Network-oriented public transport planning in medium and small New Zealand cities Jack Cowie A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Planning at the University of Otago, Ōtepoti Dunedin, Aotearoa New Zealand 16 December 2020 Abstract Transport planning has traditionally used a reactive “predict and provide” model in which the main role of public transport (PT) is to move rush-hour commuters to and from the CBDs of large, dense cities. Beyond this, PT is only needed as a “lifeline” service for those unable to access private travel. Contrary to these assumptions, network-oriented planning argues that high-quality, connective PT networks can leverage network effects to serve diverse travel needs and compete with the private car. In New Zealand, free-market thinking has made network-oriented approaches difficult to implement, but a series of reforms in the last 10–20 years have encouraged network- oriented planning. These reforms were driven by the needs of Auckland and Wellington, but the experiences of other cities under these reforms have drawn little attention. This thesis utilises qualitative methods to investigate changes to PT, often involving elements of network-oriented planning, in small and medium New Zealand cities. This centres on eight key informant interviews and the case study of Dunedin, whose bus network has been reformed along network-oriented lines. Findings are focused on the future of PT in New Zealand, especially outside of the largest three cities. Reforms at a national level are regarded as successful despite some controversy over elements of the Public Transport Operating Model (PTOM). Although some commentators have called for responsibilities for PT to be moved from regional councils to city councils, this is not supported due to the importance of achieving economies of scale, especially around efficient use of limited professional expertise. The importance of economies of scale is demonstrated by a positive trend in recent years of increased collaboration between councils around the country. This is not to say the current governance arrangements are satisfactory; there may be a place for some PT functions to be centralised, and/or more specialised regional transport bodies. For small and medium cities especially, the challenges of serving schoolchildren with PT proves to be a complex issue; it is important that a network-oriented framework is not used too dogmatically to prevent solutions that are sensitive to actual local needs, which vary heavily from place to place. Although factors such as the size of a city, its urban form, or market forces have an impact, this thesis argues that the success or failure of PT in a city is ultimately within the control i of decision-makers. Given this, network-oriented planning is a key element of the joined- up, integrated thinking needed to turn good intentions into results. ii Dedication I dedicate my research to the memory of my dad, who I miss. Acknowledgements To Ash, my supervisor: thank you for asking difficult questions of me, for valuable feedback, for trusting my judgement. Thank you also for your tremendous stewardship of the MPlan program through the trials of 2020; we all see how much of yourself you put into your work and your students, and you have our love and appreciation for every bit of it. To my informants: thank you for freely giving me your time even when the world was turned upside down by a pandemic; for the warm, open manner in which you engaged with me; for the clarity of your answers; and for your professionalism and dedication to public transport. To Claire, Michelle, and the rest of the academic and support staff of the School of Geography, thank you for all you do and thank you for all the great conversations I’ve had. I must give special acknowledgement to the brief time I knew Christine Bradshaw. Her guidance when I was new to the School made for a wonderful introduction to this corner of the University, and her loss was felt in every office. To my MPlan cohort; Alex, Kelsey, Joanne, Josh, Livi, Liz, Rory, Vyvienne, and Zac: thank you for your friendship; your unconditional affirmation, positivity, and collective support; your much-needed distractions and silliness. Thank you also to those in the previous and next MPlan cohorts, especially those in my PLAN435/535 groups these last two years; and thank you to the rest of the Geography postgrads for the times we’ve shared. To Genevieve, my partner: thank you for your support, for your loyalty, for your wise counsel, for your patience when my mind runs off in its strange circles, and for your love. To Mum, to my siblings Mike and Bridget, and to my extended family: thank you for your support, for your interest, for your presence in my life especially given the challenges we have all faced in the past couple of years. Particular thanks to Mike for his encouragement when I was forming the idea of taking this new path in my life. Finally, a broad thank you to everyone else who’s been part of my life in the past year. iv Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ i Dedication .................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... v List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xii List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. xiii Key Terms ................................................................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................. 1 1.1 Why does public transport matter? ............................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Cities, mobility, and public transport ..................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Benefits of PT .......................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Basis of research ........................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Personal experiences .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 Network-oriented planning .................................................................................................... 3 1.2.3 Changing PT in New Zealand ................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 4 1.4 Research questions ....................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Thesis structure ............................................................................................................ 5 Chapter 2: Literature review ...................................................................... 7 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Post-war PT decline ...................................................................................................... 7 v 2.3 The inadequate response .............................................................................................. 9 2.3.1 Example: Public transport and gender .................................................................................. 9 2.4 Network-oriented planning ......................................................................................... 11 2.4.1 Outline of varying terminology ............................................................................................. 11 2.4.2 Defining network-oriented planning .................................................................................... 12 2.5 Network-oriented planning in practice ........................................................................ 14 2.5.1 Mode-neutral outlook on PT technology .............................................................................. 14 2.5.2 Emphasis of supply over demand ......................................................................................... 14 2.5.3 Network topologies ................................................................................................................ 15 2.5.4 Emphasis on frequencies ....................................................................................................... 15 2.5.5 “One section, one line” principle ........................................................................................... 17 2.5.6 Avoidance of detours and circuitous routes ......................................................................... 17