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Spacecraft Dynamics and Control Spacecraft Dynamics and Control Matthew M. Peet Lecture 8: Impulsive Orbital Maneuvers Introduction In this Lecture, you will learn: Coplanar Orbital Maneuvers • Impulsive Maneuvers I ∆v • Single Burn Maneuvers • Hohmann transfers I Elliptic I Circular Numerical Problem: Suppose we are in a circular parking orbit at an altitude of 191.34km and we want to raise our altitude to 35,781km. Describe the required orbital maneuvers (time and ∆v). M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 2 / 25 Changing Orbits Suppose we have designed our ideal orbit. • We have chosen ad, ed, id, Ωd, !d • We are currently in orbit a0, e0, i0, Ω0, !0 I Determined from current position ~r and velocity ~v. Question: • How to get from current orbit to desired orbit? • What tools can we use? • What are the constraints? Unchanged, the object will remain in initial orbit indefinitely. M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 3 / 25 Lecture 8 Changing Orbits Suppose we have designed our ideal orbit. • Spacecraft Dynamics We have chosen ad, ed, id, Ωd, !d • We are currently in orbit a0, e0, i0, Ω0, !0 I Determined from current position ~r and velocity ~v. Question: • How to get from current orbit to desired Changing Orbits orbit? • What tools can we use? • What are the constraints? Unchanged, the object will remain in initial orbit indefinitely. 2021-03-03 For now, we don't care about f (time) { Lambert's Problem { Can correct using phasing Don't care about efficiency true anomaly (f) determines phasing within the orbit and is easily altered post-insertion. How to create a ∆v ∆v is our tool for changing orbits Velocity change is caused by thrust. • For constant thrust, F , F v(t) = v(0) + ∆t m • for a desired ∆v, the time needed is m∆v ∆t = F We assume ∆t and ∆~r are negligible for a ∆v. • No continuous thrust transfers • Although these are increasingly important. The change in position is m∆v2 ∆~r(t) = 2F M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 4 / 25 How to create a ∆v Lecture 8 ∆v is our tool for changing orbits Velocity change is caused by thrust. • For constant thrust, F , Spacecraft Dynamics F v(t) = v(0) + ∆t m • for a desired ∆v, the time needed is m∆v ∆t = F How to create a ∆v We assume ∆t and ∆~r are negligible for a ∆v. • No continuous thrust transfers • Although these are increasingly important. 2021-03-03 The change in position is m∆v2 ∆~r(t) = 2F m For fixed ∆v, if F is small, the ∆~r is small We will assume ∆~r = 0 F v(t) = v(0) + t m so m t = ∆v F Now, F r(t) = r(0) + v(0)t + t2 2m F m2 ∆r = v(0)t + ∆v2 2m F 2 m ∆v2 m ∆v2 m = v(0)∆v + = v(0)∆v + F 2 F 2 F However, we can ignore the v(0) if we are considering deviation from a nominal path. ∆V moves the vacant focus of the orbit Orbit maneuvers are made through changes in velocity. • ~r and ~v determine orbital elements. • Our first constraint is continuity. I New orbit must also pass through ~r. I Cannot jump from one orbit to another instantly I If the current and target orbit don't intersect, a transfer orbit is required. M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 5 / 25 ∆V moves the vacant focus of the orbit Lecture 8 Orbit maneuvers are made through changes in velocity. Spacecraft Dynamics ∆V moves the vacant focus of the orbit • ~r and ~v determine orbital elements. • Our first constraint is continuity. 2021-03-03 I New orbit must also pass through ~r. I Cannot jump from one orbit to another instantly I If the current and target orbit don't intersect, a transfer orbit is required. Equations involving velocity r µ vc = circular orbit rc s 2 1 v = µ − vis-viva r a s µ 1 + e v = periapse velocity p a 1 − e s µ 1 − e v = apoapse velocity a a 1 + e r 2µ v = escape velocity esc r 2 µ 3 − h (cos Ω (sin(! + f) + e sin !) + sin Ω (cos(! + f) + e cos !) cos i) µ ~v = 4− h (sin Ω (sin(! + f) + e sin !) − cos Ω (cos(! + f) + e cos !) cos i)5 µ h (cos(! + f) + e cos !) sin i What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver? ∆v refers to the difference between the initial and final velocity vectors. A ∆v maneuver can: • Raise/lower the apogee/perigee • A change in inclination • Escape • Reduction/Increase in period • Change in RAAN • Begin a 2+ maneuver sequence of burns. I Creates a Transfer Orbit. We'll start by talking about coplanar maneuvers. M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 6 / 25 Lecture 8 What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver? ∆v refers to the difference between the initial and final velocity vectors. Spacecraft Dynamics A ∆v maneuver can: • Raise/lower the apogee/perigee • A change in inclination • Escape • Reduction/Increase in period • Change in RAAN • Begin a 2+ maneuver sequence of What can we do with a ∆v Maneuver? burns. I Creates a Transfer Orbit. 2021-03-03 We'll start by talking about coplanar maneuvers. Raise/lower the apogee/perigee is performed at perigee/apogee A change in inclination is usually performed at the equatorial plane (any inclination achievable from this point). Small changes in period help with phase changes f(t). Change in RAAN should be done as far from equatorial plane as possible. Single Burn Coplanar Maneuvers Apogee or Perigee raising or lowering. Definition 1. Coplanar Maneuvers are those which do not alter i or Ω. Example: Simple Tangential Burn • For maximum efficiency, a burn must occur at 0◦ flight path angle I r_ = 0 • Tangential burns can occur at perigee and apogee M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 7 / 25 Single Burn Coplanar Maneuvers Lecture 8 Apogee or Perigee raising or lowering. Definition 1. Spacecraft Dynamics Coplanar Maneuvers are those which do not alter i or Ω. Single Burn Coplanar Maneuvers Example: Simple Tangential Burn 2021-03-03 • For maximum efficiency, a burn must occur at 0◦ flight path angle I r_ = 0 • Tangential burns can occur at perigee and apogee ◦ We will explain why we want \FPA = 0 in Lecture 9, when we discuss the Oberth effect. Example: Insertion into a Parking Orbit A perigee raising maneuver Suppose we launch from the surface of the earth. • This creates an initial elliptic orbit which will re-enter. • To circularize the orbit, we plan on using a burn at apogee. Problem: We are given a and e of the initial elliptic orbit. Calculate the ∆v required at apogee to circularize the orbit. M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 8 / 25 Example: Insertion into a Parking Orbit A perigee raising maneuver Calculating the ∆v: To raise the perigee, we burn at apogee. At apogee, we have that ra0 = a0(1 + e0) From the vis-viva equation, we can calculate the velocity at apogee. s s 2 1 µ 1 − e0 va0 = µ − = ra0 a0 a0 1 + e0 Our target orbit is circular with radius rd = ad = ra0 . The velocity of the target orbit is constant at r µ r µ vc = = ra a(1 + e) Therefore, the ∆v required to circularize the orbit is s r µ µ 1 − e0 ∆v = vc − va0 = − a0(1 + e0) a0 1 + e0 • It is unusual to launch directly into the desired orbit. Instead we use the parking orbit while waiting for more complicated orbital maneuvers. M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 9 / 25 Given a Desired Transfer Orbit How to calculate the ∆v's? Lets generalize the parking orbit example to the case of a transfer orbit. Definition 2. • The Initial Orbit is the orbit we want to leave. • The Target Orbit is the orbit we want to achieve. • The Transfer Orbit is an orbit which intersects both the initial orbit and target orbit. Step 1: Design a transfer orbit - a; e; i; !; Ω; f Step 2: Calculate ~vtr;1 at the point of intersection with initial orbit. Step 3: Calculate initial burn to maneuver into transfer orbit. ∆v1 = ~vtr;1 − ~vinit M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 10 / 25 Given a Desired Transfer Orbit Lecture 8 How to calculate the ∆v's? Lets generalize the parking orbit example to the case of a transfer orbit. Definition 2. Spacecraft Dynamics • The Initial Orbit is the orbit we want to leave. • The Target Orbit is the orbit we want to achieve. • The Transfer Orbit is an orbit which intersects both the initial orbit and target orbit. Step 1: Design a transfer orbit - a; e; i; !; Ω; f Given a Desired Transfer Orbit Step 2: Calculate ~vtr;1 at the point of intersection with initial orbit. Step 3: Calculate initial burn to maneuver into transfer orbit. 2021-03-03 ∆v1 = ~vtr;1 − ~vinit Note that in the illustration, the transfer orbit is not a Hohman transfer, which is the most common type of transfer orbit. Step 1 may be VERY HARD because you may not know what ftr will be in your transfer orbit! Coplanar Two-Impulse Orbit Transfers Step 4: Calculate ~vtr;2 at the point of intersection with target orbit. Step 5: Calculate velocity of the target orbit, ~vfin, at the point of intersection with transfer orbit. Step 6: Calculate the final burn to maneuver into target orbit. ∆v2 = ~vfin − ~vtr;2 M. Peet Lecture 8: Spacecraft Dynamics 11 / 25 Lecture 8 Coplanar Two-Impulse Orbit Transfers Spacecraft Dynamics Coplanar Two-Impulse Orbit Transfers Step 4: Calculate ~vtr;2 at the point of intersection with target orbit.
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