Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 607 Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes John A. Stanturf, Dale D. Wade, Thomas A. Waldrop, Deborah K. Kennard, and Gary L. Achtemeier Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service

and temporal variability of fire and These fires tend to have low intensity Fire as a its effects, descriptions of fire regimes because fuels are less flammable than Landscape Process are broad (Whelan 1995). The fire in ecosystems with a substantial regimes used in this chapter follow conifer component. The low-intensity the descriptions used in Brown and presettlement fires that wounded or Other than land clearing for urban Smith (2000). They include the killed many trees did not cause enough development (Wear and others 1998), understory, mixed, and stand mortality (greater than 80 percent) no disturbance is more common replacement fire regimes. to be considered stand replacement in southern forests than fire. The regimes (Wade and others 2000). pervasive role of fire predates human Fires in the understory fire regime activity in the South (Komarek 1964, generally do not kill the dominant In the stand replacement fire regime, 1974), and humans magnified that vegetation or substantially change its fires kill aboveground parts of the role. Repeating patterns of fire structure. Approximately 80 percent dominant vegetation, changing the behavior lead to recognizable fire or more of the aboveground dominant aboveground structure substantially. regimes, with temporal and spatial vegetation survives fire (Brown 2000). Approximately 80 percent or more of dimensions. Understanding these The understory fire regime occurs the aboveground dominant vegetation fire regimes is essential to examining primarily in southern pine and oak- is either consumed or dies as a result of the importance of fire in southern hickory forests, which support pine and fires (Brown 2000). Several vegetation landscapes and integrating fire into pine-oak associations such as Kuchler’s types in the Eastern United States are forest management. This chapter southern mixed forest, oak-hickory- represented by stand replacement fire has six sections: pine, and oak-hickory associations. regimes, including oak-gum-cypress (bay forests), sand pine, Atlantic white- 1. Fire regimes and fire types The severity of fire in the mixed fire regime either causes selective mortality cedar, and spruce-fir. Table Mountain 2. Fire history in the South in dominant vegetation, depending pine usually is regarded as having 3. Fire regimes of southern forests on tree species’ susceptibility to fire, a stand replacement fire regime, but a mixed regime may be more accurate 4. Prescribed fire or varies between understory and stand replacement (Brown 2000). The mixed as it produces the seedbed conditions 5. Smoke management fire regime best represents the needed for survival of seedlings. 6. Restoring fire into southern resettlement fire history for several ecosystems hardwood- and conifer-dominated Fire Types ecosystems. The conifers include pitch Three kinds of fires burn in forests Fire Regimes pine and Virginia pine of Kuchler’s when weather and fuel conditions oak-pine association (Kuchler 1964) permit ignition and sustained and Fire Types and pond pine, a dominant tree of the combustion: surface fire, ground fire, pocosin association. The conifer types and crown fire. Surface fires burn the fit the mixed fire regime because fire upper litter layer and small branches Fire Regimes intensities are generally greater than that lie on or near the ground. Surface Fire regime refers to the long-term in the understory fire regime and fires usually move quickly through an nature of fire in an ecosystem (Brown cause mortality ranging from 20 to area, and do not consume the entire 2000), including both frequency and 80 percent of the overstory. The hard- organic layer. Moisture in the organic severity of effects. The interval between wood ecosystems include mesophytic horizons often prevents ignition of the fires in southern forests may be as short hardwood, northern hardwood, and humus layer, and protects the soil and as a year or as long as centuries. The elm-ash-cottonwood forest types. soil-inhabiting organisms from heat. intensity of fire and severity of effects Although the hardwoods are prone The heat pulse generated at the burning FIRE can vary in scale from benign to to fire injury, many survive numerous front of these fast-moving fires does not catastrophic. Because of the spatial fires before eventually being girdled. normally persist long enough to 608 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

damage tissue beneath the thick bark in America about 14,000 BP (before of large trees. However, it will girdle present). Hunting and gathering the root collar of small trees and Fire History of characterized their progressively more shrubs, and reduce small-diameter the South sophisticated cultures until the advent branches and other fine surface fuels. of settled societies after 3,000 BP in Ground fires smolder or creep slowly the eastern woodlands (Fagan 2000). To appreciate the pervasive role of Beginning about 6,000 BP (Middle through the litter and humus layers, fire in shaping southern forests requires consuming all or most of the organic Holocene), warmer climates and final an understanding of the dynamic wastage of the Laurentide Ice Sheet cover, and exposing mineral soil or response of southern ecosystems to underlying rock. These fires usually (Delcourt and Delcourt 1981, 1983) climate change since the retreat of translated into increased food resources occur during periods of protracted the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which began drought when the entire soil organic and rapid population growth. By around 18,000 years ago, and the 5,000 BP, sea level had stabilized, layer may dry sufficiently. They extent of human influence, which likely may burn for weeks or months until and vegetation patterns were essentially began about 14,000 years ago. Humans as we find them today. precipitation extinguishes them exert an influence by igniting or After this rapid population growth, or fuel is exhausted. suppressing fires. Native Americans more or less permanent settlements Crown fires occur when stand used fire extensively for thousands appeared, primarily in river valleys and structure, weather, and ladder fuels of years. The early European settlers rich bottomland soils from the Coastal (heavy accumulations of understory continued and to a degree expanded Plain to the mountains (Fagan 2000). material such as slash piles, shrubs, the use of fire. In the last century, After 3,000 BP, population pressures led and lower branches of standing trees, however, human influence over fire to cultivation of native plants typical of often draped with fallen needles) allow in the South changed markedly. disturbed habitats. After 1,000 BP, corn surface or ground fires to ignite tree We have divided the long history crowns and spread to other crowns. cultivation was widespread (Hudson of fire since humans arrived in the 1982) and bean cultivation by 800 Crown fires occur in forests during South into five periods: periods of drought and low relative BP (Smith 1994), but hunting and ■ humidity, particularly in areas with a From the earliest appearance of gathering were still prominent activities. dense, volatile understory. Crown fires humans in North America around Population density was probably greater generate tremendous heat that rises in 14,000 years ago (Fagan 2000) until in the southern than in the northern a strong convection column, drawing European contact 500 years ago, part of the eastern woodlands and in surface winds that fan the flames the first period was one of increasing greater on the coast than inland, even more. Heated air blowing across human population level and more but higher densities extended inland the flames warms and dries the fuel extensive use of fire. along major rivers (Driver 1961). ahead of the fire, and releases volatile ■ For the first 400 years after their Judging the extent to which forests gases from vegetation in the path of the arrival, the early European settlers and other vegetation were influenced flaming front. Crown fires kill all trees continued to use fire in much the by Native American use of fire requires and shrubs in their path and consume same way as Native Americans, often knowledge of the typical pattern of land most of the surface organic layers. reoccupying and farming land cleared use and the population levels before The shorter the interval between fires, by Native Americans and expanding European contact (Kemmerer and the more likely that fires kill only small burning of woodlands to provide Lake 2001). Williams (1992, p. 40, fig. trees or particularly susceptible species, forage for livestock (Williams 1992). 2.8) presented a concept of a typical such as thin-barked hardwoods, ■ At the end of the 19th century southern woodland village. Located on resulting in an understory fire regime. and extending into the 20th century, the a stream or river, the clearing for the This regime usually perpetuates fire- remaining southern forests were village and surrounding fields of mostly adapted species (Mutch 1970). As fire extensively logged to support economic corn, beans, and squash extended for frequency decreases, fuel accumulates, expansion; wildfires were common 4 miles. Girdling larger trees and increasing the probability of a fire in the slash left behind. burning the undergrowth cleared this area originally, and burning kept it intense enough to kill nearly all trees. ■ In reaction to these widespread Fires in forests regenerated by a stand open, in much the way that swidden and destructive wildfires, the fourth agriculture occurs in the tropics today. replacement fire regime come at period of fire suppression started in frequencies of 25 to 100 years and The field zone was buffered by a further the early 1900s. 1.25-mile-wide zone that was burned probably maintain high levels of ■ diversity in the landscape (Waring The current period is one of fire annually for defense (visibility), where and Schlesinger 1985). In the mixed management, in which the natural role fuel wood and berry gathering took fire regime, either some susceptible of fire is increasingly recognized and place. Another 1- to 2.5-mile-wide zone overstory species are killed but the incorporated into forest management. was burned frequently for small game stand is not replaced, or fire severity and foraging. This entire disturbance varies between understory and stand- Use of Fire by Native complex was surrounded by closed replacing fire. Americans forest. Nearby was a large zone kept in open grassland by burning for FIRE The role of fire was dramatically large game animals. Except in river increased with the arrival of aboriginals floodplains, this village complex had Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 609 to be moved periodically as soil fertility diseases spread and their effect on Small farmers and herders, who was reduced in the continuously Native American populations. She originated in the mid-Atlantic colonies, cropped fields and as nearby fuel wood found evidence of widespread declines settled the mountains, Interior was exhausted. To maintain proximity during the 16th century, after the Highlands, and plateaus. They to open grassland for hunting, DeSoto expedition (1538–41) and moved down the Appalachian valleys successive village sites were probably before French settlement began in the to settle western Virginia, eastern North within 6 to 25 miles of each other. late 17th century. Generally accepted Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky Pyne (1997) described the careful estimates of population levels are more (Williams 1992). These small farmers use of fire by Native Americans. Cereal conservatively placed at between 9.8 adapted Native American cropping grasses were fired annually, basket million and 12.25 million for North practices. Along the coast, large-scale grasses and nut trees every 3 years, America (Fagan 2000, Ramenovsky plantations grew market crops, and the grassy savanna hunting areas 1987, Williams 1992). particularly tobacco, rice, and cotton. annually. Brush and undergrowth in Estimates of the cleared land needed Before the American Revolution, rice forests were burned for visibility and to support a person range from 0.33 cultivation was limited to inland game every 7 to 10 years. Fire also acres (2.3 acres when fallowing is taken swamps with minimal impact on was used to drive and surround game into account) to 30 to 40 acres for all coastal forests. Later, a new cultivation (Hudson 1982) and reduce the threat cleared and burned land (Williams technique was introduced, probably by of wildfires, especially along the coast, 1992). For argument’s sake, we can African slaves, which used tidal action where pines dominated and lightning assume that half the population of to flood rice fields along rivers. This provided an ignition source. Even in 12 million was part of the eastern tidal irrigation affected forest lands as areas of the Southern Appalachian woodland culture involved in the far as 35 miles inland (Edgar 1998). Mountains that were sparsely settled sedentary lifestyle described above, After Coastal Plain soils were and not prime hunting ground, major and that each person represented exhausted, plantation culture was trails that followed rivers were kept 10 to 20 burned acres. The 60 million extended into the Piedmont of Virginia, open by burning, and escaped to 120 million acres thus estimated the Carolinas, Georgia, and the rich campfires probably caused large to be affected by clearing and burning bottomlands of the Lower Mississippi areas to burn. would constitute 22 to 44 percent of Alluvial Valley. On the Coastal Plain, The preponderance of anecdotal the cropland acreage presently farmed the extensive pine forests away from (Stewart 1963, Williams 1992), in the 31 Eastern States (Williams the rivers were exploited for naval archeological (Dobyns 1966, 1983; 1992). The point is not to accept the stores. These woodlands were burned Jacobs 1974), ecological (Delcourt size of the number but to appreciate periodically, and grasslands were kept and Delcourt 1997, 1998; Hamel and the magnitude of Native American open by annual burning. These vast Buckner 1998), and meteorological impact on the landscape through areas between major river valleys evidence supports the conclusion that the use of fire. hosted large herds of feral and fire was a widespread occurrence in semidomesticated hogs and cattle, the pre-European landscape. The full Use of Fire by Early tended by prototypical cowboys extent of Native American impact, European Settlers (McWhiney 1988, Williams 1992). however, hinges on estimates of Initial European agriculture differed Early settlers used fire in several population levels. Until recently, it little from that of Native Americans, ways. They sought out old fields and was thought that the earliest estimates, but it rapidly became more extensive openings cleared by Native Americans made after European settlement, (Williams 1992). Spreading from the and kept them open by plowing or represented precontact levels, and coast inland along rivers, the early periodic burning. Woodlands were Native American populations declined settlers sought out Native American burned for pasture. Burning small only after sustained exposure to clearings for their farms or used similar trees and shrubs and girdling large European diseases. A contrasting view, techniques of girdling and burning trees cleared new fields. Even though first presented by Dobyns (1983) but to clear land. Instead of using the the practice was ineffective, woods in built on earlier work, assumed diseases Native American system of rotational the Piedmont were burned to control were spread even without direct clearing (swidden agriculture), the boll weevil, a pest of cotton (Dorn physical contact between Europeans however, Europeans maintained and Derks 1988). As settlers began and Native Americans. Thus, even extensive permanent fields. Burning moving into the mountains, they first the earliest census estimates reflected was extended to the bottomlands settled the better land along the major populations already decimated by and hilltops to support open grazing, streams. A description of the settlement disease, by as much as 95 percent. particularly of hogs (Williams 1992). of Mulky Creek in the north Georgia Dobyns (1983) estimated North Prior to the Civil War, over 75 percent mountains tells of harvesting a first American populations as high as 18 of the white population of the South hay crop beneath the open timber on million at the beginning of the 16th was comprised of pastoral herders of a south slope (Brender and Merrick century, in contrast to previously Celtic origin (McWhiney 1988, Owsley 1950), where broom sedge grew accepted estimates of less than 1945) who came from the British Isles, shoulder high on drier sites and wild 1 million (Fagan 2000). Archeological Spain, and France where fire had been legumes were abundant. Fire must evidence in the Lower Mississippi River an integral part of their livelihood. have played a major role in maintaining

FIRE Valley was used by Ramenovsky (1987) In time, agricultural practices differed such an open ecosystem, even before to test contrasting hypotheses of how between the coast and the uplands. grazing of livestock became a supporting factor (Van Lear and 610 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Waldrop 1989). Annual burning for State fire-control efforts. Federal was abandoned, in the face of became a standard practice wherever funding rapidly grew from $5 million experience and research by Forest grazing animals were kept, even in in 1930, to a high of $18 million in the Service and university scientists (U.S. the more remote mountain regions. 1960s. State funding grew from nearly Department of Agriculture, Forest $10 million in 1930 to over $90 million Service 1988). Prescribed fire was Fire Following in the 1980s (U.S. Department of advocated in the management of Exploitive Logging Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). In longleaf pine and bobwhite quail (for a synopsis, see Wade and others Lumbering was always a component 1930, 70 million acres were protected 2000). The role of prescribed fire of rural life in the South, but until from fire; by 1980, over 233 million in reducing the hazards of disastrous the late 19th century it was a secondary acres were protected (U.S. Department wildfires was realized after major activity to farming (Williams 1992). of Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). fires in the South during the droughts Lumbering activity increased after the In 1930, about 2 million acres of in the 1930s and 1950s. With the Civil War to satisfy the needs of rapid timberland burned. By 1983, the advent of fencing laws and the end industrialization. Between 1880 and area burned by wildfire dropped to of open range, the incentive for 1920, annual lumber production rose 279,000 acres. During World War II, general burning to stimulate forage in the South from 1.6 billion board fire control became more difficult was reduced (U.S. Department of feet to 15.4 billion board feet (Williams because personnel were diverted to the Agriculture, Forest Service 1988). 1992). Much of the production was war effort. Nevertheless, prevention of from the southern pinery on the Coastal smoke around airfields and fires near Southern resource managers burn Plain, but virgin stands of baldcypress the coast, where they would make an estimated 8 million acres annually and bottomland hardwoods were also ships visible to submarines, became of forest, range, and cropland for cleared. The remainder of the “original” military necessities. The first approval many objectives but mostly for southern pine (longleaf) forest was for prescribed fire in southern national hazard reduction, wildlife habitat heavily cutover, and then indiscrimin- forests was on the Osceola National improvement, and range management ately burned every spring to promote Forest in Florida. A prescribed fire (Wade and others 2000). An increasing forage for free-ranging cattle (Stoddard was approved in 1943 because number of acres are burned each 1962). These fires eliminated all pine the forest could not muster fire year for ecosystem restoration and regeneration except for grass-stage suppression crews. maintenance. In spite of this level longleaf. Regeneration of even longleaf The rising value of pine pulpwood of prescribed burning, wildfires are pine was effectively prohibited by the also helped fire control efforts. Pulp common in the South. Most fires are widespread clearing that eliminated and paper companies invested heavily human-caused in all Southern States, sources of seed and by feral pigs that in manufacturing plants and wanted with arson playing a variable role, uprooted any seedlings that did get to protect their investments. They depending upon the State and region established (Frost 1993). By 1920, provided political support for within a State. Wildfires are relatively there was an estimated 90 million increasing public expenditures for common in the Southern Appalachian acres of cutover, unproductive land fire suppression on private as well Mountains. The majority of wildfires in the South (Williams 1992). as public land. A rise in public land on Federal land (88 percent) are human-caused, due either to During the late 1800s, timber ownership brought the Forest Service carelessness or arson. The small companies began buying large tracts and National Park Service into proportion (12 percent) caused by of land in the more remote sections suppression efforts. In the 1920s, lightning is restricted to ridgetops of the Southern Appalachians (Van the Forest Service was opposed to (Southern Appalachian Man and Lear and Waldrop 1989). Slash often the use of fire in forests, and even light the Biosphere 1996). was burned after logging and then burning was prohibited on the recently the land was grazed. In much of the established national forests (Demmon Southern Appalachians, the combined 1929, Schiff 1962). Earlier leaders of Fire Regimes of effects of grazing and burning effec- the Agency, however, recognized that tively prevented the reestablishment fire exclusion led to another set of Southern Forests of woody vegetation (Brender and problems and advocated the use of Merrick 1950). Even the pines could prescribed burning under southern The climate of the South is charac- not reproduce under a regime of pines to reduce hazards (Eldredge terized by long, hot growing seasons; annual fire. 1911, Graves 1910, Pinchot 1899). abundant rain punctuated by occasional multiyear droughts; and the most An Era of Fire Suppression The Era of Fire frequent wind (Cry 1965) and lightning Management Suppressing all fire was seen as the (Komarek 1964) storms in North only way to reforest the cutover land Native Americans and early European America (Muller and Grimes 1998). (Pyne 1997, Williams 1992). Rangeland settlers practiced prescribed burning, Lightning becomes increasingly users, however, were opposed to fire where fire is set intentionally to common as one moves from north prevention, and arson was common- manage vegetation and reduce the risk to south. Natural disturbances such place (U.S. Department of Agriculture of wildfire. It became commonplace as microbursts, tornadoes, and in southern forest management after hurricanes can have major impacts

FIRE 1988). The turning point was passage of the Clarke-McNary Act of 1924, World War II. The unrealistic goal of on forest structure (Peterson 2000) which provided Federal funding excluding fire from southern forests and the distribution of fuels, and set Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 611 the stage for intense fires (Myers and Van Lear 1997). Table 25.1—Occurrence and frequency of presettlement fire regime types by SAF cover types Before Native Americans arrived, fire occurred mainly in the spring and Stand summer thunderstorm season, ignited by lightning (Robbins and Meyers Understory Mixed fire replacement 1992). Most fires were probably limited Fire regime types fire regime regime fire regime in extent, as normally humid and ------Frequency (years) ------still nighttime conditions in the Vegetation community summer tend to extinguish fires Longleaf pine 1 to 4 in light fuels. Some fires, however, were undoubtedly far ranging because Slash pine 1 to 4 they were associated with dry weather Loblolly pine 1 to 4 fronts (Wade and others 2000). Shortleaf pine 2 to 15 Native Americans burned many Oak-hickory < 35 sites frequently, limiting fuel buildup. Pond pine 6 to 25 They also extended the burning season, Pitch and Virginia setting fires throughout the year, pines 10 to 35 and often several times each year (Martin and Sapsis 1992). Periodic Table Mountain pine < 200 high-intensity wind-driven fires or Mixed mesophytic 10 to 35 or > 200 severe-drought fires together with Bottomland hardwoods < 200 chronic lightning and Native American fires created the open woodlands, Sand pine 25 to 60 numerous smoke columns, and Bay forests 20 to 100 extensive smoke and haze referred Atlantic white cedar 35 to 200 to by early European explorers Northern hardwoods 300 to 500 (Barden 1997, Landers and others 1990, Olson 1996). SAF = Society of American Foresters. Source: Modified from table 4-1 in Wade and others (2000). In explaining the climate and vegetation interactions that influence fire regimes in southern forests, we time periods: (1) late glacial times, increases in southern pine beetle refer to four broad physiographic following retreat of the Laurentide Ice (Ips spp. and Dendroctonus frontalis) regions (Martin and Boyce 1993): Sheet, but after aboriginal immigration; populations and subsequent pine (1) the Coastal Plain (Atlantic and Gulf (2) prior to European contact in 1492; mortality often either preceded or coasts, including peninsular Florida and (3) after the first permanent followed these fires. Occasional severe and the Lower Mississippi Alluvial English settlement in 1607. They fires in depressional wetlands typically Valley); (2) the Piedmont; the Southern concluded that no specific time period cause stand replacement (Wade and Appalachians (including Appalachian represents the “true” original condition others 2000). plateaus and mountain ranges); (3) and of the southern forest because it has The dominant species of Coastal the Interior Highlands (including the been responding to climate change Plain pine forests—longleaf, loblolly, Interior Low Plateaus of Kentucky and and has been shaped by humans for slash, pond, sand, and shortleaf pines— Tennessee and the Ozark-Ouachita millennia. Even communities that differ in their tolerance of fire, Highlands). Occurrences and escaped logging or clearing in the last requirements for soil aeration, and frequencies of fire regimes for specific 200 years have undergone dramatic ability to withstand drought. In the plant communities before European changes because of decades of following sections, we describe the settlement are shown in table 25.1. fire exclusion. fire regimes of forests dominated Fire-adapted plant communities Coastal Plain Region by these pine species, in addition span the full elevational gradient from to other forest types. Coastal Plain forests in the South are saltwater marshes to mountain balds Longleaf pine—Open pine forests, predominantly pine in the uplands and (Wade and others 2000). The extent woodlands, and savannas distinguish hardwoods in the floodplains of major of these communities at the time of the longleaf pine ecosystem. Longleaf and minor rivers. Before European European colonization is difficult to pine tolerates a wide range of sites settlement, fire in virtually all forest reconstruct because much of this region from wet, boggy flatwoods underlain types in the Coastal Plain had a return was cleared and plowed at least once, with tight clays across xeric, deep sands interval of less than 13 years (Frost or logged to support the industrial to thin stony soils on south-facing 1998). Frequent light ground fires revolution. An estimated 80 percent mountain slopes (Ware and others characterized most Coastal Plain of the Coastal Plain was cleared, with 1993). On infertile sites, surface ecosystems dominated by longleaf, some counties reaching near 100 soils are typically acidic, tend to dry slash, and loblolly pines (Wade and

percent (Brender 1974, Nelson 1957). quickly after precipitation, and are FIRE others 2000). Blowdowns and drought Hamel and Buckner (1998) described characterized by a lack of organic led to occasional severe fires (Myers the “original southern forest” at three matter and low fertility (Landers and Van Lear 1997). Explosive 612 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

and Wade 1994). Longleaf pine also Japanese climbing fern, and melaleuca ericaceous evergreen shrubs that tend occupied a significant area of fertile (Wade 1981, Wade and others 1980) to burn intensely, resulting in the soils where frequent fires gave it are promoted by fire. They create topkill or death of all vegetation except the advantage over loblolly pine and serious problems for those who are pond pine. Pond pine has the ability to hardwoods. These fertile sites were trying to restore longleaf ecosystems. resprout from its base as well as along cleared for agriculture. Examples of Remnant populations of longleaf pine its stem and branches (Wenger 1958); longleaf on fertile soils persist in the are also found in the Piedmont and thus, its aboveground stem survives red hills region of Georgia and at Fort Appalachian Highland (both Blue Ridge higher intensity fires than stems of Bragg, NC. Many soils in the Gulf and Ridge and Valley) physiographic other pine species. This trait allows the Coastal Plain also tend to be more Provinces of Alabama and Georgia species to dominate wet areas such as fertile than the infertile sands often (Boyer 1990, Wahlenberg 1946). pocosins, which support intense fires. associated with longleaf pine. Longleaf Summer fires during severe droughts pine ecosystems persist and maintain Slash pine—Slash pine is the chief usually eliminate the pond pine as their diversity because of constant conifer associate of longleaf pine on well, because the underlying organic disturbance (Christensen 1993, Landers wet Coastal Plain sites throughout its soil burns, destroying root systems. natural range, from South Carolina to and Wade 1994, Landers and others Sand pine—Sand pine has a stand 1995, Wells and Shunk 1931), and Louisiana (Lohrey and Kossuth 1990). Slash pine seedlings are susceptible replacement fire regime, but its two recurrent fire is crucial to perpetuation varieties, Choctawhatchee and Ocala, of these ecosystems (Andrews 1917). to fire, thus confining it historically to wet sites (Monk 1968). Slash pine require different fire management Typical longleaf pine sites burned has successfully invaded many drier because one (Ocala) has serotinous every 1 to 4 years prior to the arrival sites after exploitive logging and fire cones and the other does not (Wade of Europeans, and then every 1 to 3 suppression removed longleaf pine and others 2000). The historic fire years until aggressive fire suppression and disrupted fire regimes. The most frequency for the Choctawhatchee activities began in the 1920s and 1930s hydric slash pine sites are depressions variety is unknown, but lightning fires (Landers 1991, Landers and others such as bays, bayheads, titi swamps, were rare where it occurs. This variety 1990). Fire frequency decreases as and cypress pond margins embedded grows in pure stands, directly inland typical upland sites grade toward very within the flatwoods matrix. On such from the beach, separated from more wet sites where ignition is inhibited sites, slash pine generally develops fire-prone vegetation types by wet or very dry sites with low rates of a pronounced buttress (comprised intradune swales and sparse dune fuel accumulation. mostly of bark) that protects the tree vegetation. Hurricanes were likely Longleaf pine has numerous traits from heat girdling during drought fires. a frequent disturbance and probably adapted to recurrent understory fires. more responsible than fire for stand Loblolly pine—Loblolly pine replacement. Both varieties are thin- It goes through a grass stage of limited historically occurred on wet sites aboveground growth while an extensive barked and easily killed by fire. The fire similar to those occupied by slash cycle for Ocala sand pine corresponds root system is developed. Coming out pine, and for the same reason— of the grass stage, a growth spurt (called roughly to stand longevity, which is its susceptibility to fire when young. 30 to 60 years (Christensen 1981). bolting) quickly gets the terminal buds With increased fire suppression, above the height of the flames. The Sand pine needles are short and tend to loblolly pine dominance dramatically form a flat mat on the forest floor that large buds of longleaf pine are pro- increased as it seeded into former tected from high temperatures by an does not burn well, but it will support longleaf pine sites and abandoned creeping fires. The Ocala variety encompassing sheaf of long needles. agricultural fields. Loblolly pine was Stem bark rapidly thickens, protecting recaptures the site after fire from seed planted even more extensively than from the freshly opened serotinous the seedling from light surface fires slash pine. It is currently the leading during the first year of height growth. cones. Although Ocala sand pine can be commercial tree in the Southern United regenerated using prescribed fire, this If the fire regime is disrupted, such States, comprising more than half must be a stand replacement fire. Such as by suppression activity, longleaf of the standing pine volume in the fires are useful only for management stands are invaded by hardwoods region (Baker and Langdon 1990). of wilderness or natural areas where such as sweetgum, oaks, hickories, Loblolly pine is also common along timber production is not an objective. common persimmon, and southern stream bottoms in the Piedmont where magnolia (Daubenmire 1990, Gilliam Bay forests—This general type is fire-free intervals historically exceeded characterized by a stand replacement and Platt 1999). These hardwoods 5 to 6 years (Wade and others 2000). form a midstory that prevents the fire regime (Wade and others 2000). shade-intolerant longleaf pine from Pond pine—Some pocosins Carolina bays and pocosins without a regenerating. Many of these hardwoods (depressional wetlands) with a mixed pine or Atlantic white-cedar overstory are somewhat resistant to low-intensity fire regime are dominated by pond are the major vegetation types. Many fires when mature (Blaisdell and pine (Wade and others 2000). Most stands contained a merchantable others 1974), and rootstocks of even pocosins burn on a 20- to 50-year cycle overstory that has been harvested, understory trees are able to withstand (Christensen and others 1988), but on thereby altering the fire cycle. They all but annual growing-season fires better sites fire-return intervals of 3 to are all characterized by a dense tangle 10 years can result in pine savanna with of evergreen and deciduous shrubs and

FIRE (Glitzenstein and others 1995, Waldrop and others 1987). Invasive exotics a grass understory. These wet sites have vines (Richardson and Gibbons 1993). such as cogongrass (Lippincott 1997), a rank shrub layer comprised of many Numerous species of special concern, Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 613 including several Federal- and State- others 1998, Wharton 1977). When 3,000 feet. In the Appalachians and listed species, occur in this vegetation rainfall is more normal, periodic fire upper Piedmont, Virginia pine replaces type. This type now burns on about a keeps hardwoods from invading and shortleaf pine on drier, nutrient-poor 20- to 100-year cycle, but uncertainty capturing upland sites (Barrett and sites east of the Appalachian divide. exists about the historic fire frequency Downs 1943, Chaiken 1949, Harcombe The historic shortleaf pine fire return (McKevlin 1996, Wharton 1977). and others 1993, Heyward 1939, interval is thought to have ranged from Shrub bogs are bay forests that burn Oosting 1942, Platt and Schwartz about 2 to 6 years on fertile, lower every 2 to 5 decades (Christensen 1990, Wahlenberg 1949, Wells 1928). elevation sites. It extended to 6 to 1977). More frequent burning, at As the interval between fires increases, 15 years on drier, nutrient-poor least once a decade, removes the shrub the hardwood midstory also increases sites where fuels take longer to layer, resulting in an herb bog. If the in height and leaf area, shading out accumulate. Annual burning was underlying organic soils are completely herbaceous groundcover. When the common throughout the shortleaf consumed, both pocosins and bays continuity of the herbaceous understory pine region after European settlement will revert to marsh (Richardson is broken up and its ability to spread (Matoon 1915). and Gibbons 1993). fire is reduced, the hardwoods expand until they eventually dominate the site. Ability to resprout, abundant seed Atlantic white-cedar—Before crops, rapid juvenile growth (especially European settlers harvested this prized Piedmont Region of sprouts), and a low resin content of species, it was generally perpetuated the wood make this species markedly by major disturbances, probably stand- The Piedmont region is a transition tolerant of fire (Mattoon 1915). replacing crown fires (Wade and others topographically and ecologically Shortleaf pine forms dense sapling 2000). It is a prolific seeder, beginning between the Coastal Plain and the stands that are favored over competing at an early age (as young as 3 years). Appalachian Mountains. Pine and hardwoods by frequent fire. Shortleaf The seed, released in the fall, is stored hardwood species from these adjacent pine can repeatedly sprout from the in the forest floor. Under normal (wet) regions overlap in the Piedmont, base if the tree is topkilled, at least conditions, crown fires destroy the often occurring together in mixed until trees are 15 to 30 years old aboveground vegetation. Fires during pine-hardwood stands. Fire behavior (Matoon 1915, Wakeley 1954). Trees droughts consume the forest floor may differ considerably between these larger in diameter at breast height than and stored seed. Two fires in close regions, however, even in plantations, 0.5 inches are somewhat resistant to succession (before the seed bank is because of very different understory fire, and mortality is negligible once replenished) will create an herb bog, species assemblages. Nevertheless, fire trees reach 4 inches in diameter at shrub bog, or bay forest, depending regimes are similar, depending upon breast height (Walker and Wiant 1966). upon the future fire return interval. site and stand conditions, particularly Like other southern pines, trees over the amount of pine versus hardwood Bottomland hardwoods—The 5 feet tall rarely die when crown scorch in a stand. The following discussion historical role of fire in the bottomland is less than 70 percent and buds are not focuses on shortleaf pine, which is hardwood ecosystem is unclear (Wade killed when foliage is consumed. more widespread in the Piedmont and and others 2000). Drought probably mountains than in the Coastal Plain. played a role, and low- to moderate- Mountains and Interior intensity wildfires may have been Shortleaf pine—Shortleaf pine has Highlands Regions the widest range of any of the eastern frequent (Lentz 1931, Toole and Fire played a major role in shaping McKnight 1956). Low-intensity fires pines and is found throughout the Piedmont, mountains, and Interior vegetation communities in the are the norm in these forests because Appalachian Mountains. Overstories fuel loads are generally light (except Highlands, as well as the Coastal Plain. Shortleaf pine has an understory fire of southern yellow pines (Virginia, after damaging wind and ice storms) shortleaf, pitch, and Table Mountain) due to rapid decomposition on these regime (Wade and others 2000). It occupies a wide variety of soils typically dominate south- and moist, humid sites. In canebrakes, west-facing slopes (Whittaker 1956), fire intensity is much higher, but under many environmental conditions but will not tolerate poor drainage. but in the absence of hot fires at rather fire severity is low except during frequent intervals, hardwoods will drought. Large fires can only occur Shortleaf pine is a prolific seeder but requires a mineral soil seedbed. succeed pines. Table Mountain pine after extended drought, usually when is well adapted to fire because of its a dry fall is followed by a dry spring. Loblolly pine is the chief associate of shortleaf pine at lower elevations serotinous cones. Although these can Other community types— throughout the Midsouth and open without fire, many remain closed Embedded within pine and floodplain Southeast. Loblolly pine dominates and ensure a supply of seed regardless ecosystems were numerous other the heavier, moist soils while shortleaf of the time of year when a fire occurs ecosystems such as depressional pine dominates the lighter, drier soils. (Barden 1977). This adaptation allows wetlands, including Carolina bays, Loblolly drops out at about 400 feet Table Mountain pine to cast seeds when lime sinks, cypress ponds and savannas, elevation in the Ozarks and Ouachitas, seeds of other pine species would be gum ponds, bay swamps, pitcher resulting in pure stands of shortleaf destroyed. Serotinous cones have also plant bogs, shrub bogs, and spring pine up to about 2,000 feet on south- been observed in pitch pine and rarely seeps (Stanturf and Schoenholtz 1998). facing slopes. Above 2,000 feet, in Virginia pine, but this character is

During prolonged dry periods, fire FIRE hardwoods begin to dominate with not well documented. Shortleaf and can enter these wetlands from adjacent shortleaf pine disappearing at about pitch pines can sprout from the root upland communities (Kirkman and collar after topkill by fire. Fires of 614 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

human origin probably perpetuated Mixed mesophytic hardwoods—The (Wade and others 2000). This pine in the Appalachians since lightning hardwood forests of the Appalachian frequency maintained stands with fires did not occur frequently enough and Ozark Mountains and the upland relatively large pines, scattered smaller or were not intense enough to maintain hardwoods of the Coastal Plain and pines and oaks, and sparse understory pines on these xeric sites (Whittaker Piedmont have been grazed and burned besides low ericaceous shrubs and 1956). Fire protection in recent decades regularly from the time of earliest herbs (Little 1946, 1973). The has allowed hardwoods to dominate settlement (Van Lear and Waldrop historical fire regime in Virginia pine on sites where pines once thrived. 1989). In the absence of fire, a mixed is unknown but was probably less Oak-hickory forests—The oak- mesophytic forest develops. Although frequent and resulted in higher hickory forest type (Barrett 1994, little is known about presettlement mortality. Today, there is a mixed Braun 1950) occurs primarily on fire, it appears that fire was much more fire regime with long fire-return average to dry upland sites, but it also common in the mesophytic forests intervals. The majority of wildfires can be found on moist upland sites, west of the Appalachian divide than occur during the growing season depending upon past disturbance in those to the east (Harmon 1984). when damage is greater. history. The oak-hickory type histor- Table Mountain pine—Prehistoric Southern forest types with long ically had an understory fire regime fire regimes are unknown, but the fire-return intervals—Only three (Brose and others 2001, Van Lear and presence of serotinous cones suggests vegetation types in southern forests Waldrop 1989, Wade and others 2000), that Table Mountain pine is adapted typically have long fire-return intervals: but presettlement fire frequencies are to stand replacement fires (Wade and mangroves, high elevation spruce-fir, not known. Conservative estimates others 2000). However, some stands and northern hardwoods. Surface from dendrochronological studies are known to regenerate successfully and ground fires are precluded from suggest fire return intervals of 2.8 years without fire (Barden 1977, Williams mangroves because of their location in (Cutter and Guyette 1994) to 14 years and Johnson 1992), and crown fires can tidal zones, but lightning may influence (Buell and others 1954, Guyette and create seedbed conditions too xeric for stand dynamics and crown fires can Dey 1997). The frequency and extent optimum survival (Waldrop and Brose enter after severe freezes that occur of Native American burning decreased 1999). The historic fire regime for Table every few decades (Wade and others substantially after European contact. Mountain pine stands is probably best 1980). Spruce-fir forests, which occur As a result, forest canopies closed over described as mixed. Native Americans from the Southern Appalachians previously open grasslands, savannas, exposed both Table Mountain pine northward, burn only after periodic and woodlands (Buckner 1983; and pitch pine to frequent understory spruce budworm epidemics, probably Denevan 1992; Dobyns 1983; burns, keeping these stands fairly on the order of centuries (Wade and MacCleery 1993, 1995; Pyne 1997). open. Stand replacement fires probably others 2000). Northern hardwoods European settlers of oak-hickory forests occurred only when Native Americans occur only on north-facing slopes and increased the frequency and extent were not living in a particular location deep coves in the South; return of burning and shortened fire-return and fuel loads became heavy. Fires intervals there are on the order intervals to 2 to 10 years; they burned in Table Mountain pine were more of millennia (Lorimer 1977). many sites annually (Cutter and frequent, more intense, and probably Guyette 1994, Guyette and Dey larger earlier this century (Barden and 1997, Holmes 1911, Sutherland Woods 1974). Evidence from existing Prescribed Fire 1997, Sutherland and others 1995). stands supports this mixed fire regime. Presently, infrequent low-intensity Table Mountain and pitch pines occur It is paradoxical that while so surface fires during the spring and as uneven-aged stands throughout the much effort is devoted to suppressing fall characterize the fire regime of oak- Southern Appalachians, with most trees wildfires, controlled fire is used exten- hickory forests. These fires are caused ranging from 50 years to over 200 years sively in the South to manage forests. almost exclusively by humans and burn old (Brose and others 2002, Sutherland By reducing fuel loads with prescribed small areas (Barden and Woods 1974, and others 1995). Abundant mountain burning, the risk of catastrophic wild- Pyne and others 1996, Ruffner and laurel in the same stands is younger fire is reduced. The history of fire in Abrams 1998). Fire exclusion created than 50 years old, suggesting that the South during the last century, a fuel complex that is probably very frequent low-intensity fires created as distinct from other regions of the difficult to ignite. On drier mountain- and maintained these uneven-aged country, reflects the process of coming ous sites, fire exclusion allows stands until the 1950s. Fire exclusion to terms with this paradox (Pyne 1997). ericaceous shrubs such as mountain since the 1950s allowed mountain Prescribed burning is used to attain laurel and rhododendron to move laurel to establish and create understory several objectives: (1) reducing fuel from riparian areas into upland forests conditions that prevented the pines loads and the risk of wildfire (hazard (Elliott and others 1999). These shrubs from regenerating. reduction); (2) preparing sites for are shade tolerant and evergreen, Pitch and Virginia pines—Mixed seeding or planting; (3) controlling shading the forest floor throughout severity fires were probably prevalent understory vegetation in order to the year. Although the forest floor rarely over much of the range of pitch regenerate desirable species; (4) dries enough to support surface fire, and Virginia pines. Native American benefiting wildlife; (5) controlling the ericaceous shrub layer is flammable. burning maintained pitch pine insects and diseases; (6) enhancing FIRE When it burns, it typically supports as an understory fire regime type, appearances; (7) improving access; (8) intense crown fires. with a 2- to 10-year fire interval protecting threatened and endangered Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 615 species; (9) perpetuating (or restoring) used to supplement other burning 1975, Metz 1954). Fuel weights in like fire-dependent species; and (10) techniques. For example, flanking fires stands on comparable sites vary little improving forage for grazing (Wade can be used to speed the process of longitudinally, but increase northward and Lunsford 1989). Prescribed burning with backing fires. Flanking because decreasing mean temperatures burning is most common in Coastal fires are set perpendicular to backfires. slow decomposition. Most hardwood Plain pine forests and in the Piedmont. Where flanking fires merge, fire stands have a litter loading from 1 to 4 It is used to a lesser extent in mountain intensity increases, but not as much tons per acre and a depth of 1 to 5 forests, but use will increase as historic as it does with strip head fires. inches, depending on season. Litter fire regimes are reintroduced into The choice of which fire to use loading and depth are greatest natural stands. depends upon objectives, fuel and immediately after leaf fall in the autumn Prescribed burning is used less in moisture conditions, and need to and decline until the following autumn. the Southern Appalachian Mountains manage smoke. To understand fire Hardwood leaves in general tend to than in other areas of the South. Fire behavior and fire effects, the difference cup and hold water after a rain, but behavior is less predictable due to between fire intensity and severity the leaves of some species of oak tend highly variable topography, and the should be appreciated. Fire severity to curl and dry quickly in comparison benefits of burning in hardwoods are describes the condition of the ground to other hardwoods, allowing fire not well documented (Van Lear and surface after burning (Wells and others to run through oak litter when other Waldrop 1989). Interest in prescribed 1979), whereas fire intensity is the hardwood fuel types are too wet fire in hardwoods is increasing, rate at which an ongoing fire produces to burn. however, as the need to control thermal energy. Although an intense Under mature southern pine stands accumulations of explosive fuels such fire usually has severe effects, such on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, forest as mountain laurel and rhododendron congruence is not always the case. floor fuel loads range from about 1.5 becomes recognized (Van Lear and For example, any fire that consumes tons per acre under an annual dormant- Waldrop 1989). Fire plays a role in the entire organic layer and alters season fire regime to 13 tons per acre community dynamics of several forest mineral soil structure and color after 40 years without a fire. Live types in the Southern Appalachians, would be classified as a “severe burn.” groundcover and understory fuels indicating a potential role for prescribed A high-intensity fire in heavy fuels with a ground line diameter less than burning in their restoration (Brose and when the soil and forest floor are moist, 1 inch range from about 0.75 tons per others 2001, Southern Appalachian however, would leave a large amount acre with annual burns to over 11 tons Man and the Biosphere 1996). These of residual forest floor and would not per acre after 25 years. On Piedmont community types include mixed alter soil structure and color. Thus, sites, roughly the same trends hold. mesophytic hardwoods on lower the severity of such a high-intensity Fuel weights are highest in loblolly slopes, northern hardwood-hemlock fire would be classified as “light.” and longleaf pine stands and appreci- types on north and east slopes, Fire effects are related to intensity and ably lighter under shortleaf and Virginia pine-oak mixtures on south to west duration of exposure. Fire line intensity pine stands. Shortleaf and mixed slopes, and yellow pine dominated is the heat output of a unit length of shortleaf pine-hardwood stands in communities on ridges and upper fire front per unit of time (Deeming the mountains may have substantially slopes with south and west aspects. and others 1977). Fire line intensity is heavier fuel loads than similar stands directly related to flame height, which in the Piedmont, at least in part because Types of Prescribed Fires influences fire effects. As trees grow of a heavier understory component Prescribed fires are generally one of taller and their bark thickens, resistance (Albrecht and Mattson 1977). Small three types: head fires, backing fires, or to fire increases because crowns are woody fuels can be abundant in flanking fires. Head fires burn with the higher above the heat of the flames and young stands originating after a major wind or upslope. They are of relatively thicker bark insulates their cambium. disturbance. Woody fuels are less high intensity and move through fuels The duration of exposure (residence abundant in midsuccessional and at a relatively high rate of speed. Head time) also is an important consideration mature stands, but increase in old- fires are often ignited in strips (called in prescribed fire. Living tissue can growth stands due to accumulation of strip head fires) to speed the burning be instantly killed at a temperature large downed or standing dead woody process and to provide the desired of 147 oF; it also can be killed by material. When present, ericaceous intensity. Fire intensity increases as prolonged exposure to lower temp- shrubs such as mountain laurel and the rear of a previously ignited strip eratures (Hare 1965, Nelson 1952). rhododendron can burn with extreme merges with the advancing front of Backing fires of low intensity can be fire behavior resulting in a mixed a subsequent strip (Brown and Davis lethal to small stems because the slow severity or stand replacement fire 1973). Backing fires back into the wind speed of the burning front enables (Waldrop and Brose 1999). Many or burn downslope. They burn with lethal cambium temperatures to be of the firefighter fatalities in hardwood lower flame heights and lower intensity, reached just aboveground. forests have occurred because of the explosive nature of these fuels. and move through the stand at slower Leaf litter is the primary fuel that speed than head fires. Because of their sustains fire. Loading and thickness of Resource managers generally lower intensity and slower speeds, the litter layer vary depending on site, prescribe burning conditions that backing fires are more easily controlled. limit fuel consumption to 1 to 3 tons

stand age, and season (Albrecht and FIRE Flanking fires are set moving parallel Mattson 1977, Blow 1955, Crosby and per acre during passage of the flame to and into the wind. They are generally Loomis 1974, Kucera 1952, Loomis front. Residual smoldering combustion 616 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

can more than double these values, present after clearcutting by more on the felled trees speed the drying of especially under drought conditions, than 90 percent (Sanders and Van Lear small twigs and branches, which serve or 5 to 6 years after a major disturbance 1987). Site-preparation burns in pine as fuel for the broadcast burn; and (2) when large downed woody fuels plantations are normally conducted leafing out reduces root reserves and become partially decomposed. More in the summer and are of moderate to therefore reduces the vigor of hardwood detailed descriptions of fuels and fire high intensity. They are used to reduce sprouts. The harvested stand is burned behavior can be found elsewhere logging debris, control hardwood in midsummer, within 24 to 48 (Cheney and Gould 1997, Hough and sprouts, and improve the plantability hours after a soaking rain. The damp Albini 1978, Johansen 1987, Wade of the site. Because of their intensity, forest floor reduces fuel consumption, 1995, Wade and Lunsford 1989, these burns must be conducted under minimizing heat penetration into the Wade and others 1993). the proper fuel- and soil-moisture soil and protecting against erosion. Hazard-reduction burning— conditions to prevent damage to the Pine seedlings, planted at a wide Prescribed fire is often used to reduce soil, especially in the steep terrain of spacing the following winter, generally fuel loads from dangerous levels to the Southern Appalachians (Swift and compete well with hardwood coppice. protect forests from wildfire. Most others 1993, Van Lear and Waldrop Using fire to regenerate hardwoods wildfires are accidental; campfires, 1989). Broadcast burning late in the generally has not been recommended debris burning, or sparks from summer following long periods without because of the fear of damaging stem machinery are common ignition rain can completely remove organic quality and because of the danger sources. Burning embers carried aloft layers from the soil. Such burns reduce of erosion, particularly on steep by the convection column (rising hot logging debris, ensuring that the site slopes (Van Lear and Waldrop 1989). air and gases) may ignite numerous will be plantable, but they can cause Nevertheless, many oak stands that spot fires far away from the main fire. site damage from accelerated erosion currently occupy better sites in the Nevertheless, arson remains a serious and loss of nutrients and organic Appalachians no doubt became problem in southern forests. Fires set matter. In addition, severe burns may established 60 to 100 years ago by arsonists are difficult to control contribute to poor initial survival of when burning was a common practice. because they often occur during times planted seedlings because of the loss Observations of conditions after wild- of extreme fire danger. Wildfires of mulching effects of a residual forest fires are the basis for avoiding burning in recently harvested stands can be floor. Both onsite and offsite damage in hardwoods. Wildfires, however, intense because of heavy fuel loadings from broadcast burning can be burn with higher intensity and severity (Sanders and Van Lear 1987). minimized by burning earlier in the than prescribed fires (Abell 1932, summer, soon after soaking rains. Pine stands usually develop an Nelson and others 1933, Wendel and understory of hardwoods, shrubs, and Prescribed fire prior to harvest is Smith 1986). A low-intensity winter vines. When draped with pine needles, used to prepare seedbeds for natural backing fire in mature hardwood stands this understory becomes highly regeneration of pine. Low-intensity probably has little adverse effect on flammable. If the condition extends burns are used to protect the stand crop trees (Sanders and others 1987). over a large area, the whole forest is that is being regenerated when seed Excluding fire or other disturbances at risk of destruction by wildfire. In trees are retained as future cavity trees like grazing from mature oak stands hardwood stands, rhododendron and for red-cockaded woodpeckers. One may have altered the ecology of mountain laurel often form thickets or more winter burns may be required mixed-oak, cove hardwood, and of highly flammable fuels, which allow to reduce fuel loadings. A final summer pine-hardwood cover types to the fire to climb into the canopy. Prescribed burn is used to prepare the seedbed detriment of advanced oak regeneration fire is an economical way to reduce and reduce the vigor of understory (Little 1974, Van Lear and Johnson dangerous fuel accumulations. Wild- hardwoods. Dormant season logging 1983). Fires every few years may be fires that burn into areas previously further enhances seedbed preparation the key to enabling oaks to become subjected to prescribed fires cause less and allows seeds to germinate the dominant over their associates damage and are controlled more easily. following spring. in the advance regeneration pool. The appropriate interval between Mixed pine-hardwood stands can Oak seedlings are less susceptible prescribed burns for fuel reduction be regenerated after clearcutting in the to root kill by fire than other species, varies with several factors, including Southern Appalachians with minimal providing oaks a competitive advantage the rate of fuel accumulation, which adverse site effects using the fell-and- (Langdon 1981, Niering and others is high in pine stands in the Coastal burn technique (Abercrombie and 1970, Swann 1970). The combination Plain because of the rank understory. Sims 1986, Danielovich and others of season, frequency, and number of Past wildfire occurrence and the values 1987, Phillips and Abercrombie 1987). burns to foster oak regeneration in the at risk are other factors to consider. As the name suggests, fell-and-burn Appalachians has not been determined, The interval between fires in pine requires two steps after clearcutting of but multiple prescribed burns are stands can be annual, but a 3- to 4-year hardwood or pine-hardwood stands. probably necessary to promote develop- cycle between fires usually is adequate First, residual stems over 6 feet tall ment of advance oak regeneration prior after an initial fuel reduction burn are felled with chainsaws during early to harvest (Brose and others 2001, (Wade and Lunsford 1989). spring after full leaf development when Carvell and Tryon 1961, Keetch carbohydrate reserves in the roots are 1944, Thor and Nichols 1974). Oak

FIRE Fire for regeneration—Judicious use of fire reduces the large amount of low. Allowing full leaf development seedlings initially may be more readily highly flammable fine woody material is important for two reasons: (1) leaves established on burned areas in part Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 617 because the openings encourage activity and others 1987). Low-intensity fires most ecosystems in the South (Spurr by blue jays. Jays hoard and scatter generally kill most hardwood stems up and Barnes 1980). The once extensive acorns, and they seek out areas of thin to 3 inches in diameter. Summer fires longleaf pine ecosystem was fire litter, low vegetation, and full sunlight are more effective than winter fires maintained (Stout and Marion 1993, to bury nuts (Healy 1988). Germination in killing hardwood rootstocks, but Ware and others 1993). The forest can be enhanced by fire as weevil and numerous summer fires in successive mosaic of the Southern Appalachians beetle species that prey on germinating years are necessary (Waldrop and was largely a product of fire acorns are reduced on burned seed- others 1987). disturbances interacting with beds (Galford and others 1988). Once Periodic prescribed burns can complex topography. For example, established, subsequent fires favor control the size of hardwoods, reduce the grassy balds on the summits oak seedlings over other hardwoods, wildfire hazard, and facilitate stand of high Appalachian peaks may and single prescribed fires have little regeneration. Burning at about 5-year have been created and maintained effect on species composition in the intervals controls the size of sprouts by fire (Clements 1936), though understory (Augspurger and others developing from topkilled rootstocks. other explanations are credible 1987, Johnson 1974, Teuke and By controlling the size of understory (Whittaker 1956). Van Lear 1982, Waldrop and others hardwoods, pines can be maintained Many plants have structural 1985, Wendel and Smith 1986). more easily on sites where they are adaptations, specialized tissues, or The task of regenerating oaks, the species of choice. If not controlled, reproductive features that favor them particularly northern red oak, is hardwoods will form a midstory in a fire-dominated environment. Such especially challenging on moist, and capture the site once the pine is traits suggest a close association with fertile cove sites. Fire exclusion allows harvested (Wade and Lunsford 1989). fire over a very long period of time. other understory species to compete If a large pine component is desired in Many endemics are only found the vigorously with oak seedlings and the next rotation, these unmerchantable first 1 to 2 years after a fire. Changes usually overtop them (McGee 1979). stems must be removed during site in the “natural” fire pattern as a result In addition, control of the subcanopy preparation at additional expense of attempted fire exclusion have led and midstory is necessary to allow and risk of compaction. to dramatic decreases in many of these enough light to reach the forest floor Prescribed fire shows promise for fire-tolerant or fire-dependent species. and favor advance oak regeneration the control of laurel and rhododendron Many picturesque flowers, including (Van Lear and Waldrop 1988). Fire in the Southern Appalachian Moun- several orchids, currently listed has been successful for regenerating tains. Fire suppression in this region as threatened or endangered, are yellow-poplar on cove sites. This has resulted in dense stands of these benefited by fire. shade-intolerant species is well adapted evergreen shrubs. These thickets Prescribed burning, however, to fire disturbance. Its light seeds are compete with and substantially limit does not automatically help per- disseminated by wind and gravity, and reproduction and growth of both petuate plant and animal species. they germinate rapidly on fire-prepared woody and herbaceous vegetation It may be necessary to burn during seedbeds. Yellow-poplar seeds also (Swift and others 1993, Van Lear the same season in which the site remain viable in the forest floor for 8 to and Johnson 1983) and therefore historically burned. The interval 10 years (Little 1967) and will germin- are thought to have a major negative between prescribed fires as well as ate after a fire creates the needed site impact on hardwood species. Hence, fire intensity may be important. The conditions (McCarthy 1933, Shearin the objective of many prescribed burns individual habitat requirements of and others 1972, Sims 1932). in the Southern Appalachians is the a species must therefore be understood Management of competing control of these evergreen species. before fire can be prescribed to vegetation—Prescribed burning is used Fire initially decreases mountain laurel benefit that species. in pine stands to control competing density, but, in time, laurel regains Fires affect vegetation by altering or hardwoods that develop from root or dominance in the understory because maintaining successional stages. When stump sprouts after harvesting, or that it sprouts quickly after fire or fell-and- fire was more frequent in the South, encroach from adjacent areas such as burn treatment (Elliott and others fire-dependent or fire-associated depressional wetlands. Control is 1999). Mountain laurel sprouts grow species dominated the overstory and desirable to decrease competition for slowly, however, allowing planted pine understory of many forest stands. In water, nutrients, and growing space; and other species to get established the absence of fire and other similar to reduce risk of wildfire damage in in the midstory and overstory before disturbances, forests have gradually stands with palmetto, gallberry, or this shrub dominates the understory changed composition from pre- wax myrtle understories; and to aid (Williams and Waldrop 1995). dominantly longleaf pine and in stand management and regeneration. Protection of threatened and pine-hardwood to communities In most situations, total eradication of endangered species and unique dominated by other pines in the understory and midstory is neither plant communities—Some threatened the Coastal Plain and hardwoods practical nor desirable. Dormant-season and endangered species require fire in the mountains and Piedmont. burning can reduce the size, but not to become established and survive. When fire is excluded or suppressed, the number of hardwood stems in Although the role of fire in the ecology fire-intolerant hardwoods compete understories. Effects depend on the

of many threatened and endangered with pine species. Many threatened, FIRE frequency and timing of prescribed species is not well understood, fire has endangered, or sensitive plants are fires (Thor and Nichols 1974, Waldrop played an essential role in maintaining understory or midstory plants of fire- 618 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

dominated communities. For example, Prescribed burns to improve wild- influence the effects of fire on the soil mountain golden heather, turkey-beard, life habitat in existing pine stands (Wells and others 1979). Low-intensity sand-myrtle, and twisted-head historically have been conducted in prescribed fires have few, if any, adverse spike-moss grow in the Appalachians the winter (Mobley and others 1978) effects on soil properties; in some cases on ledge habitats created and kept open to avoid the spring nesting season. such fires may improve soil properties by natural fires and severe weather Burns at about 3- to 5-year intervals (McKee 1982). Repeated burning over (Morse 1988). Burning also favor deer and turkey. On the lower a long period may affect levels of enhances habitat preferences of Coastal Plain, bobwhite quail are available phosphorus, exchangeable several endangered animal species, favored by burning at 1- to 2-year calcium, and organic matter content including the Florida panther, gopher intervals, and some results indicate of mineral soil. Fire volatilizes nitrogen tortoise, indigo snake, and red- that growing season burns can be used from the forest floor, but the losses cockaded woodpecker (Wade where control of invasive hardwoods are often offset by increased activity and Lunsford 1989). is needed (Brennan and others 1998). of nitrogen-fixing soil microorganisms Manipulation of wildlife habitat— Appropriate burning frequencies for after the fire. Calcium and phosphorus Prescribed fire improves habitats of other species are not well known. may be lost from the forest floor but certain wildlife species, but it also Low-intensity burns in hardwood or are partially retained in lower mineral degrades habitats for other species. mixed pine-hardwood stands improve soil horizons. Low-intensity burns Each of the hundreds of wildlife wildlife habitat by increasing sprouting have little, if any, adverse effect on species in the South responds of advance regeneration and stimulating soil erosion even on relatively steep differently to fire, depending upon production of herbaceous forage. More slopes (Brender and Cooper 1968, the frequency, intensity, severity, intense site-preparation burns can also Cushwa and others 1971, Goebel and and season of burning. To effectively be beneficial where they increase the others 1967). use prescribed fire to benefit wildlife abundance of legumes and other Prescribed burns conducted when requires an understanding of the habitat herbaceous and perennial plants that the soil and fuel are too dry can cause requirements of each species (Harlow are preferred by many wildlife species. severe damage. Broadcast burns and Van Lear 1981, 1987; Lyon and conducted under these conditions others 1978; Wood 1981). Some Effects of can remove the entire forest floor general guidelines for burning to Prescribed Burning and accelerate erosion in steep terrain. enhance habitat for game species Soil—Many factors, including High-intensity prescribed fires have are shown in table 25.2. fire intensity, ambient temperature, a temporary negative effect on site vegetation type, and soil moisture nutrient status resulting from

Table 25.2—Prescribed burning regimes to improve wildlife habitat

Species to benefit Time of burn Size of burn Type of fire Frequency Remarks

Deer Winter Small or leave Backing fire 2 to 4 years Want to promote sprouting and keep preferred unburned or point- browse within reach. Repeat summer areas source fires fires may kill some rootstocks.

Turkey Winter Small or leave Backing fire 2 to 4 years Avoid April through June nesting preferred; unburned or point- season. summer burns areas source fires in July-August

Quail Late winter 25 or more Not critical; 1 to 2 years Avoid April through June nesting acres do not ring season, although summer burns may fire be used. Leave unburned patches and thickets.

Dove Winter Not critical Not critical; Not critical Leave unburned patches and thickets. do not ring fire

Waterfowl Late fall or Not critical Heading fire 2 or more Marshland only. Do not burn in winter years hardwood swamps.

FIRE

Source: From table, p. 46 in Wade and Lunsford 1989. Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 619 volatilization of nitrogen and sulfur, needles. Diameter growth apparently indicate that effects of prescribed fire plus some cation loss due to ash is not significantly affected when crown on water quality are minor and of short convection. Such effects are short-lived scorch and root damage are minimal duration when compared with effects after low-intensity fires, but recovery (Wade and Johansen 1986). of other forest practices (Brender and is not as rapid after severe fires. Aboveground portions of hardwood Cooper 1968). For example, when Site-preparation burns of high species are not as resistant to fire prescribed fires are conducted properly, intensity with high fuel loads and damage as conifers, primarily because nutrient loss and stream sedimentation low soil moisture may damage soil of thinner bark. Bark thickness is are likely to be minor compared by overheating. When burning is done not as critical to hardwood survival in with those resulting from mechanical with soil moisture near field capacity, Appalachian hardwoods, because most methods of site preparation (Douglass however, little heating damage will fires burn in light fuels and are of low and Goodwin 1980, Douglass and occur (DeBano and others 1977). Fires intensity (Komarek 1974). There are Van Lear 1982, Ursic 1970). Even that burn completely to mineral soil some exceptions, however, such as intense broadcast burns may disturb may accelerate soil erosion in steep when understories of mountain laurel the root mat very little, leaving its terrain. Soil loss after severe burns produce high-intensity fires in soil-holding properties intact. can exceed 200 tons per acre per hardwood stands. Some hardwoods Furthermore, slash tends to be year in the Piedmont (Van Lear and develop exceptionally thick bark upon randomly distributed over logged Kapeluck 1989). Infiltration is de- maturity. According to Nelson and areas and is seldom completely creased, and run-off and sediment others (1933), yellow-poplar is one removed by broadcast burning. yield increased after severe burns in of the most fire-resistant species in the Therefore, the root mat, residual the Southern Appalachians (Robichaud East when its bark thickness exceeds forest floor materials, and incompletely and Waldrop 1994). Such losses have 0.5 inch. On the Coastal Plain, many consumed slash form debris dams not been documented in the South, hardwood stems over 6 inches in that trap much of the sediment moving but they appear to be negligible after diameter at breast height survived after downslope (Dissmeyer and Foster prescribed burns (Van Lear and 30 years of low-intensity annual and 1980). Also rapid regrowth in the Danielovich 1988). biennial burning (Waldrop and others South quickly protects sites. Vegetation—Plants in fire-prone 1992) with little or no damage to boles. Only a few studies in the South have ecosystems have adapted to fire in Hardwoods sprout, generally from the documented the effects of prescribed various ways, including thickening of base of the stem or from root suckers, fire on nutrient concentrations in bark, ability to resprout from below the when tops are killed. Suppressed buds streams or ground water. Low-intensity soil surface, and dispersing seeds. Some at or below ground level often survive prescribed fire had no major impact trees have thick insulating bark, which the heat of a surface fire and sprout on stormflow or soil-solution nutrient protects them from the scorching heat in response to the loss of apical levels (Douglass and Van Lear 1982, of surface fires (Hare 1965). Mature dominance (Augspurger and others Richter and others 1982). Severe longleaf pine is well known for its 1987, Waldrop and others 1985). wildfire in heavy fuels in mountainous resistance to fire damage because of its Although many sprouts may develop terrain had no adverse effects on thick bark. Slash, loblolly, and shortleaf from a stump, over time they thin water quality (Neary and Currier pines also generally survive bole scorch down to one or a few per stump. 1982). Research from Western States when they reach sapling size or larger documented several cases where slash Many species have adapted to burning increased nitrate-N levels in (Komarek 1974). Virginia pine and a high-frequency fire regime by white pine tend to have thinner bark streamflow. In no case, however, did developing light seeds, which can be burning cause nitrate-N levels to exceed and are more susceptible to fire disseminated over large areas by wind damage. However, when pine trees the recommended U.S. Environmental and gravity. These light-seeded species Protection Agency standard of 10 are young, crown scorch rather than often pioneer on burned seedbeds. damage to the bole is the principal parts per million for drinking water. Some species, such as yellow-poplar, Phosphorus and major cations often cause of mortality (Cooper and produce seeds that remain viable for Altobellis 1969, Storey and Merkel increased in streamflow and the years in the duff. Yellow-poplar seeds soil solution, but the effects were 1960). All southern pine species except stored in the lower duff germinate longleaf are generally both crown-killed of short duration and of a magnitude rapidly after low-intensity prescribed not considered damaging to surface and stem-girdled when less than about fires (Shearin and others 1972). 1- to 2-inch ground-line diameter, water or site productivity (Tiedemann although most species can produce Water quality—Effects of prescribed and others 1979). basal sprouts when very young. As the fire on water quality vary, depending trees increase in size, bud kill rather on fire intensity, type and amount of Smoke Management than stem girdling is likely to be the vegetation present, ambient temp- culprit in periodically burned stands. erature, terrain, and other factors. The major problems associated with All woods fires produce smoke. Southern pines have the ability to prescribed fire and water quality are Smoke from prescribed burning is a leaf out soon after defoliation from potential increases in sedimentation problem when it creates an annoyance crown scorch (Komarek 1974). Trees and, to a lesser degree, increases or nuisance, and when it negatively are most susceptible to crown scorch in dissolved salts in streamflow affects human health and safety. FIRE during the growing season, when buds (Tiedemann and others 1979). Prescribed burners, therefore, must be are elongating and not protected by However, most studies in the South 620 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

able to predict smoke production and aloft, so smoke stays close to the Nitrogen oxides are not likely to be movement before they ignite a fire. ground. Second, shallow valley released in significant quantities during inversions can develop in the winter, prescribed burning. The threshold Problem Smoke trapping smoke near the ground. temperature for the release of nitrogen Smoke can contribute to regional haze Weak drainage winds can carry smoke oxides is 1,500 oC, which is hotter than and may be considered an annoyance more than 10 miles, far enough to the temperatures normally occurring by recreationists and residents in scenic reach roadways in most areas. in prescribed fires (McMahon and Ryan areas. Smoke is a nuisance when it 1976). Nitrogen is volatilized, with the irritates the eyes and mucous Constituents of Smoke amount released varying with the membranes of the nose and throat, Particulate matter is the major temperature. At temperatures of or when it deposits soot on homes. pollutant in the smoke from prescribed 500 oC, 100 percent of the nitrogen Smoke exacerbates health problems burning (Dieterich 1971, Hall 1972, is volatilized; at temperatures of 200 for those with respiratory difficulty Sandberg and others 1979). It is a to 300 oC, only about 50 percent or other illnesses. Smoke is a safety complex mixture of soot, tars, and of the nitrogen is lost (Dunn and hazard when it impedes visibility volatile organic substances, either DeBano 1977). Sulfur dioxide of drivers of motor vehicles. Problem solid or liquid. Sizes average about emissions from prescribed fires are smoke is chronic in the South 0.1 micron in diameter (McMahon of minor importance since the sulfur because of three factors: 1977). With low windspeed and high concentration of most forest fuels is less than 0.2 percent. 1. A lot of smoke is produced humidity, moisture condenses around by wildfires and prescribed fires. particulates and forms dense smoke or combinations of smoke and fog. Smoke Management 2. A lot of people live in interfaces Reductions in visibility during and An extensive wildland-urban inter- between forests and urban areas. after prescribed fires, therefore, have face, a dense road network, and up to 3. Southern meteorology produces caused numerous highway accidents. 6 million acres of prescribed burning air masses that entrap smoke close Particulates are not the only emissions make smoke the foremost forestry- to the ground at night. from fire. Besides carbon dioxide and related air quality problem. The risk Of the South’s 200 million acres water vapor, gaseous hydrocarbons, of smoke movement into sensitive of forest, 4 to 6 million acres burn carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxides areas such as airports, highways, annually. The area burned is the most are also released (Chi and others 1979). and communities is probably the in any region of the country. Prescribed However, only a small proportion (less major threat to the continued use burning is used to manage fuel loads than 3 percent) of the total national of prescribed burning. Public concern and reduce the risk of catastrophic emissions of particulates, carbon is likely to occur before levels of smoke wildfire. The long growing season and monoxide, and hydrocarbons can exposure violate National Ambient warm, humid climate create conditions be attributed to prescribed burning. Air Quality Standards. Because of the for rapid buildup of live and dead fuels, potentially serious effects of prescribed Carbon monoxide is a poisonous fire on air quality and its value in forest which contribute to greater smoke gas, which may reach toxic levels above production when burned. management, guidelines for smoke and adjacent to prescribed fires, but management have been developed The southern forests are crisscrossed these concentrations decline rapidly by the Forest Service to reduce the by a dense road network, even in with increasing distance from the flame atmospheric impacts of prescribed predominantly rural areas. Population (McMahon and Ryan 1976). By burning fire (U.S. Department of Agriculture, density is increasing in many areas of under atmospheric conditions that Forest Service 1976). The guidelines the South with an expanding interface encourage rapid mixing, the problem recommend five steps: (1) plot the between forests and dwellings. The of high carbon monoxide levels can trajectory of the smoke; (2) identify population living within or near be eliminated. smoke-sensitive areas such as highways, southern forests is greater than in other Hydrocarbons are a diverse group airports, hospitals, etc.; (3) identify parts of the country where prescribed of compounds that contain hydrogen, critical targets close to the burn or fire is widely used. In addition, many carbon, and their oxygenated those that already have an air pollution people travel through the South who derivatives (Hall 1972). Unsaturated problem; (4) determine the fuel type are unaware of smoke and fog hazards. hydrocarbons result from the to be burned; and (5) minimize risk by Climate and weather contribute incomplete combustion of organic burning under atmospheric conditions to problem smoke in several ways. fuels. Because of their high affinity that hasten smoke dispersion, or by First, prescribed burning is conducted for oxygen, these compounds may using appropriate ignition patterns when soil and litter are moist in order form photochemical smog in the to reduce smoke pollution. to avoid damaging tree roots. Fires presence of sunlight and oxygen- Burning under proper weather in moist fuels burn less efficiently donating compounds. Methane, conditions can reduce the impact of and smolder longer than fires in dry ethylene, and hundreds of other smoke. The fire manager should have fuels, increasing smoke production. gases are released in prescribed current weather forecasts with enough In addition, inefficient combustion burning. Most of the hydrocarbons information to predict smoke behavior. produces less heat to carry smoke released during prescribed fires are Both surface weather and upper FIRE quite different from those released atmospheric conditions are important. in internal combustion engines. Burning should be conducted when Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 621 wind is moving away from sensitive Florida Division of Forestry is a leader in the United States dominated by areas such as highways and homes. in the use of high-resolution modeling one tree species. Longleaf pine also The atmosphere should be slightly for forestry in the South. Recently the occurred in association with other unstable for optimum smoke dispersal USDA Forest Service, The University species on an additional 18 million without loss of fire control. of Georgia, and other partners have acres (Frost 1993). initiated a Southern High Resolution The ability to predict smoke Modeling Consortium to develop new The longleaf-grassland ecosystem is movement is critical to meeting these models and deliver them to clients. one of the most species-rich ecosystems guidelines and protecting the public. found outside the tropics (Peet and Efforts to avoid smoke moving to Allard 1993). The flora and fauna sensitive areas are often complicated Restoring Fire into that dominate this ecosystem have by highly variable weather during Southern Ecosystems well-developed adaptations to chronic the burning season in the South. fire. This fire regime maintained a two-tiered structure of an open longleaf Weather fronts pass frequently in The adverse effects of 70 years of the South in the winter, producing overstory and a diverse groundcover fire suppression are evident in many dominated by bunchgrasses. Density variable but predictable wind direc- ecosystems in the South, and the and phenology of numerous ground- tions. Coastal forests are subject risk of catastrophic wildfires has to wind shifts brought on by sea cover plants are influenced by the increased. Many of these ecosystems season of burn (Platt and others breezes during the day and land can be restored with the judicious 1988, Streng and others 1993); breezes at night. These circulations reintroduction of fire, sometimes are inconsistent from one day to simply reintroducing periodic burning, in combination with chemical or therefore, may not accomplish the the next. Regional weather systems mechanical methods. Reintroduction desired restoration. About 191 taxa also interact with the Appalachian of fire is driven by two objectives: Mountains, producing sudden wind of vascular plants associated with (1) fuel management to reduce the the longleaf-bunchgrass system are shifts, large changes in wind direction, risk of wildfire; and (2) restoration classified as threatened or endangered and a lowering of mixing heights. of unique, fire-prone ecosystems that (Walker 1993). The fauna also includes Several approaches are being taken support many threatened, endangered, many endemics that are listed as and sensitive plant and animal species. to improve the ability to predict smoke threatened or endangered. Overviews movement. Computer models are in The long association of southern of the plant and animal communities operation or being developed to predict vegetation with fire has resulted that form this ecosystem can be found smoke movement over the southern in key species developing traits that in Bridges and Orzell (1989), landscape. Daytime movement and favor them in fire-prone ecosystems Harcombe and others (1993), Myers concentration of particulate matter (Christensen 1977, Landers 1991). and Ewel (1990), Platt and Rathbun in smoke, assuming level terrain and If a certain threshold has not been (1993), Skeen and others (1993), unchanging winds, is modeled by reached, the natural resiliency of these Stout and Marion (1993), and Ware VSMOKE (Lavdas 1996). Managers systems allows them to recover if fire and others (1993). use VSMOKE to assess where smoke is reintroduced (Vogl 1976). Once this Typical vegetation in the Ouachita from prescribed burns might impact threshold has been exceeded, however, Mountains at the beginning of the sensitive targets. Movement of smoke natural processes can no longer rectify trapped near the ground at night last century included open wood- the situation in a reasonable amount lands of pine and hardwood, with can be simulated in the complex of time. Thus, many components of big bluestem and other grasses in terrain of the Piedmont by the PB- the original ecosystem cannot survive Piedmont model (Achtemeier 2001). the understory (Foti and others 1999). long-term without fire (Garren 1943). Fire exclusion and infrequent thinning PB-Piedmont does not predict smoke Restoration of longleaf pine grasslands of second-growth shortleaf pine and concentrations, because we do not is the goal of many organizations, but have good information on emissions pine-hardwood stands resulted in longleaf is not the only candidate for denser stands than historical fire from smoldering combustion. Two restoration of the historic role of fire. regimes would have produced. sister models are planned, one for Table Mountain pine, the shortleaf the Appalachian Mountains and Restoration of the shortleaf pine- pine-bluestem ecosystem, and oak bluestem habitat is being attempted one for coastal areas influenced by types can benefit from restoration sea/land circulations. on 155,000 acres of the Ouachita of periodic burning. National Forest in western Arkansas High-resolution weather prediction Southern pines, in general, develop and eastern Oklahoma. Restoration models promise to increase accuracy in increasing fire resistance as they age, treatments include reducing over- prediction of windspeed and direction, but longleaf pine is the only tree species story basal area by harvesting and as well as mixing height, at time and able to cope with annual or biennial mechanical reduction of midstory spatial scales needed by land managers. fires throughout its lifespan. This is trees, accompanied by reintroduction Accurate predictions of sea/land breezes the primary reason it once dominated of fire. The midstory reduction and associated changes in temperature, about 75 million acres (Betts 1954, treatments will reduce fuel loads wind direction, atmospheric stability, Frost 1993) stretching from southern and should lead to fewer wildfires. and mixing height are critical. The Virginia through central Florida to east

The prescriptions include removal FIRE Texas. Chapman (1932) believed this of most midstory hardwoods, thinning forest type occupied the largest area from below in overstory and midstory 622 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

pines, and reintroducing surface reestablishment of stands with a large Barden, L.S. 1997. Historic prairies fires on a 1- to 3-year return interval. oak component. Periodic fires at in the Piedmont of North and South These treatments have been effective intervals of several years favor species Carolina, U.S.A. Natural Areas in restoring many underrepresented that are more fire-resistant than their Journal. 17(2): 149–152. species in the landscape, such as purple competitors, and oak seedlings resist Barden, L.S.; Woods, F.W. 1974. coneflower, bobwhite quail, red- root-kill by fire better than their Characteristics of lightning fires cockaded woodpecker, Bachman’s competitors (Niering and others 1970, in southern Appalachian forests. sparrow, and eastern wild turkey Swann 1970, Teuke and Van Lear 1982, In: Proceedings, 13th annual Tall (Bukenhofer and Hedrick 1997). In Thor and Nichols 1974). Many have Timbers fire ecology conference. addition, there is roughly seven times noticed that intense fires in mixed Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers the preferred deer forage in treated hardwood stands may favor oak Research Station: 345–361. versus untreated areas (Masters and (Carvell and Maxey 1969, Keetch others 1996). 1944), but this is not always the case, Barden, Lawrence S. 1977. Self- and competitors such as red maple may maintaining populations of Pinus The long-term effects of fire exclusion pungens Lam. in the Southern in the Appalachians are becoming increase in abundance (McGee 1979). Much remains to be learned about the Appalachian Mountains. Castanea. increasingly apparent (Williams 1998). 42: 316–323. Most pine stands are now degraded use of fire to alter species composition in hardwood stands. Barrett, J.A. 1994. Regional silviculture and succeeding toward hardwood rd dominance (Williams 1998, Williams of the United States. 3 ed. New and Johnson 1992). The increased Literature Cited York: John Wiley. 643 p. incidence of bark beetle attacks in these Barrett, L.I.; Downs, A.A. 1943. stressed, aging stands is accelerating Hardwood invasion in pine forests this successional trend. On xeric mixed Abell, M.S. 1932. Much heartrot of the Piedmont plateau. Journal of pine-hardwood ridges in the Southern enters white oaks through fire Agricultural Research. 67: 111–128. wounds. Forest Worker. 8(6): 10. Appalachians, fire has been advocated Betts, H.S. 1954. The southern pines. to restore diversity and productivity Abercrombie, James A., Jr.; Sims, American woods series. Washington, (Swift and others 1993; Vose and others Daniel H. 1986. Fell and burn for DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1994, 1997). A winter fire that reduces low-cost site preparation. Forest Forest Service. 13 p. surface fuels, followed by a summer Farmer. 46(1): 14–17. Blaisdell, R.S.; Wooten, J.; Godfrey, R.K. fire, can control competing hardwoods Achtemeier, G.L. 2001. Simulating best (Elliott and others 1999). 1974. The role of magnolia and beech nocturnal smoke movement. Fire in forest processes in the Tallahassee, Interest has been expressed in Management Today. 61: 28–33. Florida, Thomasville, Georgia area. In: restoring Table Mountain pine Albrecht, Michael H.; Mattson, Proceedings, 13th annual Tall Timbers (Waldrop and Brose 1999), a rare Katharine E. 1977. Fuel weights fire ecology conference. Tallahassee, community type in the Southern by types for Piedmont and mountain FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: Appalachians (Southern Appalachian regions of North Carolina. For. Note 363–397. Man and the Biosphere 1996). 30. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Questions regarding the necessity of Blow, Frank E. 1955. Quality and Forest Service, Office of Forest hydrologic characteristics of litter crown fires to restore Table Mountain Resources. 19 p. pine are still unresolved (Waldrop and under upland oak forests in eastern Brose 1999, Whittaker 1956), but are Andrews, E.F. 1917. Agency of fire Tennessee. Journal of Forestry. the subject of ongoing studies. Extreme in propagation of longleaf pine. 53: 190–195. fire intensity may not be needed to Botanical Gazette. 64: 497–508. Boyer, W.D. 1990. Pinus palustris Mill. regenerate Table Mountain pine Augspurger, M.K.; Van Lear, D.H.; longleaf pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; (Waldrop and Brose 1999). Fires of low Cox, S.K.; Phillips, D.R. 1987. Honkala, Barbara H., tech. coords. and medium-low intensity produced Regeneration of hardwood coppice Silvics of North America: conifers. abundant pine regeneration, but may following clearcutting with and Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, not have killed enough of the overstory without prescribed fire. In: Phillips, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: to prevent shading. High-intensity fires, Douglas R., comp. Proceedings of the 405–412. Vol. 1. on the other hand, killed almost all fourth biennial southern silvicultural Braun, E.L. 1950. The deciduous overstory trees but may have destroyed research conference. Gen. Tech. forests of Eastern North America. some seeds. Fires of medium-high Rep. SE–42. Asheville, NC: U.S. New York: Hafner Press. 596 p. intensity may be the best choice; Department of Agriculture, Forest such fires killed overstory trees and Service, Southeastern Forest Brender, E.V. 1974. Impact of past allowed abundant regeneration. Experiment Station: 89–92. land use of the lower Piedmont forest. Journal of Forestry. 72(1): 34–36. A series of periodic fires prior to Baker, James B.; Langdon, O. Gordon. harvest of mature hardwood stands 1990. Pinus taeda L. loblolly pine. In: Brender, Ernest V.; Cooper, Robert W. may increase the number of oaks Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara 1968. Prescribed burning in Georgia’s in the advance regeneration pool (Brose H., tech. coords. Silvics of North Piedmont loblolly pine stands. Journal America: conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. of Forestry. 66: 31–36.

FIRE and Van Lear 1998; Brose and others 1999a, 1999b; Little 1974), Washington, DC: U.S. Department an important consideration in the of Agriculture: 497–512. Vol. 1. Chapter 25: Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes 623

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FIRE In: Wear, David N.; Greis, John G., eds. 2002. Southern forest resource assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-53. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 635 p.

The southern forest resource assessment provides a comprehensive analysis of the history, status, and likely future of forests in the Southern United States. Twenty-three chapters address questions regarding social/ economic systems, terrestrial ecosystems, water and aquatic ecosystems, forest health, and timber management; 2 additional chapters provide a background on history and fire. Each chapter surveys pertinent literature and data, assesses conditions, identifies research needs, and examines the implications for southern forests and the benefits that they provide.

Keywords: Conservation, forest sustainability, integrated assessment.

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