4, n. 85) and an English one in SJA 2, no . 2 (1972) pp . 87-95, with an introduction by P. Korzec which also discusses the Pahlen memorandum. Urusov's views may be gleaned from his Zapisk i, pp . 202-10. On Pleve and the commission , see p. 82, Chapter 4; Komitet Ministrov, Osobyi zhurnal, 1906, no . 157, pp . 14-15; n: 9, p. 692. 113. Herzl, Tagebu cher, 3, pp. 46J-6, 477-83. 114. Braudo, 'Beseda V. K. Plevc' , pp. 121-5. 115. Thus, the 10May 1903reclassification ofrural localities was accompanied on the same day by new restrict ions on the acq uisitio n of real property outside towns by ind ividu als who had the right of residence in non-Pale provinces. Mysh . Rukovodstvo, p. 364. 116. Ibid . p. 126; Gesscn , Zakon. pp . 173-5. 117. N.\. Lazarevskii (ed.) Zakonodatet'nyc aktyperekhodnogo vremeni(St Petersburg: 1909) pp . 190-5. 118. Iu. I. Gessen and I. I. Tolstoi, Fakty i my.l/i(St Petersburg: 1905)preface and conclusion. 119. Petergofskiia soveshchaniia, pp . 34-5; H.D. Mehlinger and J. M. Thompson, Count Wille and the Tsarist Government (Bloomingdale. Indiana: 1972) p . 187. 120. 'Agrarnoe dvizhenie v 1905 g.' , KA , 11-12 (1925) pp . 18J-5. 121. Yaney. 'So me Aspects of the Imperial Russian Govemment',SEf.R 43, no. 100(1964) p. 72. )22. Ville . Vospominaniia, 2. p. 214. 3. pp . 327-9: I.. M. Aizenberg. ' Na slovakh i na dele', El.. 3 (1924) pp . 31-4. 123. See pp. 91-3 , Chapter 4. 124. Kokovtsev, ' Perepiska', pp . 134-5; Preobrazhenskii, Russkiefinansy, p. 329. 125. Sovet Min istrov. Osobvi zhurnal, 1906, no. 157, pp . 20--3. 126. Cf. n. 115. 127. Sovet Ministrov. Osobyi zhurnal. 19(}(, . no. 157. pp . 28--33. Even after the Stolypin reform, peasants were still not ent irely free to dispose of their land as they wished; it could not be sold to non-peasants who were not native inhabitants trodnvc obyvatcli sof the empire. Ibid, no . 19, p. 15. Also see Yaney, Urge to Mob ilize, pp . 254-5. 128. Sovct Ministrov. Osobyi zhurnal, 1906, no . 157, pp . 32-7. 129. Ibid, pp. 56-60. 130, Sovet oh 'ed inennykh dvorianskikh obshchestv, Svod postanovlenii, p. 38. 131. Lowe, Antisemitismus, pp . 128--9; R. T. Manning. The Crisis ofthe OldOrder( Princeton: 1982)pp . 347,357-9; Yancy. Urge 10 Mobilize, p. 295; Zimmerman. The Right Radical Movement'. pp . 334.404-5,431-2. Gentry opposition to Stol yp in's agrarian reform was also motivated by the wish to keep land prices from rising out of their reach (since many were now beginning to stay in agriculture rather than selling their lands) and by concern over their domination of local government and electors if Jews and other non­ gentry elements acquired pol itical rights together with land. 132. Sec Ch apter 4. n. 127; Tret' ia Gosudarstvcnnaia Duma . Materialy (St Petersburg: 1912) pp . I42-{i. 133. Kokovtsev, Vospominaniia, I. p. 481; Novyi Voskhod, 22 September 1911; Report 01 Governor A. F. Girs of Minsk to Nicholas II for 1913. undated ms in Columbia University Arch ives of Russian and East European History and Culture. l.owe. p. 140, lists several measures taken during Kokovtscv's premiership by the Ministry of the Interior, Senate, governors and police against Jewish businesses; cf. Sovet Ministrov, Spravak . pp . 54-82. 134. Ibid , pp. 141-55. The April 1914 rules, which l.owc tAntiscmitismus, p. 142) sees as another in a long line of anti-capitalist measures by a regime that was coming increasingly to be influenced by agrarian interests, were modified three months after their adoption. Th e norm of 200 desiatinas(540 acres) which they had proposed for the acquisition of land by stock companies ofall kinds was now regarded not as a maximum Not es and References 261

but as a minimum of what was co nsidered necessary for such enterprises. See Sh epelev, Aktsionernye kompanii, p. 288. 135 . Pravo, no. 7 (1916) pp. 474-5 and no. 17 (1916) p. 1042. 136. Lowe. Antisemitism us, pp. 186-7 and Shepel ev, 'Tsarizm i akt sionernoe uchrcditel'stvo' in N. E. Nosov (ed.) Problemy krest'iansk ogo zemlevladeniia i vnutrennei politiki Rossii (l.eningrad: 1972) p. 317. 137. Even Witte . the great industrial izer who believed that Russia could become powerful only when she ceased to be an exclusively agricultural country. would sing the praises of the rural way of life. Th e Russian people. he wrote in 1885. were above allagrarian; they loved the land and desp ised work in the mills. The ir spiritual essence was intimately tied to the 'beautiful. exalted and ennobling work on the soil'. Von Laue , Wille . pp. 55. 68. 138. It should be noted. however. that after Stolypin's death. there was a tend ency in the government to strengthen what was left of the rur al nobility. 139. B. P. Baluev, Politicheskaia reaktsiia 8o-k h godov (Mo scow: 1971) pp . 301- 2; lu . M art ov, Obshchestvennyc i ums(\'ennye techeniia I' Rossii (Leningrad: 1924) pp . 123-4; E. la. Drabkin a, Natsionat nyi i koloniatnyi vopros v tsarsk oi Rossii (Moscow: 1930) p.37. 140. V. V. Shul'gin, Tri stolitsy (Berlin: 1927) p. 357. 141. S. Andreski. 'An Economic Interpretation of Ant i-Semitism in Eastern Europe',JI'II'ilh Journal of Sociology 5. no. 2 (1963) p. 207. 142. For a typical example. see Vassilyev, The Ochrana , p. 102. 143 . O. Novikoff. Russian Mem ories (New York : 191 6) pp. ) 13-16. 121. 144. Report 0/the Commissioner ofImmigration upon the Causes which Incite Immigration to the United States (Was hingto n: 1892) pp. 303--5; Chapt er 4. n. 158. 145. See n. 76. Ch. 4. 146. G . Hurne, Thirty-Five Yl'an in Russia (Londo n: 1914) p. 234. 147. V. Zh abot inskii. Evreiskoc gosudarstvo (Kharbin: 1938) pp . 24-30.

6 GOVERNMENT POLICY ON JEWISH EMIGRATION

I. Cohn. Warrantfor Genocide, p. 52; Dubnov, History, 2, pp . 285.306-7; Greenberg. The Jews in Russia. 2. p. 62; Wolf. The Lega! Sufferings, p. 92. For a n interpretation similar to mine. see Aron son . 'Attitud es (If Russian O fficials', 2. The most frequently cited statement on emigration is a ttributed to Pobed onostev, who is reported. at second hand. to have sa id to a Jewish interlocutor that the government expected one third of Russia' s Jew s to die out. one th ird to emigra te and one third to convert to O rthodoxy. T he reasons for doubting the accuracy ofthe report are set forth by Aronson (,Attitudes of Russian Officials', pp. 1-2, 7) who also provides more convincingly documented example s of official opinio n on the subject. 3. This was as tru e of Jew ish as of allother emigrants from the empire and deplored by some contempora ries. Thus. an an onym ous comment in Voprosv k olonizatsii, no. I (1906) pp . 312- 13, noted that whereas the movement of large numbers of peasant s to the Asian part s of the emp ire had given rise to an entire literature and called forth energeti c action on the part of the authorit ies. the movement of an equal number of people to the United States had done neither. 'T he significant growth of emigrati on from Russ ia and the almost total ignoring of this phen omenon by pu blic opinion and the press contrasts with the attitude in Western Europ e to emigration . There, organizations to aid the migrants arose long ago. as did journa ls devoted to their problems.' 4. The po int was mad e emphat ically in President Benjam in Harrison's Message to Congress on 9 December 1891. in which he reported the concern his government had expressed to St Petersburg becau se 'the harsh measures now being enfo rced aga inst the Hebrews in Russia' would compel a million of them to seek homes and employment in Ame rica. 'The 262 Notes and References

banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain indirect methods, o f so large a number ofmen and women is not a local question.A decree to leave one country is in the nature of things an order to enter another - some other.' Messages and Papers of the Presidents, vol. 9, 1889-97 (Washington: 1898) p. 188. Cf. Healy, 'Tsarist Anti-Semitism'. 5. Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp . 336-40, 346: S. la . lanovskii , 'Russkoe zakonodatcl'stvo i ernigratsiia'. Zhurnal mmisterstva iustitsii, no . 4 (1909) pp . 86--114, translation in Emigration Conditions in Europe (Washington: 1911) pp . 251-64: I. Efren , 'Russkoe emigratsionnoe dvizhenie', Scvernye zapiski. no. 5 (1915) pp . 129-30:V.V. Obolenskii (Osinskii) Mezhdunarodnve i mezhkontinentatnye migratsii (Moscow: 1928) pp. 5-6: lu . D . Filipov , Emigratsiia (St Petersburg: 1906) pp . 81-96: Healy. 'Tsarist Anti­ Sernitism'. pp . 413-14. 6. M. Wischnitzer , To Dwell in Safety (Philadelphia: 1948) pp . 25-8 . 7. Th is figure applies to the United States alone, the only country for which statistics are readily available. See K. Fernberg, Evreiskaia emigratsiia (Kiev: 1908) p. 17. 8. Wischnitzer, To Dwell in Safetv, p. 30: Szajkowski, 'The Alliance Israelite Univcrsellc and East European Jewry in the I86Os', JSS 4, no. 2 (1942) pp . 158-60 . The St Petersburg paper was not the only one to urge the government to encourage the departure of Jews. See Aronson , 'Attitudes of Russian Officials', p. 5. 9. W. W . Kaplun-Kogan. Die Judischen Wanderbewcgungcn (Bonn: 1919) pp . 19, 25: Joseph, Jewish Immigration , pp . 98-104, 162-3 . 10. Wischnitzer, To Dwell in Safety . p. 38: Greenberg, The .I''l\'Sin Russia, 2, p. 62: Dubnov, History , 2, p. 285: Aronson, ' A ttitudes of Russi an Offic ials' , pp . 5-6: A. Orbach, 'The Pogroms of 1881-1882', Carl Beck Papers, no . 308 (1984) pp . 18-19. II. Orbach, Carl Beck Papers, pp . 24-8: N. M. Gelber. 'Th e Pogroms in Russia' (in Yidd ish) YIVO, Historishc Shriftn (Vilna : 1937) 2, p. 487: Dubnov,lIistory , 2, pp. 306--7. 12. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations ofthe United Stall'S. 111111-111112 (Washington: 1883) p. 452: Greenberg, The Jell's in Russia, 2. p. 28: Aronson, 'Attitudes of Russian Officials ', pp . 8-13. 13. Aronson, 'Attitudes of Russ ian Officials', p. 13: Mysh. Rukovodstvo; p. 338: Peskovskii. 'Ro ko voe nedorazurnenie', p. 389: Szajkowski, 'Alliance Israelite', p. 100: W ischnitzcr, To Dwell in Safety , p. 48. 14, Emigration and Immigration (Washington 887) pp . 324-6. 15. Mysh, Rukovodstvo, p. 339. In September 1902 an order of the Minister of Finance was issued barring the importation of shares a nd other securities of the Jew ish Co lonial Bank which had been established in London to support settlement in Palestine Ibid. p. 343 and American Jewish Yearbook (Philadelphia: 1903) p. 217. 16. Wischnitzer, To Dwell in Safety, pp . 69, 105: S. A. lanovskii and A. I. Kastclianskii, Spravochnaia kniga (St Petersburg: 1913) p. 76. The bureau functioned for only two years and did not resume operations until October 1904. 17. On the JCA (in Russian: EKO) see EE, 8, pp . 503-7: Baron, The Russian Jew, pp . 88-9: Dubnov. Historv, 2, pp . 414-21. 18. Szajkowski, ' Ho w the Mass Migration to America Began'. .ISS, 4. no . 4 (1942) p. 309. 19. Komitet Ministrov,lstoricheskii obzor , 4, pp. 182-7 : lanovskii in Emigration Conditions . pp . 260--1 : Mysh, Rukovodstvo, pp . 340--5. 20. Bunge, Zap iska. pp . 28, 32-3. 21. Obolenskii, Migrat sii. p. 5: Mysh, Rukovodstvo, p. 342: lanovskii in Emigration Conditions , pp . 261. 261 22. Ianovskii, Emigration Conditions , p. 263: Efren, ' Russkoe ernigratsionnoe dvizhenie', pp . 105-9 . 23. Wischnitzer, To Dwel! in Safety. pp . 105-9 : EKO, Obshchie ukazaniia (St Petersburg: 1906) pp . 14-15 : JCA, Rapport , . pour l'annec 1907 (Paris: 19(8) and subsequent year s. 24. JCA, Rapport .. . pour l'annec 1912 (Paris: 19(3) p. 263: lanovski i and Kastelianskii. Spravochnaia Kniga, p. 47. Notes and References 263

25. Efren , 'Russkoe ernigrats ionnoe dvizhenie', p. 135 and lanovskii in Emig ration Conditions, p. 253. 'Every year scores of emigrants fall under the bullets of the frontier guard, and still the clande stine traffic goes on as usual'. 26. Ian ovskii in Emigration Conditions , pp . 253, 338. 27. Kaplun-Kogan, Die judi schen Wanderbewegungen , pp. 38-40. 28. Emigration Conditions. p. 309; I. M. Rubinow,'Economic Conditions of the Jews in Russia', US Department of Commerce and Labor, Bulletin ofthe Bureau 01'Lab or, no. 72 (1907) p. 529. 29. P. Cowen , Memoirs of an American Jew (New York : 1932) pp. 235, 237; Efren, ' Russkoe emigratsionnoe dvizhenie' . p. 130; lanovskii in Emigration Conditions. p. 258. 30. lan ovskii. Em igration Conditions;Cowen, Memoirs, pp. 234-5 ; E/:.'. 16, pp. 266--7 ; Hurnc, Thirtv-five Years , p. 229: J. D. Whelpley , The Problem of Immigration (Lond on: 1905) p. 287. 31. B. Kurchevskii, 0 russk oi emigratsii (Libava: 1914) p. 13. 32. There was some realization of the economic harm that a Jewi sh exodus would cause. See Aro nson. 'Attitudes of Russian Officials' , p. 9; G . A. Aleksinskii, 'Ekonomicheskie itogi ant isernitizma v Rossii', So vremennyi mir, no. 10(1913) pp. 177-89; M. Bernatskii, 'The Jews and Russian Economic Life' in G or'kii, The Shield, pp. 77- 9 1. 33. Herzl, Tagebucher. 3. pp. 477-8. 34. Adler and Margalith. With Firmness, p. 266--8.

7 THE FORMATION OF THE RUSSIAN RIGHT

I. I have in mind the Holy Brotherhood , the 'police socialism' of Zubatov and Father G apon 's Assembly of Russian Fact o ry Workers. 2. Sec, for example , M. N. Pokrovskii, 'Mir i reaktsiia', in Pok rovski i (ed.) 1905-lstor iia revoliutsionnogo dvizhen iia (Moscow-Leningrad: 1925) 2, pp. 237-41. 3. K. F. Golovin, Moi vospominaniia (St Petersburg: 1908-10) 2, p. 36. 4. G urka , Features and Figures , p.382. 5 . Lukashcvich, 'The Hol y Brotherho od'. 6. RV, no. 3 (1906) p. 298: A. I. Bogdanovich, Godv pereloma (St Petersburg: 1908) pp.320-6. 7. Gurka, Features and Figures. p. 381. 8. V. Levitskii, 'Pravye partii' in L. Manov ct al. (eds) Obshchestvcnnoc dvizhcnic (St Petersburg: 1909-14) 3, p. 357; Viktorov and Che rnovskii. Soiu: russk ogo naroda, p. 3 (hereafter cited as SRN) ; Lctopis' Russkogo Sobraniia, May 1901. pp. J-4. 9. For names of the founding members see l.etopis' Russkogo Sobran iia, pp . 32-45 . Membership lists for later years in nos 1and 3, 1903.IzI'l'stiia Russkoyo Sobran iia. no. I (1904) gives a tota l of 2326 members. L. M. Spirin's survey of 'landlord an d bourgeois part ies' - Krushenie pom eshchich'ikh i burzhuaznvkh partii (Moscow: 1977) - devotes pp . 157-9 to the Russian Assembly and gives its initial membership as 120and as 2300 in 1906, 500 of them outside the capit al. 10. Mirnyi Trud, no. 4 (1902) p. 198. Th is jo urnal was published by the Khar'kov branch of the Russian Assembly a nd edited by its chairma n and later Dum a deput y. Professor A. S. Viazigin: see also VE. no. 4 (1903) p. 900, for a quotation from a prominent member of the Assembl y in praise of bur eaucratic as aga inst self-govern ment. II. S. F. Sha rapov in Russkoe Delo, 5 March 1905, p. 12. 12. RV, no. I (1903) pp . 398-9 ; Izvestiia Russk ogo Sobraniia, no. 3 (1903) p. 5. For the branches. see Mirnyi Trud , no. 5 (1906) p. 221 and RV, no. 3 (1906) pp. 297-8 . 13. Letter of Boris Niko l'skii, 25 Decemb er 1905. in Bvloe, no. 21 (1923) pp. 16~ 70; Gurko, Features and Figures, p. 435. 264 Notes and References

14. Levitskii, ' Pra vye partii'. p. 359; RV, no . 12 (1904) p. 289; no . 2 (1905) p. 836 ; no. 3 (1906) p.297. 15 . RV, no . 5 (1906) p. 329; P, Almazov, Nasha revoliutsiia(Kiev: 1908) p. 670; T . Emmons, The Formation of Political Parties (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1983) p. 148. 16. V. A. Obraztsov, Torzhcstovo russkogo ob'dineniia (Khar'kov: 1912) p. 33. In an appeal of November 1905, the Assembly declared that the October Manifesto had left intact the autocracy and its powers. The promised Duma was to restri ct itself to practical tasks - elaborating and discussing legislative proposals a nd supervising a bureaucracy that was distinct from the monarch. After accusing the Jews of being enemies of Christianity a nd striving for world domination, the appeal called for a solution of the Jewi sh que stion separately from that of other nationalities a nd concluded with the slogan 'Russia for the Russians'. 17. Bolshaia Sovestskaia Entsiklopediia, 61 (Moscow: 1934) p. 354; Levitskii, ' Pra vye partii', pp . 374-5:V. Mech', Silv reakt sii (Moscow: 1907) p. 55. L-g, 'Mornenty kontr­ revoliutsii', in V. G . Groman, et al., Itogi i perspektivy (Moscow: 1906) p. 55, reports a fantastic claim of unknown origin that the Religious Banner-carriers had been able to recruit 200 000 members. 18. N. I. Lazarevskii (ed .) Zakonodatelnve akty pcrekhodnogo vremeni 1904-1908 gg : (St Petersburg: 1909) 3rd edn pp . 18--23. 19. L~, 'Momenty', p. 45. 20. Gurko, Features and Figures, p. 381 21. Pokrovskii, 1905 - Istoriia, p. 237. At the very worst, Archbishop Antonii of Volynia wrote to Boris Nikol'skii on 9 August 1905, the liberal nightmare would last onl y a year and a half. then the muzhichok with his pitchfork would restore the old order of things. Bvloe , no . 21 (1923) p. 165. 22. Gurko, Features and Figures , p. 384. 23. Manning, The Crisis ofthe Old Order, pp . 112-13. 24. Zemskii Sobor i Zcmskaia Duma (St Petersburg: 1905) pp . iii- viii. 25. VE, no . 8 (1905) pp. 748-52; RV, no . 8 (1905) pp . 713-15. 26. RV, no. 8: on the activity of the Fatherland Union see Gurko, Features and Figures, pp . 385,433-4.Its electoral program is contained in Polnoe sobrante podrobnykh program sushchestvuiushchikh russkikh politicheskikh partii (Vilna: 1906) pp. 1-7 . It is significant that this compendium, approved for publication by the censor in January 1906, makes no mention of the SRN . 27. Gurko, Features and Figures, pp . 42>-7. 28. Levitskii , ' Pravye partii', p. 365; Slon imskii , 'N ashi monarkhisty i ikh programmy' , VE, no . 5 (1907) p. 257. 29. Von Laue, 'Count Witte and the Russian Revolution of 1905', ASEER 17, no . I (1958) p.30. 30. Lcvitskii , ' Pra vye partii', pp . 362-4, 371; Mech ', Sir\, Reaktsii, p. 60: V. N. Zalczhskii, Monarkhistv (Khar'kov : 1930) 2nd edn , pp. 14-20 . 31. Zalezhskii , Monarkhisty, pp . 21-2: Pokrovskii, 1905 - Istoriia, pp . 238-41; Levitskii, ' Pravye partii', pp . 370-3: L. Bernstein, Les Cent Noirs (Paris: 1907) pp . 6--7, 34: A. A. Kizevcuer, Na rubezhe dvukh stoletii (Pr ague: 1929) p. 400. Not all these groups were mer ely casually collected pogrom bands. A few had pretensions of becoming more permanent organizations. Among them were the Bessarabian Patriotic League, founded in April ; in Moscow, the Union of Like-Minded Men of all Classes, the Political Brotherhood, the Progressive-Nationalist Party (A . S. Shmakov, N. A. Naidenov, V. I. Ger'e. N. A. Khomiakov), the Club of the Union of Monarchists (B. V. Stiirmer,V. I. Gurko, N. A. Pavlov) apparently .a precursor of the Fatherland Un ion . See Lg, 'Momcmy'. pp . 54-5. 32 . VI:'. no . 11 (1905) pp. 449-50. As late as 1913, when the Black Hundreds phenomenon had long passed its peak, Lenin wrote that it contained 'one extremely original a nd important feature to which not enough attention has been paid - its ben ighted peasant Notes and References 265

[muzhitskill democratism. which is very coarse and also very deep- seated'. Polnoc sobranie sochinenii, 24 (Moscow: (961) pp . 18-19 . 33. Levitskii , 'Pravye partii', pp . 370-6; A. S. Izgoev, RUSJkoe obshchestvo i revoliutsiia (Moscow: 1910) p. 9; A. Morskoi,lskhodrusskoi revoliutsii 1905!? (Moscow: 1911)p. 53; RE, no . 9 (1905) p. 153; Tikhomirov, '25 let nazad', KA , 40 (1930) pp . 78-9. 34. Maevskii , Revoliutsioneir-monarkhist, p. 78. Wille sta ted in his memoirs (Vospominaniia. 3, pp. 468-9) that Gringmut became head of the Moscow Union of Russian People in Otober 1905. There is no evidence that Gringmut adhered to the SRN in a formal sense , but he collaborated with it and moved close to it in thought and action. See Tikhornirov (note 33, pp . 84-107.); VE, no . 9 (1906) p. 429; Spirin. Krushenie, p. 187. 35. Tikhornirov (note 33) pp. 59, 72-3 . Levitskii , 'Pravye partii', pp. 404-12, gives som e estimates of Right strength for the years 1906-7 . At the time of the first Duma, the Right conducted a campaign of telegrams to the government and the tsar, protesting against the Duma majority's demands for a political amnesty and the abolition of the death penalty. A collection of these telegrams was publ ished shortly after the dissolution of the Duma. The number of organizations mentioned as having sent such telegrams furnishes a clue to the relative strength of various groups and tells us something about how effective these were in gelling their following 10 act . The Monarchist Party was represented by five telegrams - one from Moscow, the remainder from local branches.A group called the Autocratic-Monarchist Party, which mayor may not have been related to the Monarchist Party. sent three telegrams from as many branches. See Trebovaniia Dumv i golos russkikh liudei (Moscow: 1906) pp. 37-66 and Emmons, The Formation of Political Parties, p. 148. Spirin, Krushenie. pp . 167 and 340-1 considers the party organizers' claim of 10--12000 members to be inflated and estimates their total number to have been 'over 2000' in 1905-7. 36. On the Patriotic Circle , see Russkoe Delo, 31 March 1905, pp . 2-3; for the history and program of the Union of Russian Men; Levitskii , ' Pravye partii', pp . 366-70;Manning. The Crisis of the Old Order. pp . 430--1 ; Mech', Sily Reaktsii, pp . 59, 63-9; Zalezhskii. Monarkhisty; pp . 22-5 ; H. Jablonowski, 'Die russischen Rechtsparteien' in Russland Studien (Stuttgart: 1957) pp . 43-5. Mech', Levitskii and Jablonowski speak ofa plan by members of the Union of Russian Men to found a Russian People's Party iRussk aia Narodnaia Partiia) after 17 October 1905. Although the party was never launched. these writers assumed that its program reflected that of the Union of Russian Men . In spite of certain similarities. this is not justified. The program of the Russian Peopl e's Parry . largely formulated by Sharapov (and publi shed in his weekly Russkoe Dclo on 19 November 19(5) was never accepted by his associates in the Union of Russian Men . II went further than they were prepared to go in returning Russia to pre-Petrine foundations, in expanding the areas of self-government in church and state (including Finland and Poland) and in restricting state supervision of the life of the people. Thus. Sharapov and the program of the proje cted party denied to the tsar both headship a nd authority in the church. considering him merely the first of its sons and defenders a nd asked that the entire church administration be made elective, with lay councillors assisting the Patriarch. II is probably over its failure to follow him on these issues that Sharapov soon broke with the Union of Russian Men . To him , the entire Right was still the captive of an official patriotism. 'St Petersburg liberalism and Petersburg reaction are fruits of one and the same tree.' This failure of the Right to gain true independence had handed victory to the Cadets. Russkoe Delo,5 February 1906. p. 2 and 17April 1906. p. 7. On Sharapov, also see Lowe . Antisemitismus. pp. 26-9 . 94-5. 37. Gurko, Features and Figures, p. 386; Levitskii, ' Pravye partir', p. 406. mentions seven branches of the Union of Russian Men ; Trehovaniia Dumy; four. It remained essentiall y a local Moscow organization; cf. Manning. The Crisis ofthe Old Order. pp . 91, 93. 113. 38. Russkoe Delo, 19 February 1905. pp . 4-5 and 26 February 1905. pp . 1-4. 39. Mech', Silv reakt sii, p. 68; Pakhar. no. 11-12 (1905) pp, 29 ff. Russkoc Delo (9 July 19(5) even conducted a 'plebiscite' in its pages to show the strength of sentiment against extending Jewish rights and concluding peace with Japan. 266 Notes and References

40. Zalezhskii. Monarkhistv, p. 24. 41. L. Decle, The New Russia (London: 19(6) PI' . 230-5. 42. Gerassimoff, Der Kampf, PI'. 215-30. On Dubrovin and the origins of his movement, cf. Nikol'skii, 'Dnevnik', KA, 63 (1934) p. 88; SRN, PI'. 81-8; Lowe. Antisemitismuscsu». 88, 99. 43. Much remains obscure about the role played by members ofthe court or government in the foundation of the URI'. Santoni ('I'.N. Durnovo', p. 546) stat es that Durnovo knew of it but that there is no evidence to show that he approved of the organization or supported it. Spirin tKrushenie, PI' . 169,354), citing Witte, writes that Dumovo was in close touch with the URI' and spo nso red tpokrovitelstvovah it. Cf. Rawson, 'T he Union o f the Russi an People', p. 59; Ville. Vospom inaniia , 3, PI" 42, 93-5, 380; Raukh, 'Dnevnik', PI'. 84-94; Nikol 'skii, 'Dnevnik', PI'. 84-8; SRN, PI" 29,34-5,88; Gurko, Features and Figures. p. 435; Lowe. Antisemitismus, p. 100; note 48. 44. There is d isagreement in the sources about the exact date of the URp's foundation. Organized on 22 October 1905. it appears to have been formally launched on 8 November and to have held its first open meeting on 21 November. 45. Nikol'skii, 'Dncvnik', p. 88; Levitskii, ' Pra vye partii', PI'. 380-2, 394. 408 ; RV. no. 3 (1906) p. 306. According to Spirin iKrushenie, p. 159) of eight members of the council, two were noblemen, four merchants, one an ' ho no red citizen' and two were peasants (by origin). 46. RV. no . 3 (1906) p. 307, spo ke of 40 000 members in the capital alone. Later figures, emanating from the URI' itself. speak variously of 900 (in 19(6) to 4000 (in 1907) branches and (,00000 to 3 million members. The Odessa branch alone claimed 22000 members in 1907. The basis for these numbers and the criteria of membership used for compiling them arc not known. Avrekh, Chetvertaia Duma, p. 226, cites police figures for early 19OX , provided by governors and city prefects, which yield a total of 356000. Avrekh considers this improbably high but gives no estimate of his own . The highest contcrnporarv estimate. made by a hostile source, is about 100 branches with 10000 to 20 (X)O tul l-tledgcd members. (l .cvitskii. 'Pravye Partii', p. 406 .) Even this represents considerable organized strength which not many parties could match. The Cadets. for exam I'll'. who wert' the most successfu l party in elections to the first two Dumas. had trorn 70 tkX) to !OO (kXl members . 47. Rawson, 'T he I Iilion otthc Russ ian People', p. 195: Emmons, The Formarion ofPolirical l'ortics. p. 148. 48. Gurko, Feature» and Figure» p. 435 : M. Hagen, Die Entfaltung politischer Offentlichkeit in Run/and (Wicsbadcn: 1982) p. 235: Nikol'skii. 'Dnevnik', p. 86; SRN, PI'. 34-7: Zimmerman , "111<' Right Radical Movement', p. 121. 49. Manning, nil' Crisi« otthr Old Order. p, 195. 50. Raukh, 'Dncvnik', PI' . 8l?-90. 51. Nikol'skii In HI'!(I('. 21 t 1923) p. 169. 52. Alma/ov, Nasha rcvoliutsiia, p. 703; Gurko, Features and Figures. p. 436 . 5.1 l.evitskii. 'Pravye panii'. PI'. 382-9: RV, no . 3 (1906) PI'. 298-302; N. S. .Tagantsev, l'crczhiu»: (Petrograd : 1919) 2. p. 86; Zalezhskii, Monarkhisty. 1'.55. 54. Slonisrnkii . ' Nashy rnonarkhisty'. PI'. 268-9; L. A. Velikhov, Svravnitetnaia tablitsa (St Petersburg: 19(6). 55. Sec the 27 January 1906 appeal of the Russian Assembly, to which the URI' subscribed. in RV. no . 3 (1906) p. 305, a nd a declaration of the URI' quoted by N.D. Noxkov, Okhrunitel'nvc i reaktsionnye partii (St Petersburg: 1906) p. 40. 5( 1. V. lvanovich (comp.) Rossiiskiia partii (St Petersburg: 1906) PI'. 117-22; Levitskii, 'Pruvvc partii'. p. 399. N. E. Markov, one of th e prominent figures of the URI', testified in 1917 before an invest igating commission of the Provisional Government tlral the majority view in the Union had always been for participation in the Duma. (Shchcgolcv. Padmic. 6, PI'. 176-8.) For the minority view . held by Dubrovin, see .'I'RN. p. 56. The URI' at this time made no concrete proposals as to how the land- Notes and References 267

hunger of the peasants could be sat isfied. The statutes of 1906 merely suggested that resolution of this question should await a clear and uniform expressi on of peasant views. 57. R. Rexheuser, Dumawahlen und Iokale Gesellschaft (Cologne: 1980) p. 10, gives the percentage of Right deputies in the first Duma as 1.4. There were founeen Right deputies in that body ('who called themselves "moderate" Rightists') acco rd ing to Spirin iKrushenie, p. 341) and sixteen according to Zimmerman, 'The Right Radical Movement', p. 311). He describes three of these as being, in a formal sense , Right Radicals and two as having been elected by a local Right Radical-Octobrist coalition. 'The Classification of the remaining eleven deputies is justified on the basis of their own professions of suppon for Right Radical ideas , or on the judgement of different observers of these men as "extreme Rightists".' Rawson, 'the Union of the Russian People', pp . 202-3, calculates an average of Right votes for the country as a whole of 5 per cent but states that no URP or hard-core righti st candidate won election. Cf. L-g, 'Momenty'. p. 61; G erassimoff, Der Kampf. p. 113; Zalezhskii, Monarkhistv. p. 46. 58. The Right frequently complained of the government's unwillingness to furnish assistance in the elections. See. for example. Gurko, Features and Figures, p. 437; SRN. pp . 34-7. Wille insisted that to prove the sincerity of the intentions proclaimed in the October Manifesto. the government must refrain from interference in the elections. 59. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia, p. 153. 60. G. V. Butrni, Rossiia na rasput'i (St Petersburg: 1906) p. 44; Levitskii, ' Pravye partii'. pp . 398.453-62; Rawson 'The Union of the Russian People'. p. 211; Spirin, Krushenie. pp . 161-2; SRN, p. 15; Zimmerman, 'The Right Radi cal Movement' . pp. 334-5.402-4. 61. Nikol'skii in Byioe, 21 (1923) p. 161. 62. Quoted from no . 231 of Russkoe Znamia by Noskov, Okhraniteinve i reaktsionnye partii, p. 42. 63. Kryzh anovskii, Vospominaniia, p, 152; SRN, pp . 38-40; Diakin, Samoderzhavie. burzhuaziia i dvorianstvo (Leningrad: 1978) pp . 80-1 ; Zimmerman. 'The Right Radical Movement'. p. 121. 64. B. Pares . My Russian Memoirs (London: 1931) pp . 126.214-15. On Stolypin's attitude to the Right, see also Conroy. Stolypin, pp. 30-1: A.V. Tyrkova-Williams. Na putiakh k svobode (New York : 1952) p. 359. 65. Hagen. Entfaltung , pp . 242-3; Rawson. 'The Union of the Russian People'. p. 216: Spirin, Krushenie. p. 341. Rexheuser, Dumawahlen, p. 10, gives the percentage of rightist members in the second Duma as 6.3. Zimmerman, whose definition of Right is broader. as II. ('The Right Radical Movement, p. 357.) 66. Jablonowski. ' Rechtsparteien'. pp . 45-7; Zimmerman , 'Th e Right Radical Movement'. p. 124. lists sixteen additional cities in which URP fighting bands operated. 67. V. A . Sukhornlinov. Vospominaniia (Berlin: 1924) p. 179.

8 WAS THERE A RUSSIAN FASCISM?

I. G . Bruun and V.S. Marnatey, The World in the 20th Century (Boston: 1962) 4th edn, p. 891; Zalezhskii. Monarkhisty, p. 30. 2. S. B. Liubosh , Russkiifashist Vladimir Purishkevich (Len ingrad: 1925) p. 29. 3. Maevskii , Revoliutsioner-monarkhist, pp. 74, 81. 4. A. Levin, The Second Duma (New Haven: 1940) p. 27. 5. G . P. Fedotov, 'Russia and Freedom'. Review of Politics. 8. no . I (1946) p. 31. 6. 'Zhurnal'noe obozrenie'. RM, no. 5 (1906) p . 201. 7. Ville. Vospominaniia, I. pp. 282-3. 3. pp. 414-40. 8. See Chapter 7. note 61. 268 Notes and References

9. W. Z . Laqueur, Russia and Germany (Lo ndo n : 1965) pp . 50-3. The far cical a nd futil e ro le which the surviv o rs of the Russian Right pla yed in th e em igration is described by J.J. Stepha n. The Russian Fascists (New York: 1978). 10. la. G . Demche nk o, Evreiskoe ravnopravie iii russkoe paraboshchenie (Kiev: 1907) pp . 6--7; Moskovskie Vedmosti, no . 131 ( 1907) qu oted in 'Vnutrennee oboz renie' , VE. no. 8 ( 1907) p. 751. Simil ar qu otation s from RV, no . 5 (1906 ) a nd Russkoe Znamia, nos 2 12 and 365 ( 1906) in S. D . Specto r. 'The Doc trine a nd Program of the Union of Ru ssian People in 1906'. M. A. the sis. Columbia Univers ity (1952) p. 89. 11. Levin. S econd Duma. p. 27; Gruzenberg, Vchera (Paris: 1928) p. 133; SRN. p. 8; Cha pter 7. note 42. 12. See pp . 203-4. Chapter 7. 13. K. Avgu stovski i, 'v Soiu ze Ru sskogo Na roda', So vremennyi Mir, no . 9 ( 1907) pp . 61-3; Levitskii, ' Pravye partii', pp. 410-1 2; VNS. no. 33-34 (1907 ) pp . 1569-70 and no . 30 (1906) p. 1627; Spirin, Krushenie, pp . 98. 177; S RN. pp . 374. 395. 14. Diak in, Samoderzhavie, p. 80; Kryzhan o vski i, Vospominaniia, pp. 155-7; Rexbeuser , Dumawahlen, pp . 195.208. 209 .212; Shchegole v, Padenie, 6. p . 179; 'Obshch estvennaia khron ika ', VE. no . 2 (1907) p. 889; Zi mme rman. 'The Right Radical Movement'. p. 121. 15. K okovtsev, ' Interesnaia nakhodka', VI. no . 2 (1964) p. 106; Kokovt sev, Vospominaniia, 2. pp . 8-13. 80-2, 110-13. 16. Conroy. S tolypin, pp . 30-2; Diakin, Samoderzhavie, pp. 86--8. 128. 149; Kryzhanovskii , Vospominaniia, pp . 156--8. 17. Kryzh an ovskii, Vospominaniia, pp. 153-4 . 18. Avgu stovskii .rV So iuze Rus sk ogo Naroda', pp . 61 ff.; P. Timofeev, 'V chaoino i Soiuza Ru ssk ogo Naroda', RB . no . 2 ( 1907) pp . 76--7. 19. Ivan ovich, Rossiiskie partii, pp . 11S- 22. contai ns the UR P program of ea rly 1906. For attacks on the rich. th e ed uca ted a nd the powerful. see: Spector,' Doctrine a nd Program', p. 54 (ag a inst liberal ism in the church hierarchy); I. K ashkarov, 'K ak sa novniki podryvaiut samoderzhavnuiu vlast':Mimy Trud, no. 7 ( 1906) pp . 171-95. o n bu rea uc ractic subv ers ion of imperial autho rity; Zalezh skii, Monarkhisty, p. 26. has examples of denunciat ion s of m inisters and demands for the accountabitity of a ll public servants: 'Khronika vnutre nnei zhiz ni'. RB . no. 4 ( 1908) p . 66. cites UR P attacks on judicia l autho rities . higher educa tiona l insti tutions a nd ecclesiastical seminaries a nd academies for helping to undermine th e au tho rity o f state a nd tsa r. 20. Av rekh, Chetvertaia Duma, pp. 234-8; Avgusto vskii, 'V Soiuze Ru sskogo ' Naroda, pp . 63-6. 72: SRN. pp . 379-80 . 39S-9 . 21. SRN. pp. 401-3. In the Duma itself. the URP deputy N . E. Marko v d escri bed the qu iet which had descended up on the country as dec eptive and merely the prelude to another revolution ary sto rm . Av rekh, S tolypin, p. 284. 22. Shc hegolev, Padenie, 6. p. 179. 23. At its session of 20 August 1907. th e co u ncil of the U RP learned that its treasu ry was a lmost empty a nd that the furt her existence of its newspaper was in qu est ion. VNS. no. 33-4 ( 1907) p. 1568: A. Levin . The Reactionary Tradition in the Election Campaign to the Third Duma (Stillwater , Oklah oma: 1962) p. 13; Ra wson . 'U n ion of the Ru ssian People'. p. 76. 24. SRN. p. 391. 25. Bern stein. u s Cent noirs, pp. 43-8; G erassimoff, Der Kampf. pp . 212. 216 ; Hagen, Entfaltung, pp . 204. 239: Kizevetrer. Na rubezhe, p. 508; Levin. Reactionary Tradition. p. 25. O n Kursk province. see Rexheuser , Dumawahlen, ch. 3. and on URP relat ion s with the Orthodox Church. Agursky , 'Caught in a Cross-Fire', Orientalia Christiana Periodica 5. fasc. I (1984 ) pp. 163-96. In 1908. the Hol y Synod permitted clergy to participate in and bless ac tivities of the UR P and other monarch ist orga nizations. Th ere was. however . so me resistan ce to th is a mo ng the clergy. 26. Av rekh, Chetvertaia Duma . p. 40; D ia kin, Samoderzhavie, pp . 32-3; Gurko, Features and Figures, pp. 436--7: Notes and References 269

In normal times, no government should use methods employed by revolutionists, for in its hands such methods become double-edged weapons. But during times of revolutionary unrest, when the people are in the grip of a mass psychosis, the government must support individual organizations that spring up to support it. In 1905, the URP was such an organization.

27. Edelman, Gentry Politics, pp . 67-9; Raws on , 'T he Union of the Russian People', p.226. 28. R. Reynolds, My Russian Year (London: 1913) p. 139, speaks of numbers of 'nice' Russian women who joined the URP - 'just as numbers of niceEnglish women became members of the Primrose League' - but who then became dismayed by its terror methods and the ruffians in its midst. 29. Shul'gin, Tri stolitsy, p. 351. 30. Levitskii, 'Pravye partii', p. 402; B. V. Nazarevskii, Osnovy parlamentskogo stroia (Moscow: 1907) pp. 16--18. 31. P. N. Miliukov, Vospominaniia (New York : 1955) I, p. 421; VNS , no. 6 (1907) p. 431. 32. Gruzenberg, Vchera, p. 133; SRN, p. 87. Bofshaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 61 (1934) p. 356, also mentions the Bolshevik Bauman as a victim of URP assassins. 33. Levitskii , 'Pravye partii ', p. 445; Spector, 'Doctrine and Program, pp. 35, 38,40: SRN, pp .401-3. 34. Mech', Sily Reaktsii, p. 85; Timofeev, 'v chainoi', p. 76. 35. Avrekh, Chetvertaia Duma, pp . 224-39; Shchegolev, Padenie, 6, pp . 176--7; Spirin, Krushenie, pp . 82- 7. 36. N. E. Markov, Voiny temnykh sit (Paris: 1928) p. 129; Noskov, Okhranitetnye i reaktsionnye partii, p. 40; RV, no . 3 (1906) p. 305. 37. Levin ,SecondDuma, p.67 ; Levitskii,Pravyepartii,p.460.Cf. Chapter7, notes 57and65. 38. Rawson: The Union of the Russian People', p. 221, concludes that in the case of the first as in that of the second Duma, the petitions ofthe Right served mainly to reinforce decisions that the government had already taken. 39. Butrni. Rossiia na rasput'i, pp . 33-4. 40. Markov, Voiny temnykh sil, pp . 134-5 . 41. For the text of the address, see VNS , no. 46 (1907) pp . 1980-1 ; for the electoral statistics, Levin, Reactionary Tradition, p. 45; Rawson, 'Th e Union of the Russian People', p. 226; Spirin , Krushenie, p. 341. 42. Levin, Reactionary Tradition, p. .l2; Diakin, Samoderzhavie, pp . 196--7. 43. SRN, pp . 402-3; A . S. Izgoev, ' Pered tret 'ei Dumoi', RM , no. 10 (1907) p. 210. 44. LOwe, Antisemitismus , p. 252 (note 4); Markov, Voiny temnykh sil. p. 138; Shchegolev. Padenie.b , p. 175. 45. One deputation to the tsar. whose spokesman was Boris Nikol'skii of the URP, was so insistent on this point that the Ministry of the Imperial Court prohibited the publication of his address to the emperor. iByloe. no . 21, pp. 16&-9, 184.) Shul'gin describes the presentation to the emperor of a petition by the Volynian URP which asked, in 1909, for the retention of autocracy. See his Dni(Berlin : 1925) pp . 255-8. 46. Levitskii , 'Pravye partii ', p. 422 ; T ikhornirov, '25 let nazad', KA, 61 (1933) p. IOl 47. Tikhornirov, '25 let nazad', pp . 41-2 (1930) pp. 130-2. In a letter of2July 1906, Nikol'skii called Nicholas an idiot and predicted that the dynasty would be removed, 'in the Serbian manner', by Siberian officers . Byloe, no. 21 p. 185. 48. Levitskii. ' Pravye partii', p. 422; S. R. Mintslov, Peterburg v 1903-19/0 godakh (Riga : 1931) pp. III, 231; Ville, Vospominaniia , 2, p. 555. 49. Spirin . Krushenie, pp . 210--12. SO. VNS , no . 20 (1907) pp . 1223, 1227-8. On the URP's ambiguous and divided position on the peasant commune, see Zimmerman, 'Th e Right Radical Movement', pp . 334, 403-4,431-2. There was unanimity, however, on preventing the purchase of allotment land by 'undesirable clements', especially Jews and Poles. 270 Notes and References

51. VNS. no. 20 (1907) pp . 1228-32 ; no. 29-30 (1907) p. 1481; no . 33--4 (1907) p. 1569. 52. Butrni, Rossiia na rasput'i, p. 44; Mech' , S il y reaktsii, p. 86. 53. RV. no. II (1906) p. 315. 54. Bernstein . Les Cent Noirs, pp. 9-12; Levin. Reactionary Tradition. pp . 18-19; VNS . no . 20 (1907) p. 1235. 55. Stephan. The Russian Fascists, p. 17, states (without identifying a source) that Purishkevich wanted all Jews resettled in Kolyma (in north-eastern Siberia) and that Dubrovin and Markov called for their physical extermination. According to Lowe. Antisemitismus , pp. 135. 257 (note 9) all three and their organizations demanded that Jews be expelled from Russia . 56. N. Zhedenov, Margarinovye monarkhisty (St Petersburg; 1912); Vasileostrovtsy 0 glavnosovetchikakh (St Petersburg; 1911) pp . i-iv, 147-52. 57. Avrekh, Stolypin, p. 228; cf. this chapter, note 23. Bibliography

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ASEER American Slavic and East European Review CASS Canadian-American Slavic Studies/Revue Canadienne-Americaine d'Etudes Slaves CSS California Slavic Studies EE Evreiskaia Entsiklopediia EJ Encyclopaedia Judaica EKO Evreiskoe Kolonizatsionnoe Obshchestvo EL Evreiskaia Letopis' JCA Jewish Colonization Association JE Jewish Encyclopedia JSS Jewish Social Studies KA Krasnyi Arkhiv PPSZ Pervoe Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov RB Russkoe Bogatstvo RM Russkaia Mysl' RR Russian Review RV Russkii Vestnik SEER Slavonic and East European Review SJA Soviet Jewish Affairs SR Slavic Review SRL Soiuz Russkikh Liudei SRN Soiuz Russkogo Naroda URM Union of Russian Men URP Union of Russian People VE Vestnik Evropy VI Voprosy Istorii VNS Vestnik Narodnoi Svobody VPSZ Vtoroe Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov YIVO Yidisher Visenshaftlikher Institut

283 Index of Names

Aehrenthal, A. L., Austrian Bulatsel',P.F.• member of Russian ambassador to Russia Assembly and URP. 192.204 (1899-1906), 79 Bulygin, A. G.• minister of the Aksakov, I. S.. Slavophile publicist. interior (1905),86, 194. 197. 199 35.37 Bunge. N. Kh., minister of finance Alexander I, Russian emperor (1881-86); chairman. Committee (1801-25).8 of Ministers (1887-95). 61. 70-4 Alexander II. Ru ssian emperor 110. 143, 15&-7 (1855-81). 12, 16,70.85, 121, 126, 133 Alexander III. Russian emperor Catherine II (the Great). Russian (1881-94),22,26,29,49.57,66, empress (1762-96). &-7. 9. 10. 85, 107. 144, 153, 155. 180 116,255n9 Altaras, J. I., Jewish philanthropist, Cremieux, I. A.. president. Alliance 177 Isrelitc lJniversclle (1864-80). Antonii Khrapovitskii, Archbishop of 128, 178 Volynia, sponsor of URP, 264n21 Dohm, C. W.. German historian and diplomat, advocate of Jewish Balashev, P. N .. Nationalist leader emancipation. 13 and Duma member. 97, 98 Dondukov-Korsakov, A. M .• Bark.P. L.. minister of finance governor-general of Kiev (1813-17~ 103. 252nl42 (1869-78), Khar'kov (1880-1) Beilis, M.• and Beilis Case, 33. 40-55, and Odessa (1881-2), 127-30, 14 220 Dostoevskii, F. M .• 66. 110 Bismarck. 0 .. German chancellor Drenteln,A.R.• governor-general of (1871 -90), 19,58,75 Kiev (1881-8). 135 Bleichroder, G., German-Jewish Dreyfus. A., and Dreyfus Affair, I, banker. 19. 245n26 40 Bobrinskii.. Aleksander A.• member Dubasov, F. V., admiral, 164 of Holy Brotherhood. 30 Dubrovin, A. I.. organizer and leader Bobrinskii, Aleksei A., member of of URP, 192, 193. 203-5, 210. Fatherland Union and President, 215.217,218,221, 223, 228, 231. Council of the United Nobility, 266n56, 270n55 195 Durnovo, I. N.• minister of the Bogdanovich, E. V.. retired general. interior (1889-95); chairman. publisher of patriotic brochures. Committee of Ministers 32 (1895-1903). 74. 76. 154. 180, Bogrov. D .. assassin of Stolypin. 98 247n66. 249n 10

284 Index of Names 285

Dumovo, P. N ., director of Police Gresser. P. A.. prefect of St Department (1883-93); assistant Petersburg (1882-92), 247n62 mini ster of the interior (1900-5), Gringmut,G.A., editor of Moscow mini ster (1905-6), 7&-7, 78, 79, News (1897-1907); founder of 162, 203, 204,215, 247n os7,68 Monarchist Party (1905). 197-200. 201-2 Elizabeth, Ru ssian empress (1741-62), Guchkov, A. I.. leader of Octobrist 5 Party. member and pre sident of III Duma. 91 Feokt istov, E. M ., d irector of Main Guenzburg (G intsburg). H. 0 .. Bureau of Press AlTairs Ru ssian-Jewish banker a nd (1883-96),35 philanthropist , 30. 75, 76, 8 1, 82, Filipov , T. I., state comptroller 178. 247n62 (1889-99), 75 Gurko, V. I.. official in Ministry of Francis I, Au strian emperor the Interior. assistant mini ster (1804-35). 15 (190&-7) .91-2.93.94,99. 194-5 Francis Joseph. Austrian emperor (1848-1916), 18 Herzl. T., founder of political Frederick II (the Great), Prussian Zionism. 80-1. 82. 85. 86. 16(}-1 king (1740--86). 7 Hirsch. M .. founder of Jewish Fredericks. V. B.. minister of the Colonization Association, 180 imperial court (1897-1917), Hitler,A.. 229-31 247n62 Humboldt. W .. German phil ologist and sta tesma n, ad vocate of Geiden, P. A.. constitutional Jewish emancipati on . 13 monarchist ; Octobrist member of I Duma, 91 lanushkevich , N . N.. chief of sta ll to Gerasimov, A. V.. gen eral of Commander-in-Chief (1914-15). ge nda rmes. 203-4 101 Gertsenshtein, M. la .. Cadet deputy lgnat'ev. A. P.. governor-general of in I Duma. 220 Kiev (1889-96); member . G essen , I. V., co-founder of Cadet Council of State (l X96--1906). Party and deputy in II Duma. 163 220 lgnat'ev, N . P.. mini ster of the G olitsyn, D . P.. pre sident of Ru ssian interior (1882-2). 2X. 29. 5X-62. Assembly. novel ist (pseud. 76. 107, 135-944. 17X-9. 243n4 Muravlin), 191 Iliodor. S. F., rightist priest and G orchakov, A. M .. mini ster of propagandist . 44. 225 foreign alTairs (1856-82). 13 Iollos, G . B.. Cadet deputy in I G orernykin, I. L.. minister of the Duma. assassinated hy right ­ int erior (1895-99); chairman, wing terrorists. 220 Council of Ministers (1906, lu shchinskii, A.. supposed vict im of 1914-16).76, 103. 104. 157 ritual murder. 40. 42 . 44. 45 G ot ovt sev , D . V.• assistant mini ster Izvol'skii, A.P.. foreign min ister of the interior ( 1881-4), 59. 62. (1906--10). 250nlO9 13&-8. 139 Gregoire,H.B., French clergyman ; J abotinsky. V.. Zioni st politi cian and ad voca te of Jewish writer. 174 emancipation. 13 J oseph II. Au stri an emperor. 3. 15 286 Index of Names

Karavaev,A. L.. Labourite deputy in L'vov, G.E., zernstvo liberal, Cadet I Duma. assassinated by right­ member of I Duma, 90 wing terrorists, 220 Kaulbars, A. V.. civil and military Makarov, A. A., assistant minister governor of Odessa (1905-9). (1906-9) and minister of the 219 interior (1911-12). 45. 46 Kharitonov, P. A.. state comptroller Maklakov, N.A.. minister of the (1907-16). 104 interior (1912-15).33,41. 46.52 Kiselcv, P.D.. minister of state Maklakov, V.A.. liberal politician domains (IR37-56), head of and lawyer, 44--5 Jewish Committee (IR40-56). Makov, L. S.• minister of the interior 10-1 I. 12\ (1878-80). 76, 144 Kokovtsev, V.N o, minister of finance Markov.N. E.. URP leader and (1904--5). chairman. Council of memher of III and IV Dumas. Minister (1911-14).44.87,91-3. 221 .223-4.231. 266n56. 268021. 94. 98-100. 164--6, 216. 249n87 270n55 Koni, A.F.. liberal jurist. senato r. Mase (Mazch). J.. rahbi of Moscow, member of State Council, 91 47 Konstantin Konstantinovich, grand Me shcherskii. V. P.. reactionary duke. chief of military publisher and journalist, 49 educational institutions Mcndelssohns, German-Jewish (1900-10).35 hankers. 99 Kot zebue. P. E.. governor-general of Migulin. P. P.. professor of New Russia (1862-74).122-3. economics. Khar'kov University. 126 163 Krivoshein. A. V.. minister of Miliukov, P. N.• historian, Cadet agriculture (1908-15). 103. 104. leader and deputy in III and IV 105. \70 Dumas . 21. 27. 28. 220 Krushevan. P. A.. right-wing publicist Miliutin, D. A.. minister of war and member of II Duma. 191 (1861-81).131. 132, 253nl53 Krvzhanovskii.S.Eo, ass istant Mirabcau, H. G . R; French - minister of the interior revolutionarv statesman and (1906-11). 217 advocate of Jewish equality. 13 Kutaisov,P. L major-general. Montefiore, M; president of Board commissioned by Alexander III of Deputies of British Jews to report on 1881 pogroms. 133. (I R35-74). 128 135 Mussolini. 8.. 229-30. 232 l.arnbsdorff (Larnzdorf),V.N.. Napoleon I. French emperor. 15 assistant minister of foreign Nicholas I. Russian emperor affairs (IR97-1900) and mini ster (1825-55).10-11. 12. 16.35. (1900-6). JR. R7 117-18. 119. 177, 255nll l.anskoi. S. S.. minister of the interior Nicholas II. Russian emperor ( 1855-(1). 122, 123 (IR94--191 7). 18.24.32.41. I.opukhin. A. A.. director of Police 4R-50. 57. 85. 86, R7. RR, R9. Department (1902-5). RI 93-4,96. 104. 105. 107. 109. 156. l.ueger. K .. anti-Semitic politician. 157.205.206.207.215.222. mayor of Vienna (1R97-1910). 33 224--5. 250n 10. 252n 145. 256n25 Index of Names 287

Nikolai Nikolaevich, grand duke, Rasputin, G . E., 44.49, 225 military commander of St Rauch, G. 0 ., general, adjutant to Petersburg (1905-14); Grand Duke Nikolai commander-in-chief (1914-15), Nikolaevich, 205 205,215 Reutern, M. Kh ., minister of finance Nikol'skii, B. V., jurist, member of (1862-78); chairman , Committee Russian Assembly and URP, of Ministers (1881-7), 61. 123 204, 205-6, 210, 264n21, Rothschilds. Jewish bankers, 74. 75. 269n45,47 82, 99. 245n26, 246n58. 252n 142. 253nl46 Pahlen,K. I., minister of justice Rozanov, V.V., writer a nd critic, 54 (1867-78) and cha irm a n of the Rukhlov , S. V., minister of transport High Commission to Review (1909-15), 103, 104-5 Jewish Legislation (1883-8), 63, 76, 144-5 Pahlen, K.K., governor of Vilna (c. Samarin, I. F., Slavophile historian 1903). 159 and publicist, 110 Pleve, V. K., director of Police Sazonov, S. D .. foreign minister Department (1881-4); ass istant (1901-16). 16, 103 mini ster (1884-94) and minister Schiff. J . H .. American-Jewish of the interior (1902-4), 28. 30. financier. 82 , 87. 93. 249n98. 31, 63, 69, 74, 77-83, 93 . 110, 253nl54 122, 153-4, 159-61, 191, 248n76 Seligman, I. N .. American-Jewish Pobedonostsev, K. P., chief banker. 87, 249n98 procurator of the Holy Synod Sergei Aleksandrovich. gra nd duke. (1880-1905), 28. 29, 34. 35. 37. governor-general of Moscow 58, 62, 66-8. 110, 151. 239n 15. (1896-1905) 76. 249n89 245n22,26. 261n2 Sharapov. S. F.. reactionary publisher Poliakov, S. S.. Russian-Jewish and writer. 37. 200 financier. 131. 178, 247n62 Shcheglovitov. I. G .. minister of Polovtsov , A. A., state secretary justice (1906-15).33.36.41. (1883-92), 75 46-7.49-53.96 Pranaitis, J., Catholic priest, 50. 54 Shchcrbatov. A. G ., member of Protopopov, A. D .. minister of the URM.200 interior (1916-17). 105, 253nl46 Shcherbatov. N. 8. . minister of the Purishkevich, V. M .. URP leader and interior (1915). 101-2. 103. 104. deputy in III and IV Dumas. 252nl4L 252nl45 192. 193.204,210,214,21 7. Sheremetev. P. S.. member of 223-4,225, 231, 270n55 Patriotic Circle a nd URM. 200 Putiatin, E. V.. minister of education Shipov, D . N., chai rma n of Moscow (1861), 123 Province zernstvo (1893-1904), co-founder of Octobrist Party. Raaben, R. S., governor of 90 Bessarabia (1903), 31 Shmakov, A. S.. anti-Semitic Moscow Ra chkovskii,P. I., chief of Paris lawyer and city councillor. 53. Okhrana section (1885-1902); 264n31 head of political section, Police Shul'gin, V. V.. Nat ionalist Department (1905-6). 203-4. newspaper publisher and Duma 209.215 deputy. 220 288 Index of Names

Shuvalov, P. A., governor-general of minister of the interior (1900-2); Balti c provinces (1864-96), governor-general of Vilna 256n32 ( 1902-4); minister of the interior Shvanebakh (Schwanebach), P. Kh ., (1904-5),31, 83-4,159-60, stat e comptroller (1906-7), 111, 161-2, 193 167, 250n 109 Shuvalov, P. P., founding member of Tager. A. S., Soviet historian of Beilis Holy Brotherhood, 21 Case. 40, 41, 42, 53 Sipiagin. D . S., assistant minister Tikhornirov, L. A. , ex-revolutionary; (1894-5) and mini ster of the monarchist editor of Moscow interior (1899-1902), 76. 79. News (1909-13),54,224 158-9 Tolrnachev, I. N., prefect of Odessa Skvortsov, V. M ., editor of (1907-11),219 Missionarv Review, 54 Tolstoi, D. A ., minister of the Sliozberg. G . B.. Jewish lawyer . interior (1882-9),29,31, 62. associate of H. O . Guenzburg, 75-6, 144, 179, 180 76,82, 102 Tolstoi, I. I.. minister of education Sol 'skii, D . M ., state comptroller (1905-6),88,163 (1878-89),61-2, 143 Totleben, E. I., governor-general of Stoecker,A., German clergyman, North-West Region (1880-1905), founder of anti-Semitic Christian 146. 258n67 Social Workers' Party (1878), 19, Trepov, D. F., governor-general of St 33, 235n43 Petersburg (1896--1905); assistant Stolypin, P.A.. minister of the minister of the interior (1905); interior and chairman. Council palace commandant (1905-6). of Ministers (1906--11). 36,42-5, 87, 194.203,205 47-8,90-7. 109, II I. 164-5, Trishatnyi, A. I., deputy leader of 167-9.210.21 I. 217, 225, URP.204 250n 106,109, 251 n 112.113 , 116.127 Straus, 0., American-Jewish author Uexkull-Guldenbandt, A. A., and public servant, 87, 249n98 assi stant minister of the interior Stroganov, A. G .. governor-general (1896--9). 158 of New Rus sia and Bessarabia Urusov, S. D. , governor of (1855-62),121-2. m , 256n32 Bessarabia (1903-4); assistant Struve, P. 8., liberal politician and minister of the interior (1905-6); publicist. Cadet member of II Cadet member of I Duma, 31, Duma, 20-1 82. 159 Sturmer. B. V.. chairman, Council of Ministers (1916), 195, 253n145, Vasil'chikov, I. I.. governer-general of 264n31 Kiev (1852-62), 123. 125 Suvorin. A. A., conservative Vladimir Aleksandrovich, grand publisher. 191 duke, commander of St Sviatopolk-Mirskii, D. I.. governor­ Petersburg Military District general of Khar'kov (1881-2), (1881-1905); president, Imperial 134 Academy of Arts (1876--1909), Sviatopolk-Mirskii, P. D., 75 commander, Corps of Von der Launitz,V.F., prefect of St Gendarmes and assistant Petersburg (1906--7),219 Index of Names 289

Vyshnegradskii, I. A., minister of 162. 164. 197, 203. 205, 207, finance (1887- 92).74- 5. 154 213- 14. 215. 220. 259n89. 101. 261n l37,267n58 William I, Prussian king (1858- 88) Wolf. L., Anglo- Jewis h jo urna list and Ge rman emperor (fro m and historian . 1D. 161 1871), 19 Witte. S. I., minister of finance (1892- 1903); chai rma n, Zak (Sack) . A. I.. Russian-Jewish Co mmittee of Ministers financier, 178, 245n26 (1903-5); cha irma n, Co uncil of Zubatov, S. V.. genda rme officia l, Ministers (1905-6), 32, 43, 78-9, organizer of state-sponso red 84- 9, 103, 109, 110, 11 2, 155-6. labo r unions. 31. 78