Challenges & Compromises in Spike Lee's Malcolm X

Home , By any means necessary, Girl 6, Malcolm X, Spike Lee

Critical Studies in Media Communication Vol. 18, No. 4, December 2001, pp. 452–465

Challenges & Compromises in Spike Lee’s Malcolm X

J. Emmett Winn

ᮀ—This study looks at Spike Lee’s Malcolm X as an important text in understanding Afrocentric perspectives that challenge the ideological stereotypes of mainstream Hollywood film. Malcolm X intervenes between Lee, the filmmaker, and the powerful media industry and is emblematic of the larger discussion of hegemonic and counter-hegemonic views in media culture. This film is not only an interesting case study but a significant part of an ongoing cultural discourse that is as relevant now as when Malcolm X lived. The relevance of this essay lies in its contribution to the discussion of media perspectives with a focus on furthering media literacy. It aids the viewer in understanding the social discourse surrounding a mediated racist ideology and the ongoing cultural work of social equality in the United States. This research finds that in the continuing struggle over media representation, Lee’s film is an instrument of media politics, controversy, and commercialization.

INCE the media are sites of struggle ing director Spike Lee’s Malcolm X Sover power and meaning in our (1992), a text that has been both hailed culture, media communication research as offering a black perspective counter is often concerned with racial represen- to the racist portrayals of African tations in film and television (Hall, Americans in film and criticized for 1980). Gray (1989) argues that the “con- being too conventional and commer- stant quest for legitimacy and the need cial (Bogle, 1996; Boyd, 1994; Dyson, to quell and displace fears at the same 1995; Ebert, 1992; hooks, 1996). Mal- time as it calls them forth are part of colm X presents a view of African the complex ideological work that takes Americans that diverges from and chal- place in [media] representations of lenges the racist views that have been a race” (p. 378). This essay elucidates foundation of cinema from the earliest issues and conflicts involved with strug- days of filmmaking (Bogle, 1996; Di- gling media perspectives by examin- awara, 1988; Hall, 1981; Rhodes, 1993). “This struggle,” states Rhodes (1993), “between the transmission of J. Emmett Winn is an Associate Professor in racist ideology and dogma, and the the Department of Communication, Auburn efforts of oppressed groups to claim University, University, AL 36849-5211. An earlier version was presented at the National control over their own image, is part of Communication Association convention, Novem- the legacy of the American mass me- ber 1998. The author acknowledges the insight- dia” (p. 185). The relevance of this ful criticism of Navita James, Gil Rodman, research lies in its contribution to the Susan Brinson, and M. H. Brown in writing discussion of media perspectives with this essay. a focus on furthering media literacy. It

CSMC WINN aids the viewer in understanding the trayals. Finally, Lee’s film was ulti- social discourse surrounding a medi- mately released within the mainstream ated racist ideology and the ongoing Hollywood establishment and was not cultural work of social equality in the as radical, controversial, or challeng- United States. In the battle over media ing to that system as some critics would portrayals, Malcolm X is an instrument have preferred (Bogle, 1996; Dyson, of media politics, controversy and com- 1995; hooks, 1996). This essay does mercialization. not judge whether Malcolm X is contro- Furthermore, Condit and Lucaites versial enough but, instead, shows how (1993) point out that in the 1980s the Malcolm X is an exemplary cultural arti- leadership of the struggle to define “the fact that illuminates the struggle over American dream of equality” was representation in the media. joined by “public intellectuals, includ- Hall (1981) explains that “the media ing scholars and filmmakers” (p. 180). are not only a powerful source of ideas Lee’s Malcolm X, although not appear- about race. They are also one place ing until 1992, is an interesting part of where these ideas are articulated, this struggle. Lee presents a cinematic worked on, transformed and elabo- version of The Autobiography of Malcolm rated” (p. 35). Lee’s Malcolm X commu- X, framing it between a prologue and nicates his perspective, one that he epilogue that situates the life story considers strongly informed by black within the current struggle for equality cultural politics. The questions of eth- in the United States and the broader nic/racial, gendered and class based international struggle. views of the world are significant inquir- In discussing media representations, ies, and there are, at any one time, the polysemic nature of texts allows for many views struggling for attention. However, looking at the media and wide ranging readings (Hall, 1980), and critically arguing that specific views this essay does not suggest that its views are both presented and challenged si- are the only interpretations of the film. multaneously is possible. Malcolm X is However, Kellner (1995) argues, “there one such site of struggle. are limits to the openness...ofany text...andtextual analysis can expli- cate the parameters of possible readings” (p. 11). Therefore, there are pre- Lee and Warner Bros. ferred readings that are useful in Kellner (1995) suggests the views pre- discussing Malcolm X in terms of the sented in entertainment programs are struggle over media representations. often the result of the organizational Specifically, Malcolm X can demon- structure of the media. Hollywood film- strate three aspects of the struggle over making, as popular culture, can be the representations in the media. First, it site of struggle between the views of characterizes how Lee struggled with the filmmakers and the demands of the his distributor, Warner Bros., to make film industry. The plight of the film- Malcolm X and was forced to borrow maker’s fight against a system that cares money from prominent African Ameri- little for an auteurist vision and too cans in order to finish the film. Sec- much for the profitability of a product ondly, Lee’s presentation of African is the stuff of countless Hollywood leg- American characters is, in general, di- ends and is an issue with which artistic vergent from traditionally racist por- creators struggle in nearly every form 454

CHALLENGES & COMPROMISES DECEMBER 2001 of popular art. However, the film- when the film is perceived as a black maker is only one part of the film film, the unease can become gut- industry organization. This system con- wrenching angst” (p. 25) as race and trols the production, distribution, and ethnicity make the relationship even exhibition of a film; many people and more problematic. interests must be brought together to From this vantage point, the relation- make a Hollywood film. In short, the ship between Lee and his distributor, creative conflict inherent to filmmak- Warner Bros., part of Time-Warner ing should not be simplified to a lone Inc., bears investigation. Lee struggled visionary versus a profit-driven con- with Warner Bros. for the necessary glomerate. The system needs the film- budget to make the film as he envi- maker’s creative product in order to sioned. However, Warner Bros. was exist, and the filmmaker, in most cases, never receptive to Lee’s vision. Lee, needs the system for financing and dis- quoted in Wiley (1992), explains: tribution. Warner Bros. and I never saw eye to eye Filmmaking as a collaborative effort on the scope of this film. They don’t know requires the combined talents and re- who Malcolm X is. The film ends with sources of producers, writers, direc- Nelson Mandela in Soweto, and they’re tors, talent, a host of technical crew like, “What does Nelson Mandela have to members, and other personnel. This do with Malcolm X?” (p. 96) creative side of cinema is itself only one part of the organization. Other Warner Bros. disagreed with Lee con- industry representatives are needed for cerning the content and length of the film. Lee wanted additional funds to a film to receive the funding, advertis- finish the film as he had planned. As ing, and distribution that it requires to Lee fought with executives at Warner be completed and exhibited. Bros. the Los Angeles riots broke out, Movies are distributed by major dis- an event that seemed to highlight the tribution companies. Many of these importance of Lee’s vision for his film organizations are the remnants of the as part of a public discourse on equal- major studios of Hollywood’s Golden ity. Wiley (1992) explains: Age of filmmaking (e.g., MGM, Para- mount, and Warner Bros.). However, On Thursday, April 30, [1992] as sections with changes in corporate ownership, of [Los Angeles] burned across national it makes more sense to refer to these television, Spike Lee screened Malcolm X distributors as parts of large conglomer- again at the Warner’s lot, telling those ates. Understandably, the distribution assembled in the screening room, “this company is crucial to the overall finan- movie is needed now more than ever.” (p. 128) cial success of the film and, therefore, has substantial influence on the mak- Lee believed that his film would make ing and release of the film. Thus, the an important contribution to the ongo- filmmaker is often financially depen- ing discourse concerning equality for dent on the distributor. Sharkey (1989) African Americans. sees this creator/organizational rela- Yet, Lee was unable to convince tionship as precarious, “the alliance Warner Bros. to supply the additional between filmmaker and film-marketer funding. Lee believed he needed the is uneasy and often a source of conflict money to make his film a testament to under the best of circumstances. But the life of Malcolm X. Ultimately, Lee 455

CSMC WINN had to go outside of his financial rela- as the social structure changes shape...this tionship with Warner Bros. to gain the cultural “progress” is messy business, gen- extra funding. Prominent African erating social and psychological conflicts Americans gave Lee the money to fin- that remain unresolved. (p. 5) ish the film, thus providing the funds However, Lee’s Malcolm X did make an that allowed Lee to finish the film according to his vision. Lee’s film had impression and impacted the discourse been denounced by Warner Bros. but on equality and representation (Boyd, championed by renowned African 1994). Ross (1990) argues that Lee is Americans. Therefore, Lee’s movie en- “the first black American filmmaker to tered the public discourse concerning define the structure and content of a equality in the United States and the Hollywood-financed film entirely on media’s representation of African his own terms” (p. 29). Thus, Lee’s Americans as he had designed. films have received enough attention from the public and critics to suggest that they are in the forefront of the Fear of a Black Perspective? debate. This attention suggests the impor- The concept of ideological hege- tance of Lee’s oeuvre in general and mony suggests reasons for a dominant Malcolm X in particular. Another indica- system of meanings and values which tor of its importance is its contribution might be challenged by an African to a renewed interest in Malcolm X American perspective radically differ- and his message, what McCarty (1992) ent from a more traditional media view calls the “X” phenomenon. The “X” (Gitlin, 1980; Gramsci, 1971; Hall, phenomenon speaks to the popularity 1981; 1982; Lears, 1983; Rapping, of clothing bearing Malcolm X’s im- 1987; Stabile, 1995). In other words, age, messages (particularly his “by ideological hegemony helps us under- whatever means necessary” stance) and stand how racial representations are the now iconic “X.” Similarly, his life made and naturalized through the sym- and message are the topics of classes bolic process of communication (Carey, and debates as well as the biographical 1989; Gray, 1989; Hall, 1982). How- subject of documentaries and scholarly ever, suggesting that the media, as a works. Bogle (1996) explains that fol- unified body, act to promote or sup- lowing Lee’s film “a renewed interest press particular views is naive. The in Malcolm X swept through the black struggle is ongoing. Not all films made community and elevated him to the by all African Americans represent a status of mass political/cultural icon” unified or wholly agreed upon view. (p. 351). Therefore, using Malcolm X as Likewise, arguing that any one film an exemplary text in this discussion is could have enough impact to become justified. a serious threat to mainstream represen- Racist stereotypes of African Ameri- tations is equally naive. As Lears (1983) cans in movies ranges from the begin- explains: nings of cinema in films such as Uncle cultural hegemony is not maintained me- Tom’s Cabin (1903), The Confederate Spy chanically or conspiratorially. A dominant (1910), For Massa’s Sake (1911), The Birth culture is not a static “superstructure” but a of A Nation (1915), through the sound continual process. The boundaries of com- era in films such as The Ghost Talks mon-sense “reality” are constantly shifting (1929), Stand Up and Cheer (1934), Gone 456

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With the Wind (1939), and has contin- products of African Americans...are ued into the contemporary era with routinely appropriated and commodi- controversial films such as The Color fied...while the originators struggle Purple (1985) and 1988’s Mississippi for an autonomous voice” (p. 189). Burning (Bogle, 1996; Bobo, 1988; Brin- Therefore, contemporary Hollywood son, 1995; Hall, 1981). Indeed Hall films continue to both perpetuate racist (1981) argues that the “traces” of the stereotypes and to appropriate the work media’s historic negative stereotypes and talent of African Americans with- of African Americans still exist (p. 41). out providing a means for black Ameri- West (1994) points out that Malcolm X cans to represent themselves. believed that African Americans “must Lee is concerned about the portrayal no longer view themselves through of African Americans in film. Ebert white lenses” (p. 137). Malcolm X (1992) explains, “Spike Lee is not only wanted African Americans to reject one of the best directors in America, the white stereotypes and to concen- but one of the most important, because trate instead on a positive view of them- he addresses the central subject of race. selves. Malcolm X feared that as long He doesn’t use sentimentality or politi- as African Americans viewed them- cal cliches, but shows how his charac- selves through a white American per- ters live and why” (p. 10). Lee feels spective they would be unable to there is an urgent demand—“there is a achieve their goals of equality. desperate need in the market place for Public figures and intellectuals have black product. Black people are dying remarked upon the importance of Lee’s to see themselves portrayed realisti- perspective. Van Peebles (1991), an Afri- cally. Nobody is doing that type of can American filmmaker celebrated the film” (Lee quoted in Sharkey, 1989, p. release of Spike Lee’s fifth feature film, 25). Tate (1989) echoes that sentiment: Jungle Fever, because he had been: “to a whole lot of black folk Spike is...acause celebre...theonly film- grieving over us African Americans in the maker with access to the Hollywood entertainment/communication media (es- distribution system who puts real Afri- pecially filmmaking wise) [for] not having can American people on screen” (p. any significant say in the way we were 80). Furthermore, Lee does not avoid being portrayed, and not being able to project OUR OWN images ourselves, controversial material in his films and OUR OWN interpretations of reality. (A often incorporates other black voices crucial link in maintaining our heritage, that also speak to racial inequality. Rod- and a key element to our present and man (1994) gives one example from future survival as a People). (p. 6) popular music: Rhodes (1993) explains the legacy of “Fight the Power” is nothing less than a call the media is a “struggle between the to arms, made by the most outspoken and transmission of racist ideology and militant rap group in contemporary popu- dogma, and the efforts of oppressed lar music, against the ideas, institutions, and practices that maintain the political, groups to claim control over their own social, economic, and cultural inequalities image” (p. 185). From this historical between whites and Blacks in the [United perspective, the racist patterns of the States] today. The song served as the cen- past replicate themselves through each terpiece of Do The Right Thing (1989), Spike generation of media producers. Rhodes Lee’s critically acclaimed film depicting (1993) concludes, “today, the cultural twenty-four hours of racial tension in a 457

CSMC WINN predominantly Black Brooklyn neighbor- Afrocentric Perspective in hood. (p. 468) Malcolm X Zook (1992) explains that “rap- Lee’s film adds its voice to the possi- . . . forms part of a larger conduit of bilities for enlarging the discussion from culturally specific...intercommunica- which an “American dream of equal- tion among blacks. It is ‘cross-medial’ ity” might be forged (Condit & Lucai- in the sense that the various media tes, 1993). Likewise, the film also en- such as television, music, film, and ters into the struggle over portrayals video speak to and through one an- and perspectives of African Americans other” (p. 261). Therefore, these ex- in the United States, particularly Afro- amples show how Lee has been able to centric world views. As Gray (1993) present representations of African explains: Americans that challenge the traditional negative stereotypes. Afrocentric perspectives and nationalistic Many whites might find these chal- constructions of identity are increasingly lenges threatening. Rose (1994) sug- attractive to various sectors of the Black gests that these perceived threats may community. For an increasing number of create a fear of a black perspective Blacks these perspectives serve as compel- that radically challenges the conven- ling guides for action, as utopian visions of possibility, and as ways of making sense of tional media portrayals of African the world and their experience of it. (p. Americans. In other words, strong 365) black voices and perspectives in rap music, films, and hip hop culture may In the social constructivist tradition, cause a fear of a black media culture. James (1994) resolves “the construc- Perhaps this type of fear is analogous tion of personal identity...isadialec- to the fear many had of Malcolm X tic between the self and the culture in and what he represented. West (1994) which it evolves” (p. 43). That culture explains one possible reason for this involves many socializing individuals fear, “Malcolm X...looked fero- and institutions including the mass me- cious white racism in the eye...and dia. A lack of positive representations lived long enough to tell American of African Americans and the exces- the truth about this glaring hypocrisy sive use of stereotypes in the mass in a bold and defiant manner” (p. media has long concerned the African 151). However, large conglomerates American community. routinely benefit financially from the Afrocentric perspectives vary (As- creative products of “radical” black ante, 1988; 1993; Dyson, 1993; West, perspectives (e. g., the financial suc- 1994) but there is little doubt that Mal- cess of the popular music genre Gang- colm X’s adherence to black national- sta Rap). This evidence points to Lee ism was a separatist Afrocentric belief as a filmmaker with a desire to present that he held until his split with the a radical black perspective. Yet, he Nation of Islam. A large part of the receives criticism from African film Malcolm X takes place during his Americans who feel his perspective is time as a separatist and, therefore, rep- too compromising. Therefore, an resents his separatist beliefs. After his analysis of Malcolm X is required to break with the Nation of Islam his investigate Lee’s cinematic perspec- subsequent view, although no longer tive. separatist, can still be seen as Afrocen- 458

CHALLENGES & COMPROMISES DECEMBER 2001 tric in its rejection of a Eurocentric Malcolm X and Malcolm X view of African Americans. Terrill (2000) argues that Malcolm X The movie is a visually compelling, defined his new Afrocentric position in three hour adaptation of The Autobiogra- The Rochester Address speech given less phy of Malcolm X. Malcolm X (1965) than a week before his assassination. once said he believed people would Terrill (2000) explains: better understand his message if they could understand his life experiences. Malcolm is not advocating separat- This type of understanding is a focal ism....Hedoes not want his audience to point of Lee’s film. Malcolm X’s life is abandon their claim to the rights and privi- depicted from his very early memories leges of full American citizenship, and this to his assassination in the Audubon is an important difference between much Ballroom from his perspective. The of his rhetoric while a minister of the Na- subjectivity of this film makes it an tion of Islam and that during his last year. important tool in representing Mal- Malcolm’s focus here is on helping his colm X because he gives his reasons audience to develop alternative visions of their problems within the [American] scene. for his actions and words. Malcolm X (p. 72) believed his messages were often mis- understood because they were misinter- Therefore, Terrill (2000) argues that preted by a racist media. Spike Lee’s Malcolm conceives of a space in-be- cinematic treatment presents the events tween separatism from white America of Malcolm X’s life from a sympathetic and assimilation with white America. perspective based on Malcolm X’s au- “The most productive site of potential tobiography. emancipation then,” contends Terrill, “would be at the border between these The Early Life of Malcolm Little two scenes, where Malcolm and his audience might avoid the limitations The filmic narrative is constituted to and exploit the benefits of both” (2000, tell both the story of Malcolm X’s life p. 74). The film Malcolm X also follows and to demonstrate visually his per- this reasoning. The ending of the life- spective. This juxtaposition of images narrative combined with the prologue and events visually makes these con- and epilogue successfully places Mal- nections. The retelling of Malcolm X’s colm X in-between black nationalism life begins with his adolescence; his and assimilation, and this is the most childhood is revealed in flashbacks in- advantageous and appealing position. terspersed throughout the film. In this Terrill points out, “Malcolm’s rhetoric manner, we experience his father’s continues to resonate [because] murder by Klansmen who opposed his . . . many African Americans may find separatist preaching, the subsequent themselves in a position similar to that breakup of his family by the state, and which he occupied and see his rhetoric his placement in a foster home. We see as offering a viable model for confront- that Malcolm Little attended an all- ing that situation” (p. 79). Therefore, white school where he had the highest both Malcolm X and Lee’s film present grades and was elected class president. an Afrocentric perspective that works We are shown Malcolm fulfilling his the borders between separatism and part of the white American Dream: assimilation in order to benefit from working hard, getting an education, both. and doing his best. This exposition 459

CSMC WINN underscores Malcolm X’s later belief in similar feelings. This scene stands in the falseness of the “American Dream” stark contrast to scenes in films such as for African Americans. Instead of being Griffith’s 1915 Birth of a Nation, in able to continue with his dream of be- which the KKK is shown as protecting coming a lawyer, the audience is shown innocent whites from marauding Malcolm Little being told by his white blacks. In Malcolm X the Klan is a teacher that a lawyer is an unrealistic cowardly congregation of whites hid- goal because he is black. The teacher ing behind sheets. Earl is the good suggests he should become a carpenter father, a brave and moral man, and instead. His teacher tells him to remem- unafraid to stand up for his family and ber that nothing succeeds like success, himself. but bigotry denies Little his chance to succeed. These segments visually highlight the reasons for Malcolm X’s early Malcolm Little’s Criminal Life separatist beliefs. The audience is shown that white intolerance allows blacks to Malcolm X’s life as a criminal shows become laborers but not lawyers. the destructiveness of the lifestyle, the One particularly telling scene is a damaging effects of drug use in the African American community, as well flashback to Malcolm X’s early child- as the destructiveness of gambling on hood. At his family’s home in Lansing, the fragile economy of the urban ghetto. Michigan, members of the KKK have The words of Malcolm X speak to the come in the night to frighten his father, audience, “we were all victims of the Earl, and stop his preaching of Marcus American social order.” These scenes Garvey’s separatist message. The Klan illustrate Malcolm’s hatred for the white members torch the Little’s home, and social order he saw forcing African the family must flee and confront their Americans into lives of crime and drug mounted attackers. The white leader abuse. states, “Boy, good thing we’re good During this period Malcolm Little Christians. Nigger, it’s time for you to joins with a successful criminal known leave town. Boy, next time you’re a as West Indian Archie. These scenes dead nigger.” Earl Little does not cower are an injunction against the white so- or show fear, but instead takes out a cio-economic system that forced Afri- pistol and says “I ain’t a boy. I’m a can Americans into a life of crime. Lee man, and a real man don’t hide behind voices Malcolm X’s words over a scene no bedsheets.” Earl shoots above their of Malcolm Little as he escapes New heads, sending them riding off. His York and travels to Boston after a con- wife, Louise, remarks that she knows frontation with Archie, “cats that might he could have killed them, but Earl have probed space or cured cancer— responds that his only wish was to (Hell, Archie might have been a math- frighten them away. In the script for ematical genius)—all victims of whit- the movie, this scene ends with a stage ey’s social order.” In this way a criminal direction which states “young Mal- existence is not suggested as a desir- colm stares at his father...no doubt able lifestyle; yet, it does portray black drawing on the great courage dis- outlaws as intelligent people. They played” (Lee & Wiley, 1992, p. 213). seem forced into a life of lawlessness Likewise, the audience is afforded the because they have been denied the opportunity to read this encounter with opportunity to succeed in mainstream 460

CHALLENGES & COMPROMISES DECEMBER 2001 society. This perspective differs from truth to his face—a rejection of the “slave the stereotypical black criminal of mentality” and an embracing of black many media portrayals. As Rose (1994) nationalism. points out, the media often construct Baines is the key figure in Malcolm’s young black Americans as dangerous. conversion. He approaches Malcolm This “Gangsta” stereotype is prevalent because he believes that he will be in films, television dramas, and reality receptive to the religious teachings of based police programs that repeatedly Elijah Muhammad. Malcolm Little is show African Americans as drug deal- converted and changes his name to ing, ruthless, and violent criminals but Malcolm X, thus rejecting any white not as people forced into lives of crime surnames. The last scenes of the prison by a bigoted social system. segment show Malcolm X, studying, teaching, and writing. He demonstrates his skilled mastery of language. His Malcolm Little’s Prison Conversion decorum and appearance have taken on a dignified air. Lee has set the ac- Malcolm Little is arrested and tion for Minister Malcolm X to be- harshly sentenced for his crimes. The come a strong, self-assured, intelligent, sentencing is shown as a result of rac- political activist in the United States. ism as two white accomplices get much lighter sentences for the same offense. The prison segment’s focus is Mal- Minister Malcolm X colm’s conversion to the Nation of Is- lam by another inmate, Baines. In the After his release from prison, Mal- beginning, Malcolm is shown as a hard colm becomes a minister of the Nation case prisoner who is put in solitary of Islam. “We didn’t land on Plymouth confinement for more than 20 days Rock, Plymouth Rock landed on us”— because he refused to say his identifica- this section of the film opens as Mal- tion number when ordered by a white colm X speaks to a group as a minister guard. The punishment is inhumanly of the Nation of Islam. It tracks his harsh. Slowly, Malcolm is broken by activities and speeches as he sets up the emotional and physical stress of several temples throughout the coun- being locked in a small box. These try and is named the Minister of Infor- scenes show the white guards as brutal mation for the Nation of Islam. Mal- torturers and further the movie’s theme colm’s popularity grows as he brings of racial injustice. his message to the people in many Malcolm’s conversion to the teach- speeches and appearances. ings of the Nation of Islam is revealed Eventually, however, he is forced in conjunction with his realization that out of the Nation of Islam. As Wiley many of the problems of the African (1992) explains, the ousting was possi- American community are a result of bly because of his popularity and his the “slave mentality,” the belief that own ego. Malcolm X was asking ques- white Americans are naturally supe- tions about Elijah’s personal life and rior to African Americans. After his was appalled with the answers. Mal- conversion, Malcolm X writes Elijah colm also made a controversial remark Muhammad, the leader of the Nation in response to a question about the of Islam, stating that he is dedicating assassination of President John F. his life to telling the white devil the Kennedy after Elijah had ordered that 461

CSMC WINN no one should comment on the popu- plined, and able to lead the fight against lar president’s death. As Malcolm X racism in the United States. This por- recalls: trayal is carried out by means of the narrative, the use of Malcolm X’s The title of my speech was “God’s Judge- speeches and the intercutting of actual ment of White America.” It was on the footage with the dramatic material. theme...of “as you sow, so shall you reap,” or how the hypocritical American Moreover, the film presents Malcolm white man was reaping what he had X’s speeches to drive home the point sowed...[In] the question and answer pe- that white America is still responsible riod...Isaid what I honestly felt—that it for many of the problems faced by was...a case of “the chickens coming African Americans. To illustrate, we home to roost.” (1965, p. 301) hear his words: “you can’t even get drugs in Harlem without the white As a result of this remark Elijah si- man’s permission. You can’t get prosti- lenced Malcolm X for ninety days, but tution in Harlem without the white Malcolm felt that this sanction was only man’s permission. You can’t get gam- the beginning of the trouble between bling in Harlem without the white him and the Nation of Islam. For ex- man’s permission,” voiced over scenes ample, one of Malcolm’s brothers, Phil- of these crimes. bert, was made to read a public state- In one of the film’s most stirring ment denouncing him, and many felt scenes, the nonviolent use of strength that the leadership wanted Malcolm is displayed as Malcolm and a group of killed (Bagwell, 1993). All this lead Malcolm to believe that the Nation temple members go to a police pre- was trying to stop his ministry. Mal- cinct to investigate the condition of a colm explains, “I knew when I was man who had been beaten by the po- being set up” (1965, p. 302). In fact, lice. Malcolm finds the man in need of Malcolm stated, “I’m probably a dead medical assistance and orders the po- man already” (Bagwell, 1993). As Wiley lice to call an ambulance. The police (1992) concludes the result of all these are fearful that the incident will incite a factors were that Elijah silenced Mal- riot, but Malcolm proves that he is colm X and “may have secretly called peaceful and has control over the well for his murder” (p. 92). disciplined men by marching his men This segment of the film also por- to the hospital and stationing them trays a change in his beliefs concerning outside until he is assured that the man racial brotherhood and the broader will receive proper care. Civil Rights movement. The change is Much of the power of this segment primarily due to Malcolm’s pilgrimage results from the effective use of Mal- to Mecca where he witnessed Muslims colm X’s speeches voiced over images of all colors worshiping together. These that verify his words. As he discusses depictions suggest that Malcolm X had the crimes of white America on the changed by no longer accepting a sepa- African American community, scenes ratist belief. Therefore, the film re- of well dressed white men with black frames him as a leader ready to join the prostitutes are shown. As scenes of broader Civil Rights movement. white violence against African Ameri- Throughout this section Malcolm X, cans are shown in a montage, his words his followers, and assistants are shown defend his stance, “this isn’t black su- as intelligent, morally upright, disci- premacy this is black intelligence.” 462

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Over the television footage of the po- montage of Black Power demonstra- lice violence in Birmingham, Alabama, tions as Malcolm’s eulogy is read. Some he says, “black people in this country of the important present day leaders of have been the victims of violence at the international Civil Rights move- the hands of the American white man ment are shown in a statement of soli- for 400 years.” Over the television cov- darity with Malcolm X. erage of the church bombing in Ala- Likewise, the film opens with the vid- bama, he explains, “the right to defend eotaped footage of the Rodney King ourselves is not teaching us to hate the beating by Los Angeles police and the white man he [Muhammad] is teach- sound of a crowd chanting “we want ing us to love ourselves.” The portrayal justice!” as background to the words of of African Americans in this section is Malcolm X accusing white America of one of intelligent, resourceful, self- four centuries of crime against African assured, men and women actively Americans. This scene establishes the working against a racist white society overall theme of the film. The audience in pursuit of the equality guaranteed is confronted with graphic visuals and by the United States Constitution. stirring audio that the fight for Civil These portrayals are in opposition to Rights is not over in America. As Rod- the stereotypes of African Americans ney King is beaten in slow motion, the as ignorant and lawless—negative por- words of Malcolm X proclaim, “we’ve trayals that have been personified in never seen democracy; all we’ve seen is characters such as Prissy, as ignorant hypocrisy. We don’t see any American servant, in Gone With the Wind to more Dream; we’ve experienced only the recent films that portray young black American nightmare.” This prologue vi- men as gang members such as Menace sually argues that African Americans are II Society (1993) and 1992’s South Cen- still the victims of white violence and an tral (Bogle, 1996; McKelly, 1998). As unjustly biased system. Gray (1989) explains, “ideologically, The prologue and epilogue work to representations of under class failure link the past events in the film to the still appeal and contribute to the no- present day. They show the impor- tion of the black poor as menacing and tance of Malcolm X’s ideas, work, and threatening, especially to members of words to the ongoing struggle for equal- the white middle class” (p. 385). There- ity in the United States. They also pro- fore, Lee’s film does present a stark vide a means for present day audiences contrast to Hollywood’s stereotypes by to identify with Malcolm X and his showing these men and women as struggles. The message of the film is hardworking, intelligent, and dedi- not just one of an interesting historical cated to nonviolent social reform. case study, but one of an ongoing discourse that is as relevant now as it was when Malcolm X lived. The Movie’s Prologue & Epilogue The final moments of Malcolm X are Backlash: Criticism of Lee’s an epilogue designed to clearly con- Malcolm X nect Malcolm X to the mainstream Civil Rights movement and its re- As demonstrated, Lee’s film offers a spected members particularly Nelson media construction of African Ameri- Mandela. The epilogue begins with a cans that is often in opposition to tradi- 463

CSMC WINN tional racist Hollywood stereotypes. (1996, four years after Malcolm X). Liter- Further, it presents a view of white ally, hooks (1996) states, “up to a point society that is more critical than com- he has played the game and made it, mon media portrayals. It is an impor- doing more feature films than any other tant cultural event that allows for a black director to date...Girl 6 is his black perspective that challenges a gesture of resistance....Working dominant view that has been racist against the requirements of Holly- throughout the cultural history of wood” (p. 18). As these critics point American film (Hall, 1981; Rhodes, out, Lee’s film parcels Malcolm X as a 1993). Yet, Lee’s film has also suffered less volatile, less radical figure and in criticism for being too politically safe, doing so makes him more acceptable mainstream, and commercial. These for a mainstream commercial film. criticisms demonstrate that it does not Malcolm X is a conventional film in stand as a completely defiant challenge many ways. Bogle (1996) explains the to the Hollywood system. Dyson (1995) film makes moves toward a commer- explains that even though Lee is “often cialization of Malcolm X and his mes- been perceived in the white media as a sage as Lee avoids some of Malcolm hothead filmmaker and racial fire- X’s more polemic comments. The re- brand, [he] became in the eyes of many sult is, in many ways, a popular main- the vehicle for the mass production stream type film rather than radical and dilution of Malcolm X as an accept- counter-filmmaking. This point is also able, easily packaged, and even chic made by Dyson (1995) who explains commodity” (p. 132). Similarly, Bogle that Lee’s film attempts to sell Mal- (1996) points out that it is ironic that colm X and the X phenomenon dem- “rebel filmmaker” Lee chose “a fiery onstrates that Lee did, indeed, succeed unconventional leader...[for] his most in bringing Malcolm X to the attention conventional film...[and that] Lee’s of a new generation of Americans. Of detractors...criticized him for failing course, as Grey (1989) reveals, the to make a political film” (p. 353). These meaning of a text is not fixed and opposing views are precisely the rea- viewers understand them and will use son for looking at Malcolm X as a text to them in different ways. However, be- gain insight into media culture portray- cause the media terrain is contested, als. Dyson (1995) explains: “the representations of race and racial Although Lee’s Malcolm is more subdued, interaction...reveal both the elements even softer, than many had wished—pos- of the dominant racial ideology as well sessed less by strident rage than by hard- as the limits to that ideology” (Gray, won wisdom—he survives the Hollywood 1989, p. 377). Therefore, Lee’s film is machinery and remains a provocative, able to both challenge Hollywood’s valuable figure. Still, Lee’s Malcolm speaks racist ideological legacy and remain a rhetoric that is a far cry from the volatile, viable commercial movie. incendiary talk that the police and govern- Therefore, Lee’s Malcolm X is consid- ment feared would be spewed by Mal- colm’s character and that would incite riots ered both a film that offers a divergent in theaters on opening night. (p. 141) view and a challenge to existing media portrayals of black experience and the Indeed, hooks (1996) suggests that Lee life of Malcolm X and a film that oper- does not make a serious move away ates within and according to a main- from the mainstream until his Girl 6 stream Hollywood system. Because of 464

CHALLENGES & COMPROMISES DECEMBER 2001 these disparate views, Malcolm X is a a focus on improving media literacy by valuable text for insight into media aiding the viewer in understanding the culture and its ideological work. social discourse surrounding a medi- Furthermore, Rapping (1987) points ated racist ideology and the ongoing out that change transpires because he- cultural work of social equality in the gemony “allows for new, divergent atti- United States. The study of society tudes to become legitimate and for and the media must include texts that limited changes in social practice and elucidate the importance of diver- belief to occur” (p. 14). From this posi- gent views because “dominant power tion, a filmic text such as Malcolm X can relations of race, class, and gender, shed needed insight into the “social and sexual preference are repro- and psychological conflicts that remain duced...inpopular film and televi- unresolved” because of the “messy sion” (Sholle, 1994, p. 16). In the business” of “cultural ‘progress’ ” continuing struggle over media repre- (Lears, 1983, p. 5). The relevance of sentation, Lee’s motion picture is an this work lies in its contribution to the instrument of media politics, contro- discussion of media perspectives with versy, and commercialization. References

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