A Performance Guide to Max Bruch's Double Concerto, Opus 88

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A Performance Guide to Max Bruch’s Double Concerto, Opus 88, According to the German Style

A document submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music Violin

March 2018 by Gi Yeon Koh

B.M., Sookmyung Women’s University, Korea, 2005 G.P.D., M.M., Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University, 2007, 2008 A.D., M.M., University of Cincinnati, 2011, 2013

Committee Chairs: Won-Bin Yim, D.M.A.

Table of Contents

List of Tables iii List of Figures iii List of Musical Examples iv Acknowledgements vii Abstract viii Chapter I. Introduction 1 A. Development of the Standard Violin and Viola Repertoire B. Development of the Violin and Viola Concerto C. The Double Concerto

Chapter II. Max Bruch 10 A. Works for Violin and Viola B. Romanzes, Opp. 42 and 85 C. Double Concerto, Op. 88

Chapter III. The German Violin School in the Romantic Era 22

A. The Franco-Belgian and German Schools B. History and Representatives of the German School C. German Romantic Composers and the German School D. German School Style and Bruch’s Op. 88

Chapter IV. The Romantic German Style in Bruch’s Double Concerto 33 A. Phrasing 33 1. Bowing (slur) a. Beginning and ending of bars (or passages) b. Crescendo and decrescendo c. Character of ending 2. Staccato 3. Separation 4. Agogic accent

B. Portamento 44 1. Where to play portamento 2. Types a. Old finger b. New finger c. Finger pattern

C. Vibrato 48 1. Where to use vibrato a. On longer note values b. On longer note values involving dynamic changes c. Between accented notes and vibrated tones d. On strong beats e. At the beginning and end of portamento

2. Where not to use vibrato a. Passagework b. Open strings

3. Types a. Quick b. Slow c. Accelerating d. Decelerating

D. Tempo rubato 61 a. After ascending or descending scales b. At the end of a long progression of notes c. Exceptional passages or expressive structure d. Expressive notes or passages

Conclusion 70 Appendix 71 Bibliography 75

List of Tables

Table 1. Composers of works for solo violin and viola by era 71

Table 2. 19th- and 20th-century one-movement works for solo violin or viola with orchestra 72

Table 3. Popular works for solo violin or viola by Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms 72

Table 4. Bruch’s works for solo violin or viola with orchestra 72

Table 5. Publication history of Bruch’s Opp. 42, 85, and 88 73

Table 6. Recordings of Romanze for Violin, Op.42, and Romanze for Viola, Op.85 73

Table 7. Double concertos for solo violin and solo cello or solo viola 74

List of Figures

Figure 1. The four types of vibrato speed discussed by Spohr in Violinschule (1832) 59

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List of Musical Examples

Chapter II:

Example 2.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-8, solo violin and viola with piano.

Example 2.2. Bruch, Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor, Op.26, first movement, mm. 1-10, solo violin.

Example 2.3. Bruch, Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 44, second movement, mm. 1-10, solo violin with piano.

Chapter IV.A: Phrasing

Example 4.1.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 9-12, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.1.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola. Example 4.1.3. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235-255, solo violin.

Example 4.1.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 105-109, solo violin.

Example 4.1.5. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 97-105, solo viola.

Example 4.1.6. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 392-409, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.1.7. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.1.8. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 88-95, solo violin and viola. Example 4.1.9. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 313-319, solo violin.

Example 4.1.10. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-441, solo violin and viola. Example 4.1.11. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 41-46, solo violin and viola.

Chapter IV.B: Portamento

Example 4.2.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 13-15, solo violin.

Example 4.2.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 79-80, solo violin.

Example 4.2.3-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 193-195, solo violin.

Example 4.2.3-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 89-93, solo viola.

Chapter IV.C: Vibrato

Example 4.3.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 217-235, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.3-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.3-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 17-34, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.5-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 13-15, solo violin.

Example 4.3.5-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 79-80, solo violin.

Example 4.3.6-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 191- 198, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.6-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235- 255, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.7-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 231- 235, solo viola.

Example 4.3.7-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 458- 465, solo viola.

Example 4.3.8. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-16, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.9. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 217-235, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.3.10. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola.

Chapter IV.D: Tempo rubato

Example 4.4.1-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235-255, solo violin.

Example 4.4.1-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 52-89, solo viola.

Example 4.4.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 88-107, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.4.3. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-16, solo violin and viola.

Example 4.4.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 183-199, solo violin.

Acknowledgements

I give deepest thanks to my parents, Dr. Kwang Song Koh, M.D. and Ms. Myung Hee

Bae; my brother, Dr. Jae Han Koh, M.D.; and my sister in law, Ms. Kyunghwa Kim. They have all believed in and encouraged me. I would not be able to complete this achievement without their support.

I would like to express my deep appreciation and gratitude for my two advisors, Dr.

Won-Bin Yim and Dr. Catharine Lees. Both not only taught me the violin and viola, but also have been significant role models for me personally and professionally. I’d like to congratulate the marriage of Dr. Lees to Mr. Timothy Lees, concertmaster of Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and one of the readers of my document; I am happier than ever now to work with you both. I also wish to congratulate Dr. Yim on his marriage to Mrs. Victoria Yim; I am so inspired by the happiness they have together.

I have great appreciation for my mentor, Ms. Jonghwa Hong, Professor of Violin at

Sookmyung Women’s University; and for Dr. Myung Hee Chung, Professor of Music at

University of Wisconsin - Whitewater. My English tutor and editor, Rebekka Gold, was always willing to help me and worked meticulously. To my friends Jaeeun Lee, Scott Jackson, the Han sisters, Heewon Woo, Nahyun Lim, and Bokyung Kim, I hope we will always encourage and support each other as we do now. Thanks to my lovely friends, I was able to enjoy this remote

Cincinnati area where I have no family. I love you all.

Lastly, including above all people I mentioned, I hope that everyone around me will always be able to live a healthy and pleasant life.

vii

Abstract

The double concerto and its variants, such as concerti grossi, was a popular genre in the

Baroque era; in the Classical era, however, most composers shifted their focus to the composition of concerti for solo instruments. The double concerto reappeared in the Romantic era, now written for two soloists with orchestra. A notable contribution to this repertoire is the

Double Concerto for clarinet and viola in E minor, Op. 88 (1911) by the prolific German composer Max Bruch (1838-1920). The Double Concerto was transcribed for violin and viola as well. This document will serve as a performance guide for Bruch’s Double Concerto as it pertains to the violin and viola transcription. I will broadly describe performance practice for the piece within the context of the German Violin School developed by Louis Spohr (1784-1859), addressing technical issues such as phrasing, portamento, vibrato, and tempo rubato according to

Spohr’s ‘fine style’. By presenting Bruch’s Double Concerto as an example of the German

School, this document will illuminate how best to perform the work in an authentic German

Romantic style.

viii

Chapter I

Introduction

In the Romantic era, the repertoire for violin and orchestra expanded dramatically. Such composers as Schumann, Brahms, and Tchaikovsky made valuable contributions to this repertoire, with concertos and one-movement pieces for solo virtuosi with or without orchestra, performed in large concert venues by violin virtuosi including Paganini, de Bériot, Vieuxtemps,

Joachim, and Ysaÿe. 1 Representative examples include Wieniawski's Légende, Op.17 (1861),

Sarasate's Zigeunerweisen, Op.20 (1878), and Dvořák's Romance, Op.11 (1879).2 But while works for violin and orchestra were composed frequently, compositions for viola and orchestra were quite uncommon. The most prominent such piece of the first half of the nineteenth century is Berlioz’s symphonic work, Harold in Italy (1834), written at the request of Paganini, who wanted more music that he could perform on his Stradivarius viola.3 Late Romantic viola works include Hans Sitt’s Koncertstück, Op.46 (1892) and Max Bruch’s Romanze Op. 85 (1911). In the twentieth century, this situation changed considerably, with many prominent composers writing extensively for the viola.

Development of the standard violin and viola repertoire

1 Tully Potter, “The Romantic Violin Concerto Vol. 19: Bruch Violin Concerto No. 1, Op. 26, Romance, Op. 42, Serenade, Op. 75 (CD),” Hyperion Record CDA68060, (England: Retrieved January 8, 2016): 5.

2 David D. Boyden, et al, "Violin," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.libraries.uc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/41161pg1 (accessed January 2, 2018).

3 Maurice Riley, The History of the Viola, (Ann Arbor, MI.: Braun-Brumfield, 1980), 191.

In the eighteenth century, the violin was particularly significant to the development of the string quartet. The string quartet emerged from the eighteenth century tradition of serenading friends by engaging a band of musicians to play outside beneath their windows; the form of the string quartet evolved from those serenades. Joseph Haydn is considered the father of the string quartet; he established the standard ensemble (two violins, viola, and cello) and four-movement format (fast, slow, minuet/trio, rondo).4 His early string quartets primarily showcase the first violin dominating the melodic line, much in the same way as a prima donna;5 the role of the viola and cello was accompaniment. However, in his late string quartets, the viola and cello gradually became more independent and thematically important; one example is the opening six measures of the String Quartet Op. 20, No. 2, in C major (1772), where the melody is written for the cello instead of the first violin.

Few other composers of the period wrote much music featuring the viola. While composers employed the viola in four-part string writing, for genres such as the string quartet and concerto grosso, the viola was regarded as much less important than the violin, and its expressive capacity ignored. Consequently, violists could not achieve the recognition of violinists; in turn, there were few notable performers on the instrument. 6 Composer and author

Johann Joachim Quantz (1697-1773) described the Baroque viola as usually played by violinists who did not have good enough technique to perform the violin well;7 indeed, according to

4 Sheila M. Nelson, The Violin and Viola: History, Structure, Techniques, (Melona, New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 2003), 112-116. This book is an invaluable resource for this introduction chapter. Nelson discusses the history of and structural differences between the instruments in detail;4 includes a survey of viola virtuosi and how the viola was evaluated over time; and documents when education specifically for viola began.

5 Ibid., 113-116.

6 Ibid., 111, 192.

7 Ibid., 191.

English historian and composer Charles Burney (1726-1773), jokes about viola players began in the eighteenth century when Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762), a violinist and composer, was demoted to the viola section because of his unstable and wild playing.8 Additionally, violists were relegated to menial tasks such as tuning the harpsichords, winding up the special clocks, and, like Christian Specht9 -- the violist in Haydn’s Esterházy quartet -- singing in the choir.10

Occasionally, composers such as Mozart, Dittersdorf, and Stamitz treated violists more respectfully; for instance, violists were able to demonstrate their bow technique and agility in

Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante in E-flat major K. 364 (1779) and String Quartet No. 15, D minor

K. 421 (1783).11 In general, however, violists rarely moved above the third position in concertos.

Several developments helped bring the quality of performance on both the violin and viola to a higher level. First, the inconsistent size of the construction of the viola contributed to its unpopularity with both performers and composers. Before the emergence of the string quartet and Haydn’s standardization of the instrumentation, composers wrote chamber music for a soprano voice, three violas performing the middle register (tenor, alto, and one overlapping) and a bass instrument of some kind. The earliest violas date back to the sixteenth century and were made by Gaspar De Salo; later, the Amati family in northern Italy made violas of varying sizes,12 with body lengths extending up to 47 cm (18.5 inches) in 1572.13 After this point, viola makers

8 Nelson, 76.

9 There is no available information on Specht’s birth and death dates.

10 Nelson, 111.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid., 119.

13 Robin Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola: A Practical Guide, (London: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 34.

3 gradually began reducing the size of the instrument at the request of violists who sought ease of playing and technical advantage.14 In the 1930s, Lionel Tertis and Arthur Richardson (1882-

1965), an English luthier, created a standard model known as the ‘Tertis’ model, with the average body length measuring 42.5 cm (16.7 inches).

A further advance for violin and viola players appeared in the 1820’s with the invention of the chinrest by Louis Spohr, which he called the ‘fiddle-holder’.15 Prior to the invention of the chinrest, the violin and viola were not easily supported by the player, hindering the performer’s ability to changed positions efficiently or accurately.16 The chinrest made the instrument easier to support, thus facilitating shifting positions, ease of vibrato, and more security of tuning in performing fast passages. In particular, both violinists and violists showed highly improved left- hand technical ability due to the chinrest. This improved facility eventually led to the emergence of virtuoso violinists and violists, and inspired composers to write works showcasing their techniques.

Similarly, the shoulder pad was recommended for performers of violin and viola by

Pierre Baillot (1771-1842), a French violinist and author of The Art of Violin.17 The shoulder pad allowed performers to hold their instrument more comfortably and avoid a compromised position by reducing the gap between the left shoulder and the instrument. However, the use of shoulder pads was initially very limited due to dress codes: in the nineteenth century, men performed wearing shirts with the collar made of silk bound very tight around and high upon the neck,

14 Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola, 34.

15 David Milsom, Theory and Practice in Late Nineteenth-Century Violin Performance: As Examination of Style in Performance, 1850-1900, (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003), 75.

16 Ibid.

17 Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola, 38.

4 while women’s blouses were designed with necklines placing the collar on the shoulder line itself; both styles precluded using the shoulder pad inside the shirt.18 The shortcomings of the shoulder pad further included such issues as difficulty of lifting the instrument; constrainging the jaw, neck, and shoulder blade; and, more specifically, locking the neck into positions limiting the flexibility needed to follow the angle of each string.

Improvements in shoulder pad design throughout the nineteenth century ultimately led to the development of the shoulder rest in the middle of the 1950s. The shoulder rest is clipped directly to the lower bouts of the back of violin and viola, serving the same purpose of the earlier shoulder pad. Erno Meir Goldberger, a Hungarian inventor, collaborated with the famous

American-British violinist Yehudi Menuhin (1916-1999) to create a new chinrest design as well as a new mute design.19 Goldberger invented the first shoulder rest between 1948 to 1950; it is very similar to the ‘Menuhin’ model of the shoulder rest that appeared in 1956, on which they may have collaborated.20 Nonetheless, while the chinrest eventually became a standard part of the hardware fittings for violin and viola, the same is not true regarding the shoulder rest or shoulder pad.21

These inventions and changes in the instrument itself aided both performers and the performance of the violin and viola. Furthermore, well-organized education aided violists in particular in gradually expanding the role of the instrument. Heinrich Klingenfeld (1856-1929), a

18 Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola, 38.

19 https://patents.google.com/patent/US3175446A/en?assignee=Goldberger+Erno+Meir; https://patents.google.com/patent/US2765692A/en?assignee=Goldberger+Erno+Meir

20 Interestingly, Menuhin did not use the shoulder rest that bears his name. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2747452A/en?q=goldberger&q=shoulder&q=rest&scholar&oq=goldberger+sh oulder+rest

21 James Thomas Poulos, “An Investigation of the Possible Effects Shoulder Rests Have on the Character of Violin Tone,” (DME Dissertation, Indiana University, 1969).

German violinist and educator, established a highly influential method for violinists interested in playing viola in 1897 through his treatise, Viola School for Violin-Players.22 With these resources, virtuosic violists such as Lionel Tertis (1875-1975) and William Primrose (1904-1982) emerged as celebrated soloists after 1900, in turn motivating more composers to contribute works to the solo viola repertoire. Some notable viola works of the early twentieth century are by

Rebecca Clarke, Frank Bridge, and Paul Hindemith. 23 Nonetheless, many composers continued to treat the viola as an accompaniment instrument, and repertoire that featured the viola remained far more limited than that written for the violin until later in the twentieth century.24

Development of the violin and viola concerto

The concertos of the Classical era were most often for single instruments,25 and the

Romantic era likewise highlighted the solo concerto. Many virtuosic soloists of the period, including Paganini, Chopin, and Liszt, performed and developed the concerto for solo instrument

(see Table 1), and similarly virtuosic works such as character pieces (Table 2). However, solo and virtuoso works for viola remained rare, even as more skillful performers emerged.26

The violin concertos of Mendelssohn (E minor, Op. 64 (1844)), Schumann (D minor,

WoO23 (1853)), and Brahms (D major, Op. 77 (1878)) are standard repertoire for today’s violin

22 Nelson, 191.

23 Dong-Wook Kim, “The Emergence of Viola as a Solo Instrument: Twentieth-Century Viola Repertoire,” (DMA Document, University of Maryland, College Park, 2013), 2.

24 David D. Boyden, and Ann M. Woodward, "Viola," Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed January 20, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.libraries.uc.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/29438.

25 A notable exception is Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante.

26 Nelson, 192.

6 students. Unfortunately, none of these composers wrote any works for solo viola with orchestra.

Mendelssohn and Schumann each composed only one work for viola, with piano: Mendelssohn, viola and piano sonata in C minor, MWVQ 14 (1824); and Schumann, Märchenbilder (Fairy

Tale Pictures), for viola and piano, Opus 113 (1851). Brahms was himself a violist and played the second viola in his string sextets and viola quintets. His interest in the instrument is apparent in his Serenade No.2, where he omits the violins and the violas take charge of the melody line and tuning of the orchestra. Nonetheless, Brahms did not compose any pieces for solo viola, although he ultimately and with great reluctance transcribed his two Clarinet Sonatas, Op. 120

No. 1 in F minor and No. 2 in Eb major (1894) for viola at the request of his publisher – a common practice to increase the sale of a work.27 Both transcriptions, Brahms’ final works before his death, were published in June 1895 (Table 3).28

The double concerto

Although the Classical and Romantic eras highlighted concertos for single instruments, in the Baroque period, concertos were also written frequently for several instruments, called double or triple concertos. The double concerto was a standard part of the output of composers such as

J.S. Bach and Vivaldi. Notable examples include Bach’s Concerto for two violins and strings, No.

2 in E major, BWV 1043 (1718-20); Vivaldi’s Concerto for two violins in A minor, RV 522

(1711); Bach’s Concerto in C minor for Violin, Oboe and Strings, BWV 1060 (1736); and

Vivaldi’s Concerto for Bassoon and Cello in E minor, RV 409.

27 Transcribing music for different instruments has long been used to expand the repertoire of various instruments while simultaneously popularizing works by making them available to perform on different instruments. Publishers often pushed composers to transpose their works to entice new customers.

28 Riley, 189.

Although not referred to as ‘concertos’, the concerto grosso and sinfonia concertante might be considered types of double or triple concerto, due to the explicit division between solo instruments and the accompanying group. Popular in the Baroque era, the concerto grosso has two groups: solo instruments, called concertino, and orchestra, called ripieno. Generally, the concertino plays the melodic line; the violins and cello are usually featured here. The ripieno involved several instruments including harpsichord, organ, and lute, and had an accompaniment role. Concerto grossi were frequently composed by Corelli and Bach; a popular example is

Corelli’s Concerto grosso in D major, Op. 6, No. 4 in Twelve Concerti Grossi (1714).

In the Classical era, the genre known as sinfonia concertante grew out of the concerto grosso of Baroque era; it is generally composed for several solo instruments and orchestra.

However, the solo instruments in the sinfonia concertante are more distinguished than in concerto grosso: the solo parts are more technically demanding; they are also more prominent, as specific instruments are designated as soloists, rather than the undifferentiated concertino group.

Some important examples include Haydn’s Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Cello, Oboe and

Bassoon (1792); Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra K. 364 (1779); and Sinfonia Concertante for Oboe, Clarinet, Horn, Bassoon and Orchestra K. 297b (1778).

Before the Romantic era, the solo instruments featured in double concertos did not present demanding virtuosic techniques, and thus rarely contained outstanding passages showing off the soloist’s skills; for the most part, the soloists repeated the same melodic content in alternation with that of the accompanying forces. However, in the Romantic era, the virtuosic soloist, and thus the virtuosic concerto, became tremendously popular; the multi-soloist concertos of the period likewise display virtuosic techniques and expanded orchestration.

Notable examples include Mendelssohn’s Concerto for Violin, Piano and Strings in D minor,

MWVO4 (1823); Brahms’s Double Concerto for Violin, Cello and Orchestra Op. 102 in A minor

(1887); and Bruch’s Double Concerto for Clarinet, Viola and Orchestra, Op. 88 (1901).

The most popular solo instrument featured in double concertos of all eras was the violin.

The cello was also popular for double concertos, as evidenced by Gaetano Donizetti’s (1797-

1848) Concertino for Violin and Cello in D minor, and Camille Saint-Saëns’s La Muse et le

Poète, Op.132 (1910). Double concertos involving solo viola were however rare (Table 7). As noted, the viola was less developed mechanically and violists were less skilled in general than violinists. However, composers also considered the viola as generally sounding more ambiguous and weaker than the violin and cello. James M. Hinson asserts that many composers writing for viola described the timbre as feeling inflexible or confining.29 The most prominent examples,

Mozart’s Sinfonia Concertante and Brahms’s Double Concerto, were originally written for violin with, respectively, clarinet and cello; in both cases, the viola solo is transcribed from other instruments, while the solo violin is fixed as a solo instrument. This remained common in the twentieth century, even as more composers wrote double concertos for viola.

29 James M. Hinson, “A Stylistic Analyses of Three Selected Trios for Clarinet, Viola, and Piano: Fairy Tales by Robert Schumann, Eight Pieces by Max Bruch, and Kleines Konzert by Alfred Uhl,” (DMA Document, The Florida State University School of Music, 1995), 4.

Chapter II

Max Bruch

The German composer, conductor, and educator (1838-1920) Max Bruch was “a talent who blossomed early.”30 He studied composition with Heinrich Breidenstein (1796-1876) and

Ferdinand Hiller (1811-1885) with Bruch’s most notable students being Clara Mathilda

Faisst (1872-1948) and Hans Joseph Vieth (b. 1881-unknown).31 Bruch composed abundant instrumental and vocal works, including eight orchestral pieces, 16 works for solo instrument with orchestra, 13 chamber pieces, four operas, 20 choral works, and 17 lieder. Throughout his

82 years, Bruch maintained his musical style, continuing the mid-nineteenth century

Romanticism of Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms, and thereby linking these composers to the next generation, including Goldmark and Rheinberger.32

Despite his prolific output and widespread reputation in his lifetime, there is a lack of extensive source material in Bruch’s biography.33 In addition, some of his manuscripts were not preserved. For instance, in his late period, Bruch composed three chamber works: two string quintets, in 1918 (A minor, Op. posth; E flat major, Op. posth.), and a string octet in 1920 (B flat

30 John Michael Cooper and Julie D. Prandi, “Mendelssohn’s String Quartets,” in The Mendelssohns: Their Music in History, (Oxford University Press, January 16, 2003), 321.

31 There is no available information on when Vieth died.

32 J.A. Fuller Maitland, Masters of German Music, (Boston: Milford House, 1973), 97.

33 Tully Potter, “Bruch String Octet and String Quintets: The Nash Ensemble (CD),” Hyperion Record CDA68168, (England: Release date: April 2017).

10 major, Op. posth.). Until recently all three of these compositions were missing, probably due to the bombing of Berlin in World War II.34 35

Bruch’s works for violin and viola

Bruch composed multiple pieces for solo viola with orchestra, as well as many popular works for solo violin with orchestra. One of his best-known works is the Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor, Op. 26 (1868). He composed many other pieces for solo violin, including two additional concertos, in D minor, Op. 44 (1878), and in D minor, Op. 58 (1891); Romanze in A minor, Op. 42 (1874); Adagio appassionato in C♯ minor, Op. 57 (1891); In Memoriam, Adagio

(1893), Op. 65; Scottish Fantasy in E flat major (1880), Op. 46; Konzertstück (Concert Piece) in

F♯ minor (1911), Op. 84; and Serenade in A minor, Op. 75 (1900) (Table 4). Furthermore, Bruch wrote violin and viola transcriptions of his own works; the two Romanzes, Opp. 42 and 85, are both available for violin or viola.36

According to Christopher Fifield, Bruch most frequently wrote for viola as well as French horn, clarinet, and cello, in the last decade of his life.37 Such works include Eight pieces, Op. 83 for piano, viola and clarinet; Romanze, Op. 85, for viola; the Double Concerto, Op. 88, for viola and clarinet. His two string quintets of 1918 (A minor, Op. posth; E-flat major, Op. posth.) and

1920 string Octet (B-flat major, Op. posth.) also feature viola and cello.

34 Potter, “Bruch String Octet and String Quintets.”

35 The String Quintet in A minor has been published by Kunzelmann String, in 1996; the String Octet by Boosey & Hawkes; and in 2006, String Quintet in E flat major by G. Henle Verlag.

36 Fifield, 295.

37 Ibid.

Bruch was relatively inactive at the turn of the twentieth century. In a letter written in

1911 to his wife, Anna, Bruch disclosed a lack of joy in his musical work since Joachim’s death in 1907.38 In addition, Bruch had been suffering for a few months from severe sleeplessness and a bladder disease. Beginning in 1910, he went to Oberhof to convalesce.39 The stay there was evidently hugely successful as he composed several new works, all involving viola, while at

Oberhof. The pieces he composed at Oberhof include Eight pieces, Op. 83; Romanze, Op. 85, and the Double Concerto, Op.88.

Bruch’s Romanzes, Opp. 42 and 85

To gain a more thorough understanding of the historical role and performance of the viola, it is very useful to look at composers who wrote works for both violin as well as viola soloists.

The two Romanzes by Max Bruch, Op.42 (1874) and Op.85 (1911), offer tremendous insight into performance issues of that time violinist and violists encountered. Many violin pieces were transposed for the viola in an effort to expand the repertoire available for the instrument.

However, works originally written for the viola were seldom transcribed for other instruments.

Bruch was one of few composers who wrote character pieces (both one movement) for each of these instruments; furthermore, he also transcribed violin works for viola, and vice versa. The

Romanzes are ideal in facilitating a comparison between the composer’s writing for each instrument, as well as the many ways in which Bruch recognized and accounted for the differences in the instruments.

38 Fifield, 299.

39 Ibid.

In 1873, Bruch’s opera Hermione failed in Berlin and Bruch moved to Rhineland. From

1873 to 1883 Bruch composed little, although he was conducting and traveling frequently.40 In

1874, at the age of 36, Bruch had a love affair with the 19-year-old Amalie Heydweiller, and this unstable relationship led to a creative slump, as described in a letter to Simrock.41 Bruch composed his second violin concerto in February of 1874; however, he only liked the first movement and later rewrote the concerto in its entirety (1877). The original material from the first movement was instead used for Romanze, Op. 42 (also 1874). Bruch dedicated the one- movement piece for violin and orchestra to violinist Robert Heckmann (1848-1891).

Bruch’s second Romanze, Op. 85 (1911), is one of his two works for solo viola with orchestra, the other being the Double Concerto, Op.88. He dedicated Op. 85 to Maurice Vieux

(1884-1951), who was the principal violist of the Paris Opera and the Paris Conservatoire

Orchestras.42

In 1874, Op. 42 (for violin and piano reduction) was published by Simrock (plate number:

7450) in Berlin; Simrock also published the transcription for viola (plate number: 7451).43

Likewise, Op. 85 was published for viola and piano reduction by Schott's Söhne (plate number:

29362) in Mainz, 1911, with Bruch’s transcription for violin and piano reduction (plate number:

29363).44 There is no conclusive evidence identifying the transcriber of Op. 42 for viola; however, the violin transcription of Op.85 contains Bruch’s signature on the last page of the

40 Fifield, 138.

41 Ibid., 142.

42 Ibid., 143.

43 IMSLP. Petrucci Music Library, “Publisher’s Catalogue,” IMSLP, accessed March 7, 2017, http://imslp.org/wiki/Publishers%E2%80%99_Catalogues_(Various).

44 Fifield, 295.

13 manuscript, “Friedenau, 13 April 1911, Max Bruch.”45 The plate number and publication date of the Op.42 transcription suggests that Bruch did indeed transcribe it himself.

Bruch composed Romanze Op. 42 in 1874, but there is no date documenting its premier.

There is evidence that Op. 42 was performed by Ludwig Straus on October 19, 1880.46 Although the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) indicates that Op.42 was published first in 1874 and again in 1891, I found three publications in three different periods (Table 5): the violin, viola, piano parts published by Simrock (1891); violin and piano parts edited by the violinist Theodore Spiering and published by Carl Fisher (1916); and the violin and piano parts edited by Aaron Rosand and published by the International Music Company in 2006. The

Simrock and Fisher editions are identical. However, in the edition by Rosand, there are changed notes and different bowings and fingerings, without any indication as to why these changes were made. Apparently, his goal was to produce a rich and luxurious sound, recalling Bruch’s compositional style through the use of large shifts, the addition of expressive slides, and portamento markings.47 In my opinion, presenting the work with these dramatic changes is a mistake by the publisher. Nonetheless, the Rosand edition has increased the popularity of Op. 42.

Romanze Op. 85 has a more complicated publication history as there were multiple editions published in 1911. The first publication, April 13, 1911, was followed by the premiere performance, April 25, 1911, with violist Willy Hess and conductor Leo Schrattenholz.48 The second publication followed in June 1911. Norbert Gertsch’s Préface to the G. Henle Verlag

45 Fifield, 295.

46 Ibid., 178.

47 Edith Eisler, “Lots of fireworks,” Strings 23 (October 2008): 78-80, https://search.proquest.com/docview/237176804?accountid=2909 (accessed December 22, 2017).

48 Fifield, 295.

14 edition of Op.85 discusses how he reproduced a “definitive version” of the text for the violin and viola.49 He compared the first (April 1911) and second publications (June 1911) of Op. 85, proofread by Bruch himself, to identify the changes between two versions.50 I believe that Bruch likely had different ideas regarding performance intentions following the premiere of Op. 85, which were included in the second printing. Today only two editions are available, one published by Schott Music, originally edited by Bruch; and the second published by G. Henle Verlag, edited by Gertsch. These versions are virtually identical. Both the viola and violin score for Op.

85 are always published together.

In Strings Magazine Volume 23, Edith Eisler notes the unpopularity of Romanze Op.42.51

I have confirmed this assessment by researching the number of publications (Table 5) and the number of recordings (Table 6) of both Romanzes. Op. 42 appears far less frequently on recordings – although, as noted, this too has changed since the publication of the Rosand edition.

Additionally, there is no score for it in the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of

Music library. There are eight recordings of Op. 42, and 19 of Op. 85. A representative recording of Op. 42, performed by violinist Salvatore Accardo (b.1941), was released by Philips in 1988. The most notable recordings of Op. 85 are performed by Yuri Bashmet (BMG

Entertainment, 1998), Maxim Rysanov (BIS, 2011), and Janine Jansen (Decca, 2006), the latter both a violinist and violist. There are also several recordings of Op. 85 transcribed for violin as well as transcriptions for trombone, contrabass, and cello are also available. Comparing the number of publications, it could be assumed that the both Romanzes are popular in their original

49 Romanze for Viola and Orchestra in F major, Op. 85, Piano Reduction. Ed. Norbert Gertsch. Munich: German. G. Henle Verlag, 2004.

50 Ibid.

51 Eisler, 78-80.

15 instrumentation, while Op. 85 is popular even for instruments for which Bruch made no transcription.

There are a few related reasons for the unpopularity of the Op. 42. First, it is considered too short in length. According to Eisler’s journal, it is written in sonata form without a development section;52 Tully Potter considers it ternary song form.53 I believe it is a deformation of the sonata, as only the second theme is present in the development section. Potter considers

Op. 42 beautiful but uneventful,54 and Christopher Fifield comments that the work is only saved from its “dull harmonic language by its melodic strength.”55 Furthermore, in my opinion as a performer, there is no opportunity in Op. 42 for the violinist to display the brilliant technique which draws in performers who are interested in showing their skills. The popularity with performers of other one-movement solo violin pieces in this period, such as Sarasate’s

Zigeunerweisen, Chausson’s Poème, and Ravel’s Tzigane, is due to their display of virtuosic techniques and beautiful melodies. Although Op. 42 includes double stops such as those in

Chausson’s Poème, they are less impressive. Like Tzigane, Op. 42 requires shifting from the first position to the sixth position within a single bow stroke, but involves only a few bars and is also easier to execute.

In contrast, Romanze Op. 85 is often performed and recorded, both on viola and in transcription for other instruments. Bruch’s compositional style did not change considerably between 1874 and 1911, at least as seen in the Romanzes. Features such as the use of sonata form,

52 Eisler.

53 Potter, “The Romantic Violin Concerto Vol. 19”, 5-6.

54 Ibid.

55 Fifield, 142.

16 the dominance of dotted rhythms, Bruch’s signature modulations, and chromatic scales are found in both Op.42 and Op.85, and in works written during the years between the Romanzes, such as found in the Scottish Fantasy for violin and orchestra, Op. 46 (1880) and Kol Nidrei for cello and orchestra, Op. 47 (1881).56 Op. 85 is more popular than Op. 42 primarily because it gives performers more opportunities to show virtuosity, for instance in the many chromatic scales from c-string to a- string with un poco stringendo. In my opinion, the more complete sonata form and technical challenges of Op. 85 make it much more interesting for audiences to hear and for performers to play than Op. 42.

Bruch’s Double Concerto, Op. 88

Bruch’s Double Concerto for clarinet and viola with orchestra was composed in 1911 and premiered in March 1912; Bruch later transcribed the clarinet part for the violin.57 Bruch composed the clarinet part for his son, Max Felix Bruch, to perform and is the second work

Bruch wrote for his son.58 Max Bruch performed the piece with the professor of violin and viola at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik and Bruch’s advisor in composition, Willy Hess.

The Double Concerto could not be printed immediately due to the onset of World War I, and the original manuscript was not preserved. However, the autographed score was found in the inheritance of the publisher, Fritz Simrock, and was later sold in a London auction in 1991.

56 Fifield, 296.

57 At one point, Bruch considered transposing the viola part for the six-stringed viola d’amore. He invited the viola d’amore player Dr. Niel Vogel from Amsterdam to the second concert of the revised version of the Double Concerto on December 3, 1913, to evaluate the potential for transposition; unfortunately, there is no evidence what Vogel thought of the piece, and no transcription for viola d’amore was known to have been made. Ibid., 297-298.

58 The first work Bruch composed for his son to perform is the Eight pieces for Clarinet, Viola, and Piano, Op. 83. In Laura Stanfield Prichard, “Bruch, Max, Concerto for Clarinet, Viola and Orchestra Op. 88,” Musikproduktion Höflich (2016) https://repertoire-explorer.musikmph.de/en/product/bruch-max-35/ (assessed January 3, 2018).

Through the German musicologist Dietrich Kämper, the autograph was acquired for the Max

Bruch Archiv of the Musicology Department at the University of Cologne,59 founded to collect, preserve, and exhibit musical documents in 1949.60

Otto Lindemann (1879-1946), the editor of the first edition of the full score, published both the orchestra score and the piano reduction in 1942 with significant changes Bruch himself notated on his manuscript with a green pencil. Both scores were restricted for sale or rental.61

Nicolai Pfeffer (1985-), a German clarinetist, later compared both Bruch’s manuscript for full orchestra that resurfaced in the auction at Christie’s in London with Lindemann’s first edition of the full score and piano reduction. The result of Pfeffer’s research resulted in his reconstruction of Bruch’s piano reduction and full orchestral score. Peters published Pfeffer’s new Urtext edition of piano reduction and orchestral score in 2010 (Table 4).62

At its premier, Bruch’s Double Concerto Op.88 was criticized in Allgemeine

Musikzeitung Zeitung No. 40 (1913) as “harmless,” “weak,” “unexciting,” and so on.63 This unimpressive review aside, this work is very important for viola students, as it provides violists a rare example of a double concerto where the viola is the fixed solo instrument. Additionally, the

Double Concerto is also valuable as a significant work from late in Bruch’s career. When Bruch composed this Double Concerto, he was 73 years old and had suffered debilitating diseases.64

59 Prichard.

60 “Bruch, Max, Adagio appassionato for Violin and Orchestra in F Minor Op. 57,” translated by Babette Lichtenstein, Musikproduktion Höflich https://repertoire-explorer.musikmph.de/en/product/bruch-max-38/ (assessed January 3, 2018).

61 Prichard.

62 Ibid.

63 Fifield, 298.

64 Ibid., 299.

This may account for the sense of looking back on his work that comes from reusing older compositional material in the Double Concerto. For example, in the opening passage (mm.1-8) for both solo instruments in the first movement of the Double Concerto (Ex.2.1), Bruch quoted

Vorspiel from the solo violin passage of his Violin Concerto No. 1 (1868) (Ex.2.2), and

Recitativo from the second movement of Violin Concerto No. 2 (1877) (Ex.2.3).65

Example 2.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-8, solo violin and viola with piano.

Example 2.2. Bruch, Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor, Op.26, first movement, mm. 1-10, solo violin.

65 Ibid.

Example 2.3. Bruch, Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 44, second movement, mm. 1-10, solo violin with piano.

In this document, I will discuss the performance practices of the German School during the Romantic era through Bruch’s Double Concerto. I will then describe violin and viola techniques of the German School required of those preparing to perform this piece including phrasing, portamento, vibrato, and tempo, and consideration of how performers should execute

Bruch’s performance markings.

Chapter III

The German Violin School in the Romantic Era

The Franco-Belgian and German Violin Schools

David Milsom notes how regional aspects of performance practice impacted the development of the violin concerto during the Romantic era.66 Because of the slow and difficult networks of transportation coupled with population migration in Europe, the concept of the nation-state developed based upon the notion of maintaining a specific and uniquely separate identity, commonly referred today as nationalism.67 This sense of nationalism is reflected directly in, among other aspects, performance practices. For example, works composed during the same time period by Dvořák and those composed by Vieuxtemps are vastly different in style.

Comparing two very dissimilar composers with diverging backgrounds is a valuable endeavor in that it also reveals discrepancies in performance technique of that time period. Performing musicians today must be acutely aware of these differences in style to perform the composer’s intentions with as much authenticity as possible.

To understand the different histories of violin Schools as they developed during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the ‘Franco-Belgian’ and ‘German School’ must be considered separately. The Franco-Belgian and German Schools are distinguished by their stylistic priorities; Givovanni Battista Viotti (1755-1824), an Italian violinist and composer, is regarded as the pedagogical ancestor linking both schools.68 During the twentieth century,

66 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 13.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid., 15.

22 however, the development of transportation systems facilitated population movement in Europe, and as a result violin playing gradually moved to what is considered an ‘international style’.69

The Franco-Belgian School of violin playing, led by Charles de Bériot (1802-1870), focused on technical challenges and virtuosity. Bériot’s treatise on violin playing, Méthode de violon Op.102 (1858), is centered upon “imitating the accents of the human voice.”70 This stylistic tradition was later extended and improved by Henri Vieuxtemps (1820-1881), Pablo de

Sarasate (1845-1908), Henryk Wieniawski (1835-1880), Eugene Ysaÿe (1858 -1931), and Fritz

Kreisler (187501962).71

The German School was established by the violinist/composer and educator Louis Spohr

(1784-1859).72 Spohr’s treatise, Violinschule (1832), highlights the need for ‘fine style’ in performance to realize the composer’s intentions.73 Spohr’s violin style is defined by two principles: strict adherence to classical styles, and an emphasis on refinement.74 Many important performers and educators contributed to the further development of the German School,

69 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 16-18.

70 Robin Stowell, “Bringing singing to violin technique: Charles-Auguste de Bériot,” The Strad (February 19, 2014), https://www.thestrad.com/bringing-singing-to-violin-technique-charles-auguste-de-beriot/1155.article (accessed January 8, 2018).

71 Clive Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.” University of Leeds, 2001. http://chase.leeds.ac.uk/article/the-decline-of-the-19th-century-german-school-of-violin-playing-clive-brown/ (accessed February 14, 2018).

72 Ibid.

73 IMSLP. Petrucci Music Library. “Violinschule.” Edited by Louis Spohr. http://imslp.org/wiki/Violinschule_(Spohr%2C_Louis) (assessed January 14, 2018).

74 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 18.

23 including Ferdinand David (1810-1873), Joseph Joachim (1831-1907), Andreas Moser (1859-

1925), Jëno Hubay (1858-1928), Willy Hess (1859-1939), and Marie Soldat (1863/4-1955).75

According to Spohr’s treatise, ‘style (or delivery)’ refers to the means represented by the performers for the music written by the composers.76 Everything notated by composers included in the score, such as notes, rhythms, musical term, dynamics, phrasing marking, articulation, etc., is considered ‘correct style.’ For the ‘fine style’, performers must deliver their individual interpretation of the music while maintaining and presenting the composer's intention to the audience. To execute the ‘correct style’, the performers should: 1) play with perfect intonation; 2) keep strict tempo; 3) play the correct rhythm; and 4) observe dynamic markings, articulations such as bowing and slur, and embellishments such as turn and shake.77 Additionally, to achieve

‘fine style’, performers must thoroughly address certain technical issues: 1) the bow techniques employed to best represent the character of tone through the accentuation and separation of musical phrasing; 2) left hand techniques such as shifting, glissando, and changing fingering for expression and tone color; 3) tremolo, i.e. vibrato; and 4) highlighting the character of passages through tempo changes such as accelerando or ritardando.

History and representatives of the German School in the Romantic era

Louis Spohr established his reputation throughout Europe as a violinist and composer.

Additionally, Spohr was known for inventing the chinrest for violin and viola. While touring

75 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 18-23. There is contradictory information about her birthdate; Grove puts it as 1864. Furthermore, there is some confusion about her name due to marriage; she is sometimes referred to as Roeger-Soldat or Soldat-Roeger (or Röger). George Grove and John Alexander Fuller-Maitland, “Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Volume 4,” (London: Maitland, Macmillan, 1908), 494.

76 Spohr, Violinschule (1832).

77 Ibid., 179-181.

24 musical centers throughout Europe, Spohr met prominent violin virtuosi such as Paganini and

Tartini, with whom he shared ideas.78 Spohr also gained acclaim as the concertmaster in Gotha between 1805 and 1808, one of the most cultured and liberal states in central Germany.79

Ferdinand David was a pupil of Spohr and the concertmaster of the Gewandhaus orchestra. In 1864, when David was a violin professor at Leipzig, he wrote an important treatise also titled Violinschule.80 Despite studying with Spohr, David’s style was very different from his teacher, as evidenced in his editions of Bach’s solo sonatas: these editions included numerous fingering recommendations as well as bowing and expression markings, which some regard as being unrefined, too self-consciously virtuosic, and contrary to Bach’s style.81

Joseph Joachim was a pupil of David, but did not follow David’s stylistic principles; instead, he returned to Spohr’s ideas of violin practice. One of the most significant violinists in the nineteenth century, Joachim is highly regarded as the embodiment of “the pure German

School.”82 Joachim began teaching at the Berlin Music Academy in 1866 and was honored as

Royal Professor in 1869;83 his students brought the playing style of the German School to the next generation of violinists. These include Jëno Hubay, who was also educated by a representative violinist of the Franco-Belgian School, Vieuxtemps;84 Willy Hess, a notable concertmaster of various orchestras in Frankfurt, Rotterdam, and Boston who also taught at

78 Clive Brown, Louis Spohr: A Critical Biography, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 111.

79 Ibid., 35.

80 Ibid., 19.

81 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 19.

82 Ibid., 20.

83 Ibid.

84 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 21.

Harvard University and the Berlin Music Academy; and Marie Soldat, a prominent chamber and orchestral violinist whose recordings are highly valued by scholars for documenting specific performance practices.85

German Romantic composers and the German School

Spohr’s teachings spread extensively during the Romantic era through the performances of his pupils, many of whom became important performers and educators.86 Spohr’s students, including Ferdinand David and Joseph Joachim, mentored many of the German Romantic composers who later contributed to the standard repertoire for violin and viola.87 David worked closely with both Mendelssohn and Schumann, premiering Mendelssohn’s violin concerto and, with Clara Schumann, Robert Schumann's Violin Sonata No. 1 Op. 105 in A minor.88 89 Joachim likewise had musical relationships with Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, and Liszt.90 91 Clara

Schumann performed over 200 concerts with Joachim during her career;92 Robert Schumann

85 Barbara Kühnen, Marie Soldat. Aspekte der Biographie einer vergessenen Musikerin, and The Musical Standard, 30 (1908), 302, cited in Clive Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.” University of Leeds, 2001. http://chase.leeds.ac.uk/article/the-decline-of-the-19th-century-german-school- of-violin-playing-clive-brown/ (accessed February 14, 2018).

86 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 18.

87 Ibid.

88 Fifield, 26.

89 Robert Schumann Violin Sonata No. 1 in a minor, Op. 105 (1851) https://web.archive.org/web/20080420173525/http://uk.geocities.com/robert_schumann_19980225/op105.h tml (accessed January 8, 2018).

90 Clive Brown, A Portrait of Mendelssohn, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1907).

91 Nora Bickley, Letters from and to Joseph Joachim, (New York: Vienna House, 1972).

92 Nancy B. Reich, Clara Schumann, The Artist and The Woman, revised edition, Ithaca, (New York: Cornell University Press, 2001), 206.

26 composed two concertante works, Violin Concerto in D minor, WoO 23 11 and the Fantasie in

C major, Op. 131 in 1853 for Joachim. The same year, “impressed with the young Brahms’ compositions, Joachim wrote letters of introduction on Brahms’ behalf to Franz Liszt and Robert

Schumann.”93 94 When Brahms composed his Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 77 (1878), he sought and received advice from Joachim.95

Bruch logically fell under the influence of the German School of violin performance,96 having received guidance from composers and performers of the German School, most notably

David, Joachim, and Hess.97 98 David guided Bruch early in his compositional career; Bruch admired David very much, and dedicated the Piano Trio in C minor, Op. 5 (1857) to him.99

David performed Bruch’s String Quartet in C minor, Op. 9 (1859) in the Gewandhaus on

February 10, 1859, and the Quartet in E major, Op. 10 (1860) in Leipzig in November 1861.100

Bruch was however displeased with David’s performance of his first violin concerto in 1868 at

93 Jennifer E. Dalmas, “Double Concertos and Other Concert Works for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra: An Annotated Bibliography,” (DMA Document, The Florida State University School of Music, 2001), 12.

94 Both Robert and Clara Schumann were among Brahms’ most devoted early supporters; Clara had an extensive artistic relationship with Brahms after Robert’s death. Reich, ibid.

95 James Grier, The Critical Editing of Music: History, Method, and Practice, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 18.

96 Bruch met Spohr when Spohr journeyed to Holland in the summer of 1857; Spohr listened to Bruch’s comic opera, Scherz, List und Rache, and encouraged Bruch in his compositional career. Clive Brown, Louis Spohr: A Critical Biography, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 336.

97 Stowell, ibid., 69.

98 Fifield, 322.

99 Ibid.

100 Ibid., 26, 35.

27 the Leipzig Gewandhaus, describing David as very talented with great enthusiasm, but lacking skill due to his advanced age.101 Bruch did not collaborate further with David, who died in 1873.

Joachim was also very important to Bruch’s violin works.102 Bruch’s Violin Concerto No.

1 in G minor, Op. 26 was premiered on April 24, 1866 by the violinist Otto von Königslöw

(1824-1898). Unsatisfied with either the work or its performance, Bruch sent the manuscript to

Joachim (and David) for review.103 Bruch also discussed the Scottish Fantasy with Joachim, regarding choices in fingering and bowing; Joachim premiered this piece on February 22,

1881.104

Hess promoted Bruch’s violin works and viola works during Bruch’s late period, while

Bruch helped Hess gain a professorship at the Berlin Music Academy where Joachim taught.105

As was his practice with David and Joachim, Bruch discussed his Serenade, Op. 75 (1900) and

Konzertstück for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 84 (1911) with Hess, and dedicated these works to him .106 107 Hess premiered Bruch’s Romanze Op. 85 (1911) on April 25, 1911, under conductor

Leo Schrattenholz.108 The premier of Bruch’s Double Concerto was the second half of a program featuring Hess; he performed the Violin Concerto for the first half of the program, and switched

101 Interview with Arthur Abell, Musical Courier, July 5, 1911, cited in Fifield, 75.

102 Ibid., 62-63.

103 Ibid., 63.

104 Ibid.

105 Ibid., 294.

106 Michael Kennedy, The History of the Royal Manchester College of Music (1893-1972), (London: Manchester University Press, 1971).

107 Fifield, 273.

108 Ibid., 295.

28 to the viola for the Double Concerto for the second half with Max Felix Bruch performing the clarinet part.109 Hess also performed at both Bruch’s funeral (the Adagio from the first violin concerto)110 and memorial concert (String Quintet in A minor, Op. posth.).111

Bruch’s close collaboration with such prominent violinists of the German School documents the influence of the German School of violin playing during Bruch’s composition of the Double Concerto. Although the ‘international’ violin playing style took form during the same period, Bruch’s compositions for stringed instruments remained heavily influenced by the

German School through his strong relationships with Joachim and Hess.112

German School style and Bruch’s Op. 88

Bruce Haynes notes that performers today can achieve a type of historical authenticity through returning to the style of the time and place in which a work was composed.113 To do so, one must have a working knowledge of what the relevant stylistic components. For instance, executing the heavily ornamented and brilliant pieces from the Baroque era calls for different practices than performing Classical-era works, which feature clarity of sound.114 It is also important to recognize that, until the twentieth century, performance practices varied from region

109 Ibid., 297.

110 Ibid., 324.

111 Potter, “Bruch String Octet and String Quintets.”

112 J.A. Fuller Maitland, Masters of German Music, (Boston: Milford House, 1973), 97.

113 David Schulenberg, “The End of Early Music: A Period Performer’s History of Music for the Twenty- First-Century, by Bruce Haynes,” by Bruch Haynes, Journal of American Musicological Society 63:1 (Spring 2010), 169.

114 Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.”

29 to region. For performers seeking to understand a composer’s intentions, understanding the musical style and appropriate techniques is based on the related period and location of the composer.

I believe performers today should consider two main aspects for performing a piece authentically: first, the characteristics of each stylistic period and region; second, the composer’s original intention based on their score markings. My analysis in Chapter 4 aims at illuminating these points for Bruch’s Double Concerto, Op. 88, approaching the work as a product of the late-

Romantic German Violin School. Critically, the first point can only be fulfilled by the second, that is, by treating the composer’s intent with respect, and not modifying the compositional style by applying current aesthetics.115 A composer’s markings for bowing (slur, separation), stroke

(staccato, accent), dynamics (volume, crescendo and diminuendo, sfz and so on), and tempo

(tempo rubato, stringendo, accelerando) exist to direct musical interpretation, and are therefore as authentic a part of the music as the notes.

To identify issues in Bruch’s musical style and the appropriate sound and techniques to realize his Double Concerto, I have considered the composer’s period, location, and musical relationships. Robin Stowell’s The Early Violin and Viola: A Practical Guide offers literature on the violin and viola including a brief overview of the repertoire and techniques used in the playing of both instruments.116 Stowell provides musical examples for representative composers

-- Corelli, J. S. Bach, Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Brahms – and analyzes issues regarding technique, articulation, phrasing, and expression. In particular, the analyses of

Mendelssohn and Brahms’ works are guides for understanding the German School of violin

115 Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola,1.

116 Stowell, The Early Violin and Viola: A Practical Guide (London: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

30 music. Another work by Stowell, Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late

Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century, is a valuable source in determining stylistically appropriate timbre and tone production as well as phrasing and accentuation.117 This describes in detail how choosing bowings can facilitate ease of phrasing for Bruch’s writing. I consider how best to apply the techniques described in this book to the Double Concerto, to identify and reproduce tones representative of the time period and Bruch’s intent.

David Milsom’s Theory and Practice in Late Nineteenth-Century Violin Performance:

And Examination of Style in Performance, 1850-1900 describes the various techniques based on

Spohr’s ‘correct style’ and ‘fine style’ for violin and viola performance as used during Bruch’s career, covering topics such as phrasing, portamento, vibrato, tempo, and rhythm.118 Milsom also investigates the stylistic relationship of theories of violin and viola performance in the nineteenth-century. I have used Milsom’s research in determining the appropriate techniques to most effectively representing Bruch’s intent on both the violin and viola. Similarly, Karl

Courvoisier’s Technique of Violin Playing: The Joachim Method is an essential tool for understanding the violin technique of a major influence on Bruch.119 As Bruch frequently wrote for and on the advice of Joachim, the violinist’s method is essential for recreating Bruch’s intent.

For concerto performance, Spohr emphasizes that a performer’s attitude must be to convey the music accurately to the audience, and make the music graceful and pleasant for their

117 Stowell, Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

118 Milsom, Theory and Practice in Late Nineteenth-Century Violin Performance: As Examination of Style in Performance, 1850-1900 (Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003).

119 Karl Courvoisier, Technique of Violin Playing: The Joachim Method, (Mineola, New York: Dover Publication, INC., 2006).

31 enjoyment of “the fine science of the Artist.”120 Concerto performers may use various techniques as comfortable, without unnecessary concern for whether their sound is projected to the audience

-- for even a small sound from the violin can be heard clearly over a long distance.121 Therefore, no matter what genre and venue they perform, the performers should execute the ‘correct style’ with ‘fine style’.

The principle points for string performance in the Romantic period can be generalized as the use of portamento, somewhat slow tempi, melodic phrasing, exaggerated emotional expression, controlled vibrato, agogic accents, and rubato.122 In Chapter 4, I will address these four areas as applied to Bruch’s Double Concerto, demonstrating how to produce the ‘fine style’ according to the German School, demonstrating how and why to produce particular phrase notation, portamento, vibrato, and tempo rubato

120 Spohr, Violinschule (1832), 179-181.

121 Ibid.

122 Milsom, “Practice and Principle: Perspectives upon the German ‘Classical’ School of Violin Playing in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Nineteenth-Century Music Review 9 (2012): 31-52.

Chapter IV Romantic-Era German Style in Bruch’s Double Concerto

I. Phrasing

Spohr emphasized the importance of the bow for articulating phrasing and expression, and further stated that the way the bow is employed is a reflection of the soul.123 Poor bow technique can also negatively affect the sound. While it is important that the left hand support the use of the bow, it is my opinion that expressive phrasing is 90% the job of the right arm (bow arm). Spohr notes that although performers should observe articulations such as bowing (slur) and separation as part of the ‘correct style’, the performer should employ bow technique to best represent the character of tone through the accentuation and separation of musical phrasing, according to the ‘fine style’.124

According to David Milsom, many techniques are necessary to express the musical text and the composer’s intention in phrasing; Spohr mentioned that a stringed instrument with a variety of techniques for phrasing can have a variety of tones and colors.125 Indeed, this was regarded as “the foundation of the philosophy of performance” in the nineteenth century.126

Leopold Auer (1844-1930) and Carl Flesch (1875-1962) explain that, to be better violinists,

123 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 34.

124 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 153.

125 Ibid.

126 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 30.

33 performers should have a range of phrasing techniques to produce a rich and abundant sound color, which will be even greater if they add nuances and accents to it.127

Addressing Spohr’s ‘correct style’, performers should execute 1) bowing (slur), 2) staccato, 3) separation, and 4) agogic accents to best represent the tone character. I will examine

Bruch’s corresponding markings in his Double Concerto. I will then analyze the bow techniques employed to best present tone color support the musical character according to ‘fine style’.

1) Bowing (slur)

Most modern scholars rely on the treatises written in the nineteenth century to infer violinists’ thoughts on phrasing and bowing, how to use the bow, and arm movement. Although there are historical recordings to reference, as Clive Brown notes, it is very difficult to discuss physical practice through purely sound recordings.128 Spohr discusses early practices in bowing, stating his preference that strong beats of the measure occur on down-bows, and weak beats of the measure be performed up-bows. Up-bow was used when the bar or notes involve crescendo, and down-bow for a bar or notes involving decrescendo.129 A phrase that ended “devotedly” used down-bow, and one ending “enthusiastically” called for up-bow. The up-bow was also used for all strongly accented or marked concluding notes of broken chords and scales.130

(1) Beginning and ending of bars (or passages)

127 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 30.

128 Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-century German school of violin playing”.

129 Ibid.

130 Ibid.

Ex. 4.1.1 contains both down- and up-bow. The opening of each measure is executed with down-bow and concluding with up-bow in both the solo violin and viola. The solo violin at m.12 is slurred, but should be separated and restarted by playing down-bow.

Example 4.1.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 9-12, solo violin and viola.

(2) Crescendo and decrescendo

Example 4.1.2 contains both crescendo and decrescendo. The crescendo notated in m.61 elevates the atmosphere and should be executed with up-bow. The following decrescendo in mm.62-63 brings a calm atmosphere and should be executed by playing down-bow.

Example 4.1.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola.

(3) Character of ending

In Ex. 4.1.3, different bowings are required for phrases ending with different characters.

Mm.241-43 contain a decrescendo from mezzo-forte to piano which should be executed with down-bow to match the decreasing strength and languid mood of the phrase. The phrase beginning at m.251 crescendos over an ascending line to forte. This passionate motion should be executed by playing up-bow.

Example 4.1.3. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235-255, solo vio

2) Staccato

The German Violin School rarely used very short bow strokes in the lower half of the bow, such as spiccato (off-string).131 Although uncommon in the eighteenth century, spiccato was used by very few virtuosi in the first half of the nineteenth century, including the German violinist (and Spohr pupil) Bernhard Molique (1802-1869), the French violinist Charles Philippe

Lafont (1781-1839), and a French violinist in Russia, Louis Maurer (1789-1878).132 According

131 Milsom, “Practice and Principle,” 36.

132 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 268.

36 to Clive Brown, Spohr criticized the stroke as using the very dry heel of the bow; this criticism was more widely spread by certain Franco-Belgian School players.133

Most standard German chamber music repertoire in the nineteenth century calls for executing the staccato stroke in the upper half of the bow, while performers today generally execute the staccato stroke in the middle or the lower half of the bow.134 Furthermore, according to Spohr’s Violinschule, staccato should be played in the upper half of the bow.135 However, in their treatises, David, Joachim and Moser, and other nineteenth century German violinists called for playing staccato in the lower half of the bow similar to an off the string stroke such as spiccato. However, staccato strokes performed in the lower half of the bow should sound as if they are performed in the upper half of the bow, such as strokes including détaché, martelé, or slurred staccato.136 How to execute the staccato stroke depends on the character of passage and the personal taste and interpretation of the performer. I will assess which portion of the bow is best for executing staccato to match the color and character of certain passages in Bruch’s

Double Concerto.

Bruch uses much staccato in the third movement, marking some of the passages staccato with leggiero and grazioso (Ex. 4.1.4, 4.1.5). Some performers interpret these markings by playing them very short, similar to spiccato, possibly because the tempo indication of the third movement is Allegro molto ( =92). However, these notes should be played neither too short nor

133 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 268.

134 Ibid.

135 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 38

136 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 268.

37 completely off the string. The bow should be placed on the string between the upper half and the middle to create audible separation between the notes and be performed with light strokes.

Example 4.1.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 105-109, solo violin.

Example 4.1.5. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 97-105, solo viola.

Spohr preferred staccato strokes to be performed in the upper half of the bow and on the string, but it is not possible to play all staccatos in this way.137 Joachim, among others, examined various bow strokes to create a suitable sound. When Joachim edited J.S. Bach’s six solo sonatas and partitas, he used bouncing strokes (off the string).138 In Ex. 4.1.6, the stroke should be a combination of on the string and off the string, and should travel between the upper and lower half of the bow. Bruch indicates leggiero with grazioso for the solo violin in m. 393, and leggiero in m. 394 in piano for the solo viola. The solo viola stroke should be on the string in between the upper half and middle to create separation between the notes, and performed with light strokes in mm. 394-398. From m. 401, bouncing strokes (off the string) should be used, but it should sound in the upper half of the bow like détaché.

137 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 38.

138 Ibid., 64.

Example 4.1.6. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 392-409, solo violin and viola.

In these two passages, staccato with leggiero and grazioso can be played in the upper half on the string and remain clean and light within the indicated piano dynamic. However, it is not possible to project in forte dynamics in this same way. Mm. 422-431 (Ex. 4.1.7) has an accent on every down beat in both the solo violin and viola parts to exaggerate the effect of the ascending and descending scales. To maximize tension towards the end and show off virtuosity, the dynamic drops from forte to piano. I suggest here that the bow should be placed in the lower half and played with slightly bouncing strokes (off the string), yet sound as if it is being performing the upper half of the bow.

Example 4.1.7. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

3) Separation

Separation between notes can be executed either as breathing separation or between repeated notes. Separation is defined as “breathing space” by Flesch.139 According to David

Milsom, Joachim did not use separation often, although Bériot did.140 Bériot recommends that the degree of separation is dictated according to the length of the note value, as in half notes or dotted-quarter notes in the Classical and Baroque eras.141 Spohr stated that same notes should be separated as if there was a rest between the notes.142 Spohr did not mention specific detail regarding how to seperate notes. However, I have found that even when separation is not marked, performers should scrutinize the piece in detail to decide whether or not to employ separation.

Performers use breathing separation between phrases or to emphasize sudden dynamic changes. The latter is seen in Ex. 4.1.8. Beginning at m. 90, the dynamic is mezzo-forte and there is a crescendo with sforzando on the first beat of m. 93 in the solo viola followed by a

139 Carl Flesch, The Art of Violin Playing (English text, F. Martens, New York, 1924-30), Book 2, p. 44; in Milsom, Theory and Practice, 37.

140 C.de Bériot, Méthode de violin/Violin-school, Op.102 (Paris, 1858; English translation Westbrook & Phipson, London, 1876); in Milsom, 59.

141 Ibid.

142 Ibid., 37.

40 decresendo to piano over two beats in both solo instruments. Although not subito, the volume must be radically reduced. To maximize this effect, I recommend breathing separation before the string’s next phrase.

Example 4.1.8. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 88-95, solo violin and viola.

Separating between repeated notes is necessary in Ex. 4.1.9, where Bruch marked sforzando on each measure.

Example 4.1.9. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 313-319, solo violin.

4) Agogic Accent

Spohr considered accents important; Joachim and Moser discussed where the “melodic accent” is appropriate.143 According to David Milsom, Spohr, Joachim, and Moser used the term

‘accent’ not just to mean an attack, but also to indicate a lengthening effect similar to ‘tenuto’, a

143 Milsom, 30-33.

41 very “slight lingering on vibrated tones, strong breaks,” or “principal notes in the cantilena,” a vocal or instrumental passage of sustained lyricism.144 An agogic accent, as defined by German theorist and composer, Hugo Riemann (1849-1919),145 is a form of emphasis by virtue of being longer in duration, “to intensify the metrical and/or melodic importance of a note within the overall framework of the speech ideal.”146

Because Joachim referred to accent as ‘melodic’, I believe that in Bruch’s Double

Concerto, the agogic accent was likely marked (>), and maybe sforzando or messa di vocce (<>) as well if the effect included increasing the length of the sound. According to Spohr, the interpretation of sforzando and accent markings by the performer must involve the lengthening of the sound to provide expressive exaggeration indicating the direction of the phrase.

These indications appear many times in the double concerto, even within short passages

(Ex. 4.1.10). Two sforzandos appear in mm. 417 and 421 in the solo violin part, and two more in mm. 419 and 423 in the solo viola part. In these two cases the sforzandos are likely not agogic, but more consonant in their attack. However, at m. 431 in the solo viola part, the sforzando is performed as an agogic accent, thus allowing the note to be longer. Marking every eighth note with accents in both solo instruments is also indicative of agogic accents. Therefore, the eighth notes in this case should be made longer.

144 IMilsom, 30-33.

145 H. Riemann, Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik: Lehrbuch der musikalischen Phrasierung (Hamburg, 1884); in Milsom, 36.

146 Ibid.

Example 4.1.10. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-441, solo violin and viola.

There are cases in which messa di voce is written on a single note, or on a measures or more. When this term is used for an agogic accent, the character of messa di voce is similar to

“slightly lingering” and ‘tenuto’. In Example 4.1.11, messa di voce appears in the solo violin and viola parts and should be executed by lengthening the notes.

Example 4.1.11. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 41-46, solo violin and viola.

II. Portamento

Portamento was very important in the nineteenth century to “elaborate intra-phrase coloration in the string instruments.”147 Spohr’s invention of the chin rest had a tremendous impact on the use of portamento.148 However, especially in Germany, the use of portamento was strongly regulated in solo and orchestral music;149 although important to the ‘fine style’, Spohr forbade the unnecessary use of portamento in orchestral music.150 Many pedagogues including

Bériot, Joachim and Moser were apparently concerned that the portamento would be abused.151

According to Brown, compared with other contemporaneous violin recordings, Joachim used portamento infrequently, although he considered the technique, along with vibrato, very necessary to produce more rich and colorful music in appropriate places.152 Soldat’s recorded portamento is seemingly an “integral aspect of her expressive language” within very legato passages.153

Portamento, a smooth connection of one note to another, can be executed by keyboard instruments as ‘portato’, vocal as Cercar della nota and messa di voce crescent (or decrescent), and string (bowed) instruments as less or more audible (artificial, or expressive) shifting (slide)

147 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 74.

148 Ibid.

149 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 564.

150 Ibid., 564.

151 Milsom, Theory and Practice,79.

152 Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing”.

153 Ibid.

44 with legato between changes in position.154 Execution of portamento on stringed instruments is most efficiently executed on the same string or adjacent strings.155

Portamento can be executed in three different scenarios: old finger, new finger (Ex. 4.2.1,

4.2.2), or finger pattern (Ex. 4.2.3-1, 3-2). The original score of Bruch’s Double Concerto has no fingering suggestions except very rarely marked open strings. Some argue that fingering patterns should be evident to performers and editors based on training, however, the training of a performer may be congruent with the style intended by the composer. I will first examine where portamento should be executed, and then analyze which types of portamento are appropriate to employ.

1) Where to play portamento

Spohr indicated that portamento be executed within slurs in slow passages with passionate character, like cantabile or Adagio.156 Spohr also notes that, while portamento can be executed in the production of harmonics, it cannot be used for open strings.157 Bériot likewise stated that the portamento should be executed between slurs; for tender, plaintive, and sorrowful expression; and generally on the ascending scale.158 Additionally, Joachim and Moser state that

154 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 558.

155 Ibid.

156 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 84.

157 Ibid.

158 Ibid., 81.

45 portamento should be used to connect two notes belonging to different positions in a musical phrase for same tone color.159

2) Types of portamento

There are three types of portamento. Two are differentiated as using the same (old) finger, verses using a different (new) finger, referring to which finger the performer choses to use as the guide finger when moving to different positions on the fingerboard. Flesch refers to these types as the beginning finger (B) and leaving finger (L).160 Generally speaking, using the same (old) finger is executed on one string and passagework, and using a different (new) finger is executed between adjacent strings and melodic passages. Deciding which finger will be used when shifting is necessary for accurate intonation and sound color. Same/old finger portamento is much easier and simpler to execute than different/new finger; depending upon the color of the passage, performers should consider which type of portamento is best suited to support the character.

Ex. 4.2.1 is from the first movement of Bruch’s Double Concerto. At the beginning, both solo instruments alternate playing the same virtuosic passages, maintaining an atmosphere reflective of the movement as being very dramatic; this serves as a transition to the second theme.

The use of portamento emphasizes the sforzando, calling for the first type of portamento; therefore, I suggest using the same finger for shifting from first position to third position at m. 16,

159 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 82.

160 Carl Flesch, The Art of Violin Playing (English text, F. Martens, New York, 1924-30), Book 1, p. 30. These abbreviations, which I shall adopt in the discussion which follows, represent the original ‘Anfangsonote’ and ‘Endfingr’ portamento as found in C. Flesch, Die Kunst des Violinspiels (Berlin, Vol. II, 1929); in Milsom, Theory and Practice, 92.

46 so that both notes are executed on the same string. The B is played in the first position on the A- string and the old finger shifts to third position for executing D#.

Example 4.2.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 13-15, solo violin.

The second type of portamento is recommended for Ex. 4.2.2: m. 79 should be played on the D-string in first position; from m. 80, Bruch indicated to play on the G-string. The performer should use the third finger as the guide finger to aid the shift.

Example 4.2.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 79-80, solo violin.

The third type of portamento is finger pattern. Example 4.2.3-1 is part of a very dramatic passage. To create the high point at m. 195, the finger should move very fast and lightly. To maintain energy and match the atmosphere, I suggest playing on the E string from the first position to the eighth position. This fingering pattern, generally used in fast movements or passages, helps the performer execute this large shift more quickly and comfortably.161

Example 4.2.3-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 193-195, solo violin.

161 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 94.

Example 4.2.3-2. involves multiple changes of character, beginning at m.89 with mezzo- forte, crescendoing at m. 91, and ending piano with tranquillo.162 To exaggerate these changes, the finger should move very fast and lightly with fingering pattern. I suggest using the first finger on the C-string until m. 90; and shifting down to the first position on the G-string at m. 91 instead of m. 92, as the color of the G-string is much clearer and brighter than the C-string. This fingering pattern helps execute the dynamic markings and accent.

Example 4.2.3-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 89-93, solo viola.

III. Vibrato

David Milsom notes the difference in use and meaning of the term vibrato in the early and late nineteenth-century. Spohr used the term tremolo in a similar way to today’s use of the term vibrato regarding its effect in wavering the pitch for the purpose of expression. 163 164 Luis

162 Although missing on the solo viola part, this is marked mf on the full score.

163 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 111-112.

Alonso (1865-1921) categorized vibrato into five types in Le Virtuose modern (c. 1880), one of which included shaking the bow (bow vibrato) in a way similar to today’s tremolo, executed by the right hand.165 Carl Flesch used the terms tremolo and vibrato for the same practice.166

However, today vibrato is clearly defined as the wavering or pulsating change of a single note

(or pitch), which is executed by the left hand and completely separate from tremolo.

In the nineteenth century and continuing until the very beginning of the twentieth century, the German School limited the use of vibrato strictly in performance. They advocated the use of vibrato only very occasionally for ornamentation, such as embellishment or emphasis on a longer note. Brown finds vibrato was executed distinctly differently than modern performers in the recordings of Joachim and Soldat.167 Modern performers generally respect continuous vibrato even on passagework scales, arpeggios, and double octaves, and endeavor to execute vibrato with various widths. Furthermore, Spohr, Joachim, and Moser restricted wider vibrato, while using broader vibrato to give “life to passing notes” and “ennoble faster passages” was developed by violinists of the Franco-Belgian School, including Eugene Ysaÿe and Fritz

164 IMSLP, Petrucci Music Library, “Violinschule,” edited by Louis Spohr, http://imslp.org/wiki/Violinschule_(Spohr%2C_Louis) (accessed January 14, 2018), 161.

165 Luis Alonso’s Methods; Exercises; Studies; for Violin; Scores Featuring the Violin (Paris, c. 1880); in Milsom, Theory and Practice, 112, 122.

166 David Montgomery, “The Vibrato Thing,” https://douglasniedt.com/TechTipVibratoPart3TheVibratoThingByDavidMontgomery.pdf (accessed February 8, 2018).

167 Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.”

Kreisler.168 Continuous vibrato was advocated as an aspect of beautiful tone production before the middle of the twentieth-century, according to Siegfried Eberhardt (1883-1960).169

Vibrato was traditionally used in the German School to execute “passionate and dramatic cantabile passages,” “in proportion to the increase in power,” but not in areas of melody written in shorter note values.170 It was also common to avoid using vibrato on open strings, harmonics, and in passagework scales, arpeggios, trills, and double octaves.171 Various vibrato speeds were used, but the widths used were generally within a narrow range. The discussion of vibrato in

Joachim and Moser’s Violinschule exactly follows Spohr’s ‘fine style’.

1) Where to play vibrato

Spohr recommends vibrato in the following circumstances: (1) on longer note values (Ex.

4.3.1); (2) on longer note values involving dynamic changes (Ex. 4.3.2); (3) between accented notes and vibrated tones (Ex. 4.3.3-1, 3-2); (4) on the stronger beats (Ex. 4.3.4); and (5) at the beginning and end of portamento (Ex. 4.3.5).172

(1) On longer notes

The second movement of Bruch’s Double Concerto is written in a very lyrical Allegro moderato ( =120), and is a good example of where Spohr’s vibrato is executed on longer notes

168 Carl Flesch, Memoirs of Carl Flesch (1957), p. 120; in ibid.

169 Siegfried Eberhardt (1883-1960)’s treatise, Violin vibrato: its Mastery and Artistic Uses: Practical Suggestions for Correct Technical Development and Good Violin Tone Production, (Carl Fischer Inc. 1911); in ibid.

170 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 113, 118.

171 Milsom, “Practice and Principle,” 37.

172 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 118-120.

50 as well as in dramatic cantabile passages. In general, Bruch used longer notes with slurs, and avoided note lengths shorter than an eighth note. In Ex. 4.3.1, the dotted half note appears regularly, and should be executed with vibrato. Spohr calls for vibrato on the strong beat because the second movement is 3/4 time. The third quarter note in a 3/4 measure should be the weaker beat; however, the third quarter notes of mm. 226 and 228 in the solo violin part are slurred to the same note in their respective following measures. Therefore, these quarter notes should be considered part of the longer note, and thus executed with vibrato.

Example 4.3.1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 217-235, solo violin and viola.

(2) On longer notes with dynamic change

In Ex. 4.3.2, both solo violin and viola are marked pianissimo in m. 59 with crescendo from m. 61. The first quarter note in m. 62 should be executed with vibrato. The decrescendo on the second beat also calls for vibrato, on the solo violin’s half note and solo viola’s dotted quarter.

However, the vibrato should not cover the full value of the note. (This issue will be addressed in greater detail in the following section of vibrato speeds.)

Example 4.3.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola.

(3) Between accented notes and vibrated tones

Accented notes and vibrated tones are related to agogic accents: accent (>) and messa di vocce (<>). An agogic accent increases the length of the sound; playing it with vibrato maximizes this effect. A vibrated tone means to produce a resonant sound, very similar to where

Bruch indicates messa di vocce (<>). Although both markings are used to emphasize a note, the tone color of messa di vocce differs from sforzando, and is closer to the sound of a vibrated tone.

Ferdinand David notes that, to swell the dynamic, vibrato should be executed on messa di vocce.173

Both the solo violin and viola have accents in Example 4.3.3-1. Spohr discourages vibrato in passagework; however, vibrato is necessary here to exaggerate and clearly present each note. The use of vibrato in this example supports the overall atmosphere of this passage more dramatically, and conveys a more vivid atmosphere to the audience.

173 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 127.

Example 4.3.3-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

The messa di vocce in Ex. 4.3.3-2 should be executed by swelling the dynamics while using vibrato. The effect will be maximized if various speeds of vibrato are used (as discussed further in the section on vibrato speeds): slower vibrato at the beginning, gradually becoming faster, and slowing down again to the beginning speed.

Example 4.3.3-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 17-34, solo violin and viola.

(4) On the stronger beats of the bar

Spohr states that vibrato should be used on the stronger beats of the bar – the first and third quarter notes – to intensify the rhythmic structure. However, these beats correspond to 4/4 meter. It is important to note that in other time signatures, the stronger beats will be different.

The third movement of Bruch’s Double Concerto is in 2/4; the first and second beat are emphasized. Ex. 4.3.4 creates this emphasis through accenting the first beat for one solo instrument, and marking sforzando on the second beat for the second solo instrument.

Example 4.3.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 417-433, solo violin and viola.

(5) At the beginning and end of portamento

Vibrato should be used at the start and end of portamento slides, even when those appear on short note values and on weaker beats. In Ex. 4.3.5-1 and 5-2, the portamento begins on weak beats, and involves and eighth note with slur.

Example 4.3.5-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 13-15, solo violin.

Example 4.3.5-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 79-80, solo violin.

2) Where to avoid vibrato

Spohr’s guidelines include not using vibrato in passagework (Ex. 4.3.6-1, 6-2) or on open strings (Ex. 4.3.7-1, 7-2).174 Additionally, Spohr discouraged the use of vibrato on harmonics

(there are no harmonics in Bruch’s Double Concerto). Today’s performers deliberately practice executing very little vibrato in passagework, while respecting the continuous vibrato developed by violinists of the Franco-Belgian School;175 176 however, vibrato should be avoided in these situations for the Double Concerto in adherence to the German School style.

Ex. 4.3.6-1 and 6-2 are melodic passages with very short note values. Vibrato should be avoided at the double stops indicated by square brackets on the example scores.

Example 4.3.6-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 191- 198, solo violin and viola.

174 Spohr, Violinschule (1832), 94.

175 Carl Flesch, Memoirs of Carl Flesch (1957), p. 120; in Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.”

176 Siegfried Eberhardt (1883-1960)’s treatise, Violin vibrato: its Mastery and Artistic Uses: Practical Suggestions for Correct Technical Development and Good Violin Tone Production (1911); in ibid.

Example 4.3.6-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235- 255, solo violin and viola.

Spohr notes that the open string naturally vibrates and buzzes when the unison, octave, and fifth of the note (right next to the open string) are played.177 To avoid this, one finger should dampen the vibrating string; this must be given careful consideration during practice. Although not mentioned by Spohr, performers should choose and practice on which beats to touch and release the open string to dampen the vibrations.

In Ex. 4.3.7-1, the open G-string should be vibrated, mm. 231-233, where the solo viola plays G on the D-string. At m. 234, the solo viola plays E on the D-string with the first finger and C on the G-string with the third finger. I recommend that, during the quarter rest in m. 233, the solo viola dampens the vibrated open string (G-string) with the third finger while setting the next note.

177 Spohr, Violinschule (1832), 168.

Example 4.3.7-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 231- 235, solo viola.

In Ex. 4.3.7-2, when the solo viola plays the C on the G-string with the third finger, mm.

460-462, the open C-string will vibrate sympathetically. During the rest that follows, the vibrated

C-string can be dampened with the first finger in second position while simultaneously preparing the shift to B on the G-string on second position, m. 464.

Example 4.3.7-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 458- 465, solo viola.

3) Vibrato speeds

Spohr describes vibrato as a left-hand technique executed by alternating movement slightly above and below a single note, from the nut towards the bridge.178 Joachim and Flesch describe it as a finger movement toward the bridge to an upward pitch. 179 The French cellist Diran Alexanian’s (1881-1954) treatise, Theoretical and Practical Treatise of the

Violoncello (1922), explains in detail vibrato practice methods through the use of various

178 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 123.

179 Eberhard, Violin vibrato: its Mastery and Artistic Uses: Practical Suggestions for Correct Technical Development and Good Violin Tone Production, (Carl Fischer Inc. 1911), 12, 21.

57 rhythmic figures.180 It should be noted that while Spohr, Joachim, Flesch, and Alexanian refer to vibrato as a finger and hand movement, this is not to say that vibrato is executed only from the finger or hand, or that they respected only one type of vibrato. To avoid this confusion, Milsom describes vibrato as a fore-aft movement without mentioning the finger or hand. 181

Vibrato can be executed by the arm, finger, and wrist, or a combination of all three and by varying speeds and widths. In general, the arm is used to execute slower, wider and broader vibrato. To execute narrower and faster vibrato, the finger or wrist is used, the finger being much faster and narrower than the wrist. There are drawbacks to each method. Alonso states that finger vibrato and two-finger vibrato (like a trill but with the second finger not touching the string) is used only by Italian players.182 He goes on to say that wrist vibrato generally is too slow and sounds like a street singer, while arm vibrato is nervy and stiff like a counterfeit chromatic trill, and unsuitable for creating a full sound in a large hall.183

In listening to old recordings performed by violinists influenced by both the German and

Franco-Belgian Schools, it seems that there was hardly any arm vibrato used.184 While the treatises written by both schools’ leaders, Spohr and Bériot, did not categorize the types of vibrato such as the finger, wrist, and arm vibrato as Alonso did, they clearly indicated the issues

180 IMSLP, Petrucci Music Library, "Traité théorique et pratique du Violoncelle," edited by Diran Alexanian, http://imslp.org/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_th%C3%A9orique_et_pratique_du_violoncelle_(Alexanian%2C_Diran) (accessed February 14, 2018), 96, 97.

181 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 122.

182 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 536.

183 Ibid.

184 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 124.

58 of varying widths of vibrato (wide/fast).185 However, Spohr wrote that vibrato must be performed with slight and small motions, presumably for narrower and faster vibrato executed by the finger, or maybe the wrist. Likewise, the violinists of Franco-Belgian School, including

Bériot and Ysaÿe, did not use broader and wider vibrato executed by the arm.

In Violinschule (1832), Spohr identifies four types of vibrato speed, marked as wavering signs (Fig.1), according to their relation to the dynamic or the character of passages: (1) quick vibrato (Ex. 4.3.8), (2) slow vibrato (Ex. 4.3.9), (3) accelerating, and (4) decelerating (both Ex.

4.3.10).186

Figure 1. The four types vibrato speed symbolized by Sphor in Violinschule (1832). 187

The quick vibrato should occur on the accent (>), sforzando, and stronger beats within the meter. In Ex. 4.3.8, the detailed dynamic markings, the accent (>), sforzando should all be executed with quick vibrato. This example is a dramatic and expressive passage largely in forte; therefore, the longer notes should be executed with quick vibrato, but the short note values and scales should not.

Example 4.3.8. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-16, solo violin and viola.

185 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 124.

186 Ibid., 125.

187 Spohr’s Violinschule, in ibid.

The slow vibrato occurs on the unaccented, weaker beats within the meter as well as on sustained notes in the cantabile passages. Ex. 4.3.9, cantabile and p or pp, usually starts from the weaker beat and calls for slow vibrato.

Example 4.3.9. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, second movement, mm. 217-235, solo violin and viola.

Accelerating vibrato, gradually increasing from slow to fast oscillations, is a combination of the first and second types as described by Spohr. This type of vibrato also involves carrying out crescendo. Decelerating vibrato gradually decreases the speed of the oscillation from fast to slow, while executing decrescendo. Ex. 4.3.10 contains many dynamic changes which may be executed with various types of vibrato. Both solo lines start pianissimo mm. 59-60, and should be executed with slow vibrato. Due to the accent (>) marking in both solo lines, the vibrato should gradually increase in speed with crescendo from m. 61 to the first beat of m. 62. The vibrato should gradually decrease in speed with decrescendo from the second beat of m. 62.

Example 4.3.10. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 59- 68, solo violin and viola.

IV. Tempo Rubato

In the 1820s, Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (1772-1838), a German inventor, produced the metronome bearing his name which continues to be used today. Nonetheless, many nineteenth- century composers such as Weber, Mendelssohn, and Brahms found time signatures using

61 metronome numbers too strict, and considered metronomic indications insufficient for conveying their intentions.188 The importance of knowing where, how, and to what extent tempo modification should be written down remains a question due to the central Romantic-era performance practice of tempo rubato, a term referring to stolen time and recovery of tempo.189

Several tempo indications are used for tempo rubato, including the terms stringendo, accelando, rubato, and ritardando. However, it is very difficult to detail every single point of rubato with a specific metronome number. Furthermore, the exact tempo for any particular point of rubato can vary depending on the performer and their interpretation or momentary decisions.190 For his part, Joachim found the metronome marking “deadly dullness.”191

Because tempo rubato cannot be dictated by metronome markings, scholars such as

Spohr, Carl Czerny (1791-1857), and Mathis Lussy (1828-1910) have studied and written about where and how to execute the tempo rubato correctly. Today, performers may also study recordings to get a sense of performance practice from the past. There are limitations to the value of the oldest recordings due to the short time span allotted for a given recording; because of the short time allotted for recording, most recorded performances were excessively fast in tempi, and likely did not allow musicians freedom to do much tempo rubato. Nonetheless, recordings of violinists such as Joachim and Soldat help identify and illuminate the performance style of the

German School regarding phrasing, portamento, and vibrato. For instance, there is evidence that,

188 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practices, 283.

189 Ibid., 385.

190 Schilling, Encyclopedia, art. ‘Tempo’, in Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practices, 283.

191 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153.

62 while generally approached tempos strictly adhering to Spohr’s ‘correct style’, Joachim also frequently used tempo rubato in slow movements, supporting his stylistic emphasis on melodic phrasing rather than structural issues and harmonic change.192 By contrast, Ysaÿe and Flesch, who were not of the German School, played tempo rubato in different ways. 193

From the early nineteenth century, tempo rubato was increasingly considered the essence of expression.194 The meaning of the term, however, was ambiguous, as it involves variation of tempo within a passage that has a strict tempo. In the 1830s, James Alexander Hamilton (1785-

1845), an English music writer, defined tempo rubato as a way of expressing music contained within a measure by accelerating and retarding speed without changing the overall tempo.195 The tempo rubato dominant in the nineteenth-century comes from the treatises of Carl Czerny (1791-

1857) and Lussy (1828-1910).196 Both state that performers should use tempo rubato very carefully. However, Czerny’s treatise focuses on using tempo rubato to highlight musical structure,197 while Lussy is more interested in “the emotive import.” 198 Czerny asserted that tempo rubato should be placed:

1) on the return of the subject, 2) in phrase to be separated from the melody, 3) longer or accented notes, 4) when transitioning to a different theme, 5) after a fermata, 6) on a diminuendo in faster music, 7) where an ornamental note is to be played ‘tempo giusto’, 8) on well-marked crescendo beginning or ending an

192 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156.

193 Brown, “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing”.

194 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 377.

195 Ibid.

196 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156.

197 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 387.

198 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156

important passage, 9) in passages where the performer is given free play, 10) expressive, and 11) at the end of a shake or cadence.199

Lussy held the opinion that tempo rubato should be used:

1) where several expressive notes follow one another consecutive notes, or where a single note with an exceptional length appearing at the beginning or middle of the rhythm, 2) where several notes, or groups of notes occur exceptionally after and ascending or descending progression, 3) in exceptional passages which introduce agitation or passion, 4) where several consecutive expressive notes appear suddenly at the beginning of rhythm without there being the proper time to give them the necessary impetus, 5) where the force expended on an ascending or a descending series or progression of notes produces fatigue or exhaustion, 6) in exceptional passages, as in the middle of an allegro, where a more complicated or expressive structure occurs with a change to calmness, gravity, or melancholy, and 7) on expressive notes or passages, reiterated notes and higher auxiliary notes at the end of a phrase.200

Spohr did not give any specific examples of tempo rubato as part of his discussion of

‘fine style’.201 Rather, he used the shape of the melodic line and the character of the passage to determine appropriate tempo rubato, stating that applying accelerando or ritardando should be according to the character: accelerating tempo for furious, ambitious, and passionate passages, and slowing the tempo in tender, doleful, and melancholy passages.202 Milsom notes the similarity of Lussy’s approach to that of Spohr, despite the differences in their specific directions for tempo rubato.203 Lussy analyzed the character of passages first and used tempo rubato to

199 J. Czerny, Clavierschule (c. 1825), quoted from the translation of F. Dorian, The Hisotry of Music in Performance, (New York, 1942), p. 206: in C Sachs, Rhythm and Tempo (Norton, 1953), p. 327-8; in Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156.

200 Mathis Lussy, Traité de l’ expression musicale: accen, nuances et mouvements sand la musique Expression, Accents, Nuances, and Tempo n Vocal and Instrumental Music, (London 1885), 166-7; in ibid.

201 Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 399.

202 Spohr, Violinschule (1832), 179.

203 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156.

64 emphasize them. For example, he calls for rubato when a passage introduces a change in atmospheres such as agitation or passion, or when the expressive notes or passages change the atmosphere to calmness, gravity, or melancholy.204

To determine where tempo rubato is necessary for emphasizing or maximizing the atmosphere of passages or notes, I will analyze the character of selected passages in Bruch’s

Double Concerto, applying some of Lussy' s referring of placement: (1) after ascending or descending scales (Ex. 4.4.1-1, 1-2), (2) at the end of a long progression of notes (Ex. 4.4.2), (3) in exceptional passages or expressive structure (Ex. 4.4.3), and (4) on expressive notes or passages (Ex. 4.4.4).205

(1) On ascending or descending scales

In Ex. 4.4.1-1, a long ascending scale (mm.235-255) finishes one octave higher than the first note. To intensify the atmosphere, rhythmic figures are reiterated while ascending and descending scale patterns are incorporated in the middle of the passage (mm.244-251). The use of tempo rubato from the second beat of mm. 254-255 dramatically emphasizes the conclusion of this long passage.

Example 4.4.1-1. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 235-255, solo violin.

204 Milsom, Theory and Practice, 153-156.

205 Ibid.

The passage in Ex. 4.4.1-2 involves a long descending scale (mm.52-89) beginning very calmly in p, which seems to increase energy over three measures (mm. 65-67) on an ascending scale; gradually that energy is diminished on a descending scale, finishing in morendo character.

Tempo rubato should be played from the second beat of m. 73, to maximize the effect of both the increase and decrease in energy.

Example 4.4.1-2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 52-89, solo viola.

(2) At the end of a long progression of notes

In Ex. 4.4.2, mm. 90-106, the solo violin and solo viola exchange and repeat the melodic line four times, while rhythmic accompanying figures increase tension. Throughout this long progression, the solo violin and viola must maintain that tension, to allow the listener to feel the relaxing and letting go of a held breath when the passage resolves. Although Bruch did not indicate tempo in this passage, tempo rubato in m. 105 enhances this intensified gesture.

Example 4.4.2. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 88-107, solo violin and viola.

(3) In exceptional passages or for expressive structure

The first movement opens with the solo violin and viola exchanging sextuplets and septuplets within a quarter note each to build a busy and passionate character, Ex. 4.4.3.

Immediately following, the mood becomes calm, sorrowful, and very introspective. To achieve this change in character, performers should push the tempo slightly forward beginning in m. 9.

This forward motion should be executed gradually, keeping in mind that Bruch indicated un poco stringendo. From m. 11, the tempo should be pulled back. Because this is not a real ending, the tempo changes in mm. 9-11 should be limited, reserving tension until the poco ritardando in mm.15-16.

Example 4.4.3. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, first movement, mm. 1-16, solo violin and viola.

(4) For expressive notes or passages

A similar passage, where tempo rubato maximizes the increasing tension and expressive drive toward the end of the phrase, is found Ex. 4.4.4, mm. 183-199. The solo violin repeats a triplet figure, mm.183-194, and repeats A# four times with sforzando in mm. 195-198. In

68 addition, Bruch put a higher auxiliary-like turn to ornament the ending note of this passage, m.

199. To play all these details with effective expression, tempo rubato should be executed gradually toward to the higher auxiliary-like turn in m. 199.

Example 4.4.4. Bruch, Double Concerto, Op.88, third movement, mm. 183-199, solo violin.

Conclusion

Although Max Bruch’s life and works have not yet been studied in proportion to his accomplishments, information about him is increasing year by year. A bridge between the

German Romantic generation proper and the composers of the twentieth century maintaining the practices of German Romanticism, Bruch’s works for the violin and viola also encompasses a continuation of the German School as transmitted through Joachim, Hess, and others. The principles of ‘correct style’ with ‘fine style’ set out in Spohr’s Violinschule (1832), expressed through the technique and stylistic execution of phrasing, portamento, vibrato, and tempo rubato, are essential in understanding how to perform Bruch’s works for violin and viola as demonstrated in this document through the application of these principles to the Double

Concerto, Op. 88. In taking this approach, today's performers will be able to successfully and authentically perform the sounds and styles that Bruch sought to create for each instrument.

Appendix

Table 1. Composers of works for solo violin and viola by era

Composition Date Violin Viola Baroque (1600-1750) Corelli, Telemann, Vivaldi, Telemann, Benda C.Avison, Handel, J.S. Bach, Geminiani, Veracini, Tartini, Locatelli, Stamitz, Classic (1730-1820) Haydn, Sirmen, Viotti, Mozart, Stamitz, Dittersdorf, Hoffmeister, Beethoven, Rode, Spohr, Bériot Alessandro Rolla, Weber, Antonio Rolla Romantic (1800-1910) Schubert, Paganini, Lipiński, Berlioz, Bruch, R.Fuchs, Forsyth, Sitt Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Schumann, E.Frank, Vieuxtemps, Lalo, Goldmark, Joachim, Accolay, Brahms, Wieniawski, Saint-Saëns, Bruch, Tchaikovsky, Svendson, Goetz, Dvorak, Massenet, Sarasate, Auer, Seitz, Moszkowski, Chausson, Elgar, R.Frank, Arensky, Glazunov, Reger 20th-Century Kreisler, Ravel, Karłowicz, R.Clarke, Enesco, Bax, Steiner, Myaskovsky, Szymanowski, Nystroem, Martinů, Porter, Casadesus, Schoenberg, Hindemith, Nielsen, Rosenberg, Piston, Müller-Zürich, Korngold, Vaughan Williams, Milhaud, Bloch, Hindemith, Burkhard, Berg, Copland, Walton, Walton, Bartok, Blacher, Meyer, Frencescatti, Conus, Khachaturian, Frankel, Rozsa, Saygun, Katims, Galamian, L.Kaufman, Sibelius, Golubev, Dávid, Goldstein, Anold, Shostakovich, Oistrakh, Gingold, Stiles, Bunin, Feldman, Adler, Denisov, Barber, Dutilleux, Bernstein, Penderecki, Schnittke, Glick, Arnold, Ligeti, Williamson, Pärt, Blendinger, Bibik, Patterson, Burrell, Corigliano, Adams Bainbridge, Woolrich, L.Fuchs, Pletnev 21st-century Shymkod, Previn, Williams, Glass, Sculthorpe, Williams, Erőd, Tower, Liebermann Soderlind, Ranjbaran, Brady, Dean, Dávidson, Stylianou, Carrara, Muhly, Appignani

Table 2. 19th- and 20th-century one-movement pieces for solo violin or viola with orchestra

Composition date Violin Viola 1800-1850 Ernst, Schubert (3), Berlioz, R. Schumann n/a [6] 1850-1900 Wieniawski (31), Saint-Saëns (4), Tchaikovsky (2), Hans Sitt (Koncertstück,1892) Dvořák (2), Svendsen, Massenet, Bruch (2), Delius (3), Enescu (5), Chausson, Joachim (4), Diepenbrock, Sarasate (41) [97] 1900-1950 Sarasate (7), Saint-Saëns, Bruch, Vaughan Williams, Hans Sitt (Romance Op. 72, 1900) Ravel, Janáček, Suk (2), Sinding, Röntge, Max Bruch (Romanze Op. 85, Schmitt (4) 1911) [21] 1950-2000 Piston, Pärt (2), Xenakis, Zwilich, Hallgrímsson, Oedoen Partos (Shiluvim, 1970); Holloway, Kernis, Laporte, Scelsi (6) Frank Martin (Ballade, 1972) [15]

Table 3. Popular works for solo violin or viola by Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms

Violin Viola Composer Concerto Sonata Concerto Sonata Mendelssohn No. 1 (1822) No. 1 (1820) Sonata (1824) No. 2 Op. 64 (1844) No. 2, Op. 4 (1825) Double Concerto (1823) No. 3 (1838) Schumann Fantasy Op.131 (1853) Op.105 (1851) Märchenbilder WoO 23 (1853) Op.121 (1851) (1851) WoO 27 (1853) Brahms Op. 77 (1878) Scherzo (1853) Double Op. 120 Double Concerto (1887) Op. 78 (1878-79) Concerto No.1/No.2 Op. 100 (1886) (1887) (1894) Op. 108 (1887)

Table 4. Bruch’s works for solo violin or viola with orchestra Violin Viola Concerto No. 1, Op. 26 1868 Romanze, Op.85 1911 Romanze, Op. 42 1874 Double Concerto, Op. 88 1911 Concerto No. 2, Op. 44 1878 Scottish Fantasy, Op. 46 1880 Adagio appassionato, Op.57 1891 Concerto No.3, Op. 58 1891 In Memoriam, Op. 65 1893 Serenade, Op. 75 1900 Konzertstück, Op. 84 1911 Double Concerto, Op. 88 1911

Table 5. Publication history of Bruch’s Opp. 42, 85, and 88

Op. 42 Violin Viola Publisher Simrock (1874/1891/2010) Simrock (1891) Carl Fischer (1916) Int’l Music Company (2006)

Op.85 Publisher/arranger

Violin Schott Music (April 1911/rev. June 1911/1984) G. Henle Verlag (Norbert Gertsch) 2004 Viola Schott Music (April 1911/rev.June 1911/1984) G. Henle Verlag (Norbert Gertsch) 2004 Cello Stephez12 (arr. Stephez12; 2011) Clarinet Potenza Music (arr. Matthew Miracle; 2010) Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag (arr. Denemark; 2015) Flute Theodore Presser Company (arr. Mark Sparks; 2014) Bass Delatour Franc (arr. Daniel Marillier; 2017)

Op. 88 Publisher Editor Publisher Simrock (1947/1977) Otto Lindemann Carl Fischer (1916) Int’l Music Company (2006)

Table 6. Recordings of Bruch’s Romanze for Violin, Op.42, and Romanze for Viola, Op.85

Op. 42 Op. 85 Violin Viola Violin Viola Salvatore Accardo, 1998, 2013 Janine Jansen, 2006 Karen Dreyfus, 1989 Maxim Fedotov,2006 Gluzman, 2011 Yuri Bashment, 1990 Aaron Rosand, 2007 Vadim Gluzmnann, 2011 Helmut Froschauer, 2000 Tomotadd Soh, 2010 Guy Braunstein, 2013 Miguel da Silva, 2002 Jacques Israelievitch, 2011 Mark Neumann, 2009 Dimitry Yablonsky, 2016 *Trombone Jean-Luc Votano, 2009 Hermann Bäumer, 2016 Alain Traudel, 2003 Gliad Karni, 2010 *Contrebasse Maxim Rysanov, 2011 Daniel Marillier, 2010 Veronika Weiser, 2014 *Cello Hartmut Rohde, 2015 Friedrich Kleinhapl, 2011 Trio Apollon, 2015 Herbert Kefer, 2017

Table 7. Double concertos for solo violin and solo cello or solo viola

Composition date Cello Viola 18th-century or before J.S. Bach, Vivaldi, Gaviniès, Hofmann, J.S. Bach, Stamitz, Mozart Stamitz, Mozart 19th-century Donizetti, Brahms Brahms 20th-century Saint-Saëns, Delius, Klengel, Ysaÿe, Röntgen, Bruch, Delius, Benjamin, Hess, Rósza, Atterberg, Kirchner, Tai, Sessions, Hoffman, Hoover, Mueller-Siemens David, Iranyi, Rodríguex, Cerha, Mansurian, Bischof, Moret, Schnittke, Harrison, Hoffman, Laderman, Boehmer, Sherwood, Zwilich, Soldier, Bakshi, Tcherepnin, Rorem (2) 21st-century Danielpour, Lazarof, Mihevc, Chin, Escaich Leshnoff, Bernet, Sierra, Bystrom (2), Grundman, Hagen, Harbison, Johnstone, Chesky, Fairouz, Glass, Chihara, Benguerel, Beppe, Horner, Previn, Bernet, Carrara, Duspin

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Potter, Tully. “The Romantic Violin Concerto Vol. 19: Bruch Violin Concerto No. 1, Op. 26, Romance, Op. 42, Serenade, Op. 75 (CD).” Hyperion Records CDA68060. England: January 8, 2016. ────. “Bruch String Octet and String Quintets: The Nash Ensemble (CD).” Hyperion Record CDA68168. England: April 2017.

Journal Articles

Brown, Clive. “The Decline of the 19th-Century German School of Violin Playing.” University of Leeds, 2001. http://chase.leeds.ac.uk/article/the-decline-of-the-19th-century-german- school-of-violin-playing-clive-brown/ (accessed February 14, 2018).

Eisler, Edith. “Lots of fireworks.” Strings 23 (October 2008): 78-80, https://search.proquest.com/docview/237176804?accountid=2909 (accessed December 22, 2017).

Fifield, Christopher. “Playing the Viola: Conversations with William Primrose by David Dalton.” The Galpin Society Journal 46 (March 1993): 193-195.

Godell, Tom. “Bruch: Violin & Viola Concerto; Romance; 8 pieces.” American Record Guide 69 (September 2006): 97-98, https://search.proquest.com/docview/223355779?accountid=2909 (accessed February 2, 2017).

Haller, S. J. “Bruch: Violin Concerto 1; Konzertstück; Romance.” American Record Guide 69: 97 (September 2016), https://search.proquest.com/docview/223354213?accountid=2909 (accessed January 31, 2017).

Milsom, David. “Practice and Principle: Perspectives upon the German ‘Classical’ School of Violin Playing in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Nineteenth-Century Music Review 9 (2012): 31-52.

Nagely, Judith. “Romance Op.42; Scottish Fantasy Op.46; Adagio appassionato Op.57; Violin Concerto No.3, Op.58; In Memoriam Op.65; Serenade Op.75; Konzertstück Op.84 by Bruch, Accardo, Leipzig Gewandhaus and Masur.” The Musical Times 122: 1656 (1981): 111.

Rawlins, Joseph Thomas. “The Arrangement and its Role in the Performer’s Repertoire.” American Music Teacher 33 (1984): 26-28.

Schulenberg, David. “The End of Early Music: A Period Performer’s History of Music for the Twenty-First Century, by Bruce Haynes.” By Bruch Haynes. Journal of American Musicological Society 63:1 (Spring 2010), 169-178.

Robin Stowell, “Bringing Singing to Violin Technique: Charles-Auguste de Bériot.” The Strad (February 19, 2014), https://www.thestrad.com/bringing-singing-to-violin-technique- charles-auguste-de-beriot/1155.article (accessed January 8, 2018).

Woodward, Ann M. “Observations on the Status, Instruments, and Solo Repertoire of Violists in the Classical Period.” Journal of the Violin Society of America 9:2 (1988): 81-104.

Dissertations

Dalmas, Jennifer E. “Double Concertos and Other Concert Works for Violin, Cello, and Orchestra: An Annotated Bibliography,” DMA Document, The Florida State University School of Music, 2001.

Hinson, James M. “A Stylistic Analyses of Three Selected Trios for Clarinet, Viola, and Piano: Fairy Tales by Robert Schumann, Eight Pieces by Max Bruch, and Kleines Konzert by Alfred Uhl.” DMA Document, The Florida State University School of Music, 1995.

Kim, Dong-Wook. “The Emergence of Viola as a Solo Instrument: Twentieth Century Viola Repertoire.” DMA Document, University of Maryland, College Park, 2013.

Kim, Shin-Woo. “Early Twentieth Century Viola Music from England and Germany: From Post- Romanticism to Modernism.” DMA Document, University of Maryland, College Park, 2009.

Marshall, Adrienne Marie. “The Clarinetist’s Guide to the Performance of the Clarinet, Viola, and Piano Trios by Mozart, Bruch, and Larsen.” DMA Document, The Ohio State University, 2013.

Min, Sungah. “Three Twentieth-Century Viola Virtuosos: Music written for them and by them.” DMA Document, University of Maryland, College Park, 2005.

Neubert, Peter. “The Development of Viola Instruction at the Paris Conservatoire During the Nineteenth Century and the Evolution of an Idiomatic Style of Writing for the Viola as Seen Through the Music of the Viola Concours, 1896-1918.” DMA Document, University of Kentucky, 2004.

Poulos, James Thomas. “An Investigation of the Possible Effects Shoulder Rests Have on the Character of Violin Tone.” DME Dissertation, Indiana University, 1969.

Warrts, Mathew Alexander. “Making the Switch: A Physical Guide to Mapping the Transition from Violin to Viola.” DMA Document, University of Alabama, 2014.

Score

Bruch, Max. Romanze, Op. 42 for Violin and Piano. Berlin: N. Simrock, 1891.

────. Romanze, Op. 42 for Viola and Piano. Berlin: N. Simrock, 1891.

────. Romanze, Op. 85 for Violin and Piano. Mainz: B. Schott’s Söhne, 1911.

────. Romanze, Op. 85 for Viola and Piano. Mainz: B. Schott’s Söhne, 1911.

────. Romanze for Viola and Orchestra in F major, Op. 85, Piano Reduction. Ed. Norbert Gertsch. Munich: German. G. Henle Verlag, 2004.

────. Romanze for Viola and Orchestra in F major, Op. 85, Piano Reduction. Version for Violin. Ed. Norbert Gertsch. Munich: German. G. Henle Verlag, 2004.

────. Romanze, Op. 42 for Violin and Piano. Ed. Aaron Rosand. The International Music Company. 2006.

────. Violin Concerto No. 1, Op. 26. Ed. Joseph Joachim, Issay Barmas, and Max Bruch. Leipzig: C.F.W. Siegel, 1879.

────. Violin Concerto No. 2, Op. 44 Ed. Leopold Auer. New York: Carl Fischer, 1919.

────. Double Concerto in E minor, Op. 88 for Clarinet (or Violin), Viola, and Piano. Ed. Otto Lindemann. Berlin-London: N. Simrock, 1977.

────. Double Concerto in E minor, Op. 88 for Clarinet (or Violin), Viola and Piano. Ed. Nicolai Pfeffer. Germany: C. F. Peters, 2010.

Laura Stanfield Prichard, “Bruch, Max. Concerto for Clarinet, Viola and Orchestra Op. 88,” Musikproduktion Höflich (2016) https://repertoire- explorer.musikmph.de/en/product/bruch-max-35/ (accessed January 3, 2018).

“Bruch, Max. Adagio appassionato for Violin and Orchestra in F Minor Op. 57,” trans. Babette Lichtenstein, Musikproduktion Höflich https://repertoire- explorer.musikmph.de/en/product/bruch-max-38/ (accessed January 3, 2018).