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THE AUTHOR BARBARA E. HARRELL-BOND is a the Afrika-Studiecentrum, Leiden. Ap- social anthropologist who hasconducted pointed a Senior Research Fellow at the research in England and in West Africa. School of Law, University of Warwick, in Her special interests are family, urban 1976, Dr. Harrell-Bond joined the Field problems, law, and the history of the im- Staff in I978 to report on West Africa. position of alien law in colonial Africa. She received a B. Litt. and D. Phil. in anthropology from the University of Oxford. Her publications include Modern Marriage in Sierra Leone: A Study of the Professional Group and Community Leadership and the Transformation of Freetown (1801-1976), the latter being co-researched and written with two historians, Dr. Allan Howard and Dr. David Skinner. She has also published widely in academic journals, lectured in a number of universities including the Uni- versity of Illinois (Urbana), the University 0 1978, American Universities Field of Helsinki, and the University of Warsaw, and was a Visiting Scholar at Staff, Hanover, NH 19781No. 19 by Barbara Harrell-Bond "A Window on an Outside Africa [BHB-1-'781 World": Tourism as Develop- ment in the Gambia

Although the term development is Unfortunately, however, it would concomitant with the decision rarely defined, it is ubiquitous in the appear that other development pro- which put several hundred railway literature on the so-called Third grams fail to benefit the recipients employees out of work, it is not pos- World. There is a widespread pre- (however benefit is defined) for sible to estimate the economic and sumption that any project which is reasons which would appear to be social costs which have been, and described as development will be of less innocent or n81ve. Most agricul- continue to be, suffered by all those positive benefit to those among tural programs promote the use of individuals and communities whom it is implemented. At the same chemical pesticides and fertilizers. affected by this imposed policy. The time, however, there is a growing Loans are made in the name of agri- loans for road construction have pro- realization, at least in some quarters, cultural development for the pur- vided employment, but these oppor- that many of the development pro- chase of products which are in sur- tunities have been largely limited to grams which have been promoted by plus and therefore cheap because laborers. The contracts for building international agencies and various their use has now been restricted in the roads have been awarded mainly donor countries have had unan- those Western countries which pro- to foreign companies. Since the ticipated deleterious social, eco- duce them.2 These invidious prac- railway has all but been eliminated, nomic, and ecological conse- tices are continued despite the well- the demand for vehicles and spare quences. It is now widely recognized, documented long-term dangers to parts which are not produced in for example, that the emphasis upon both the population and the ecology. Sierra Leone has greatly increased. It the mechanization of agriculture has is at least debatable whether such a tended to push women out of There are other examples of develop- development program can be justi- farming and reduced their economic ment programs where the motives of fied in either short- or long-term and social status. 1 The promotion of the agencies involved are more benefits to Sierra Leone. certain cash crops has, in many in- obscure and where the costlbenefit stances, led to the abandonment of ratio in social and economic terms is This Report is concerned with a diversified agricultural patterns difficult to evaluate. One such specific development program- which utilized a bush-fallow system example comes from Sierra Leone promotion of tourism in Gambia- and which were adjusted to the where in the 1960s the World Bank which raises issues at the core of ecology. When climatic changes agreed to lend money to the govern- some of the "experts'" assumptions have occurred, unfavorable to the ment if, and only if, it phased out the regarding the objectives and require- cash crop, people have found them- railway. Although the long-term ments for development in Africa and selves without sufficient money to viability of theexisting narrow-gauge of the presumed deficiencies of purchase the food supply which railway was indeed questionable, at Africans-in this instance Gam- formerly they had grown for them- the time it was a functioning system bians-to manage their own devel- selves. These and other related linking remote villages and providing opment affairs. As we shall see, the problems arising in the wake of farmers with a means to transport arguments for the necessity of ex- development projects can be partly their surplus crops to market. The patriate control of tourism as a de- excused because they were the plan did include provision for the velopment industry are very remin- result of the planners' failing to construction of feeder roads which iscent of those which were used to understand the social or ecological would, when completed, replace the justify the civilizing mission of the conditions obtaining in a particular old rail links, but few of these roads colonialists in an earlier period. location. Presumably such unde- have been provided for the villages According to the United Nations sirable consequences can be avoided which were cut off by the closing of expert who advised the Gambian in the future if those responsible are the railway. Although the govern- government and the World Bank, the better informed. ment survived the political crisis primary source of loans for the project, tourism provides a unique area of 11,000 km2 , 20 percent of necessary to control the activities of opportunity for traditional Ke., back- which consists of saline marshes, the British nationals along the western ward) African society because country has a population density of coast of Africa. In 1816 Captain tourism gives ordinary Gambians a 47 persons per kd, reportedly the Alexander Grant negotiated the "window on the outside world." fourth highest in mainland Africa. cession of St. Mary's Island, The population, growing at the rate adjacent to the south bank of the Baseline for Development of approximately 2.6 percent per mouth of the river, and constructed The Gambia became independent annum, is unevenly dispersed. About administration buildings, harbor from British rule in 1965. During the 15 percent live in the Banjul-Kombo facilities, and barracks on the island. 1950s when preparations were being urban complex along the coast in an The new town, which was first called made in other African countries for area covering some 88 km2 where Bathurst, today Banjul, attracted a the transfer of political power, it was the growth rate has been increasing settlement of Africans from the sur- thought that Gambia was too small at about 6.9 percent a year. The rounding area. The population was and too poor to consider indepen- people of the Gambia represent also greatly increased by Wolof mer- dence as a viable goal. As a result of some 12 different ethnic groups, the chants from the Cape Verde area and this attitude by the colonial adminis- 3 major ones being Mandingos, by other Africans who had been tration, internal political develop- Fulas, and Wolofs. liberated from captured slave ships. ment proceeded at a considerably In 1821 the area was placed under slower rate than was the case in Independent Gambia has been an the administration of the Governor of other British colonies. After some unexpected success story. Given its Freetown. In the 1880s the British initial difficulties caused by the size, poverty, location, and its his- established the Protectorate of the ambivalence of the British toward tory, its political stability since inde- Gambia encompassing its present the Western-educated Gambians, a pendence is not easy to explain. boundaries, and in 1888 administra- satisfactory constitution was drawn European contact with the region tive control of the area was separated up and elections, held in 1962, gave dates from 1455 when the Portu- from Sierra Leone. the leadership of the country to the guese first entered the estuary of the People's Progressive Party under the river. British and French trade in the Senegambia area dates from the Development in the twentieth cen- leadership of David Jawara as the tury under the British system was first Prime Minister. In 1965 the midsixteenth century. From 1661 onward the Senegambia was subject limited largely to the Colony area Gambia was granted independence. where port facilities were improved, David Jawara reverted to Islam and to continual conflict between the French and the British. But conflict some streets in Bathurst were paved, changed his name to Dawda. a hospital was constructed, and Although a presidential form of gov- was not limited to that produced by European contact. Many Sene- missionary groups maintained ele- ernment was rejected by the voters mentary and secondary schools. The in 1965, in 1970 it was approved by gambia kingdoms were powerful enough to maintain armies and inter- single export commodity was the electorate and the Gambia be- groundnuts (peanuts) from which came a Republic on April 24, 1970, necine warfare was common. Polit- ical competition was complicated by tax revenue provided just enough with Sir Dawda Jawara as its first income to keep the government President. the impact of proselytizing Muslim teachers in the nineteenth century. functioning. After 1942 the British promised to allocate money from the The Republic of Gambia is located on The presence of competing British and French trading interests in the Colonial Development and Welfare the west coast of Africa, surrounded Fund for the improvement of the on three sides by Senegal. Its area was exploited by local political leaders intheir attempts to overcome Gambia, but two disastrous experi- boundaries extend for about 480 kilo- ences, the Yundum Egg Project and meters along both sides of the their neighbors. For a considerable period the extent of the conflict dis- the Rice Farm at Wallikunda, in- Gambia River, the most navigable hibited any further major develop- couraged the British from entrench- river in West Africa. As is generally mentsfor thecountry. As a result the ing themselves in the area and there the case in Africa, the boundaries of Gambia entered the 1950s pre- were times when it appeared that the this tiny country are completely arti- independence period still dependent Gambia River would be exchanged ficial, having no relation to either upon one crop, having no all-weather geographic or ethnic lines of de- for some other possession with the French. The British presence was roads anywhere in the Protectorate, marcation. They resulted from and only one secondary school and agreements between the French and maintained on the Gambia River during the last two decades of the one hospital there to serve over a the British in 1889 and were always quarter of a million people. (even for a period after indepen- eighteenth century without any dence) regarded as temporary. definite official support for their activities. The structure of the Gambian econ- Today about 525,000 Gambians live omy has not altered in the period in a country whose limits areapproxi- since independence, although mately 10 kilometers distant from When the British decided to abolish modest development has been made either side of the river. With a total the slave trade in 1808 it became possible by the doubling of world MAURITANIA ATLANTIC / OCEAN

DA K

THE GAMBIA

.. ..

50 100 150 MILE

100 150 200 250 KM

FREETOWNk7 market prices for groundnuts. This obvious, any further development is involves the use of septic tanks or has increased the Gross Domestic not without problems. Because the night buckets which are often Product (GDP) between 1965 and river all but divides Senegal, there dumped into open storm sewers. 1975 from approximately D57 million have been repeated attempts to Urban communities which have to an estimated Dl53 million (D = convince the Gambia to cooperate in been growing up south of the river Dalasis, D4 = approximately El or the building of bridges, but the river and along the Atlantic coast present $1.80). The country remains pri- is still crossed by ferry. Ocean-going even greater needs for the provision marily agricultural with livestock, vessels can travel some 240 kilo- of amenities. All these and other fisheries, and farming activities em- meters up the river but present plans problems faced the newly indepen- ploying 85 percent of the economi- to build a bridge about 182 kilo- dent Gambia in 1965 and it is remark- cally active population.4 The per meters upriver would limit naviga- able to compare progress made since capita income of the urban minority bility. The river is tidal and during the that date with development during living in the Banjul and the Kombo dry season the reduced flow of fresh the decades the country was under areas is 4 times that of the rural popu- water permits the intrusion of salt colonial rule. lation despite the fact that 65 percent water. Feasibility studies are now of the GDP comes from agriculture. being conducted to assess the possi- In the Gambia's Five Year Plan for As a result of this disparity of income, bility of building a barrage which Economic Development 1975-76- there has been an acceleration of the would prevent this salt intrusion and 1979-80 it is observed that when the rate of rural-urban drift. protect the water for irrigation country achieved independence purposes. There is concern, how- there was considerable doubt ever, that insufficient information is whether the new nation could sur- Cultivation methods with a hand hoe available to determine the extent to vive. as the basic tool have remained which such a development would largely unchanged and the attempt affect fish stocks. Similarly Senegal As a very small country wholly to introduce ox-drawn equipment is interested in the river being devel- dependent on one cash crop, and has met with only limited success. oped as a source of hydroelectric stillin receipt of substantial Oxen must be fed during the dry power, but the building of dams budgetary assistance, with the season and the Gambia, being one of would flood otherwise habitable heights of both the Civil Service the Sahelian countries, has suffered land. Whatever developments are and Commerce dominated b y from the effects of the drought of the planned for the Gambia River will expatriates, and with few resources past few years. Food shortages require regional cooperation, given other than its people and its river, during the dry season make the the three countries whose popula- the new Government faceda keeping of oxen a luxury few can tions will be affected. considerable challenge (p. II). afford. The traditional bush-fallow system of agriculture requires, in the The Gambia has virtually no mineral Progress since independence has Gambia, a fallow time in excess of resources worth exploitation, with been outlined in the Five Year Plan. ten years and population pressures the possible exception of ilmenite Employment opportunities have in- have caused a shortening of the (titanium ore), which many yearsago creased, but 90 percent of this cycle with a resultant decline in land was mined along the coast. Forests increase has been in the public, non- fertility. Rice, millet, sorghum, vege- in the country are rapidly becoming productive, sectors. Considerable tables, and fruits are grown primarily incapable of supplying local require- advance has been made in the for local consumption in addition to ments in timber, poles, and fuel. transfer of foreign-owned assets to groundnuts, the primary cash crop. Even though a forestry department public ownership. All but two of the However, it has become increasingly was created to manage the country's foreign trading firms operating in the necessary for the Gambia to import forest resources there have been Gambia have withdrawn. Most of the food. While it is claimed that self- problems in enforcing conservation private modern industrial sector, sufficiency in rice production will be regulations and in 1972 an aerial sur- however, continues to be dominated attained by 1980, at the moment the vey revealed that 11 percent of the by foreign interests. The standard Gambia imports 20,000 tons of rice protected forest parks had been and coverage of social services have annually. Livestock is another im- cleared. improved; the number of rural health portant agricultural product, but the stations has increased from 66 to 80 grazing requirements of cattle herds Banjul, the capital of the Gambia, is and the number of primary schools and goats are placing increasing situated on an island of less than two from 83 to 94. A total of 2,000 pressures on the land. square kilometers in area and is persons are estimated to have an densely populated. The city is linked annual income of over D6,000, but The Gambia River, the central to the Kombo St. Mary division on 300 of these are expatriates. One of feature of the country's geography, the south bank of the river by a the impressive things about the winds through three countries, bridge. Although the city is supplied Gambia has been its effort to live Guinea, Senegal, and the Gambia. with electricity and water, the within the limited financial resources While its importance as a resource is present system of sewage treatment of the country and the salaries of government officials are among the diversification of the economy, and When tourism in the Gambia began, lowest in Africa. the creation of new job opportuni- the dominant age-group was 50 ties. Tourism, it is asserted, may be years and over but, as shown in Although there has been an attempt employed to encourage the develop- Table 3, the age-structure of the to diversify the economy the Gambia ment of particular regions, to stimu- tourists has shifted with the 30-49 remains almost totally dependent late intermediate demand, and to year group now being in the majority. upon agriculture for its earnings of precipitate changes in the economic foreign exchange, 95 percent of structure which are favorable to de- Winter holidays in the sun have which are earned from groundnuts. velopment. always held an attraction for Euro- Tourism accounts for about 6 peans and although there are a percent of the GDP and foreign It is important to note, however, that number of obvious destinations, exchange earningsfrom this industry Gambia did not turn to tourism as a agents were able to sell the Gambia are optimistically estimated at about development enterprise. Nor is as the nearest country to Europe that D4 million. Progress in the develop- tourism in this country the result of could guarantee a pleasant seaside ment of the economic infrastructure publicity from Alex Hailey's novel, climate during the winter. The dry is also reported in the Five Year Plan. Roots, as many Americans might season lasts from November to April An all-weather trans-Gambian road suppose6 Tourist agents discovered and the relative humidity during that has been constructed, river transport the Gambia. In 1965, 300 tourists period remains between 30 and 60 has been improved, and the com- spent their holidays on the Gambian percent. The temperature varies munications system has been ex- beaches. The following year the Vin- between 23 and 27 degrees centi- tended. Power consumption has gresor Club 33 of Sweden brought grade (70" -80" Fahrenheit). The increased and electricity and water 528 tourists and continued to be the water temperature along the 48 kilo- supply services have been provided sole tourist agency operating in the meters of beautiful white beaches in seven provincial centers. Gambia until the 1971-72 season bordering the Atlantic ranges, during when Danish and later British agen- this period, between 23" and 26" C. Enrollment in schools has been ex- cies started to bring tourists in as The shortest day, at the height of the panded. There were three times as well. As shown in Table 1, the tourist season, is eleven and a half many children receiving primary number of charter tourists arriving in hours. The Gambia, as a tourist education in 1975 as at indepen- the Gambia has grown from 300 attraction, was also promoted dence in 1965. Secondary school to 21,049 in just 10 years. The because of its "stable, democratic enrollment has almost doubled in majority of the tourists are Swedish government" and the ease of com- that same period with 5,971 students or Danish, these two nationalities munication, English being the official in 1975. Education beyond sec- accounting for between 80 and 90 ondary school remains limited to percent of the total of air charter vocational and teacher training and tourists. Table 2 shows the composi- The Gambia didnot "turn to tourism as a the Gambia continues to be depen- tion of air charter tourists by development industry, " the tourikt dent upon overseas courses for nationality between 1968 and 1976. agents discovered the Gambia. university studies or specialized training. The Plan cites other examples of the modest improve- ments in the conditions of life in the Gambia since independence and these include a limited expansion of health facilities, more programs to combat nutritional problems result- ing from the drought, and efforts to increase the number of community development field workers in rural areas.

Tourism According to one writer, developing countries turn to international tourism in the hope that it will pro- vide a solution to financial prob- lems5 The aim is to achieve several objectives: an increase in the Gross National Product (GNP), an inflow of foreign exchange required for the needs of economic development, the language.7 Moreover, the "interest- Table 1 ing culture allowing attractive excur- Air Charter Tourist Arrivalsand Hotel Beds 1965-66 - 1975-76 sion~''~and the "exotic atmosphere of ~frica"~were particularly empha- sized as marketable commodities. Fiscal Charter Increase Increase Hotel Increase Year tourist no. % beds % The obvious salability of winter holi- arrivals no. days in the Gambia by tourist agen- cies operating primarily in Scandi- navia was firmly established by 1970, 1965-66 300 1 62 -- although the number of hotel beds 1966-67 528 228 76 162 -- (as shown in Table 1) had not quite 1967-68 796 268 5 I 172 6 doubled. There were some maior 1968-69 806 10 1 20 1 17 problems involved in extending 1969-70 1,207 40 1 50 310 54 facilities for tourism. The liberal 1970-71 2,601 1,394 115 390 26 policy of the Gambian government 1971-72 8,031 5,430 209 856 119 toward foreign investment, taxation, 1972-73 15,584 7,553 94 1,334 56 and duty on imported materials 1973-74 18,651 3,067 20 1,993 11 would certainly encourage the ex- 1974-75 21,049 2,398 13 2,047 3 pansion of hotel facilities by foreign 1975-76 entrepreneurs, but it must be Source: The Republic of the Gambia. Tourist Statistics 1966-67- 1973-74; recalled that the colonial govern- Tourist 1974-75,Banjul, July 1976; Ministry of Information and ment left the Gambia with very Tourism (Mimeo November 1976). limited provision for power and water supplies and those amenities which did exist in 1965were primarily limited to Banjul. Tourism could not expand without the extension of such facilities. Foreign investors were eager to cash in on the untapped potential of tourism in the The Composition of Air Charter Tourists by Nationality 1968 - 1976 Gambia, but in order for the venture (Percentages) to be profitable, someone else would have to pay for the necessary infra- Nationality 68-69 69-70 70-71 71-72 72-73 73-74 74-75 75-76 structure of access roads, sewage works, communication systems, Swedish 87.0 72.7 78.2 75.0 68.8 57.5 59.4 49.1 water and electricity supplies. Clearly Danish 6.6 8.0 7.6 15.1 18.5 27.5 27.5 29.1 the tiny airport with its corrugated Other metal runway would also have to be Scandi- modernized. It was evident that the navian 3.9 5.5 3.3 3.6 5.2 3.2 1.8 13.1 Gambian economy could not influ- British 0.2 5.1 3.0 3.2 4.0 4.1 1.9 0.2 ence this kind of development. German ------2.0 2.0 2.6 Tourism as a development industry Other 2.4 8.8 7.0 3.0 2.5 5.7 6.5 5.9 began to be promoted as a solution. Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 In 1972,an area west of Banjul, along the Atlantic coast, was identified as a Source:The Republic of the Gambia, Tourist Statistics 1966-67- potential site for tourist facilities. 1973-74, Banjul, July 1974; Tourist Statistics 1974-75, After physical plans and engineering Banjul, July 1976. studies were carried out, the project wasevaluated by a number of World Bank missions and found suitable for "In 1974-75 Norwegian tourists were included in the number of an International Development Asso- Swedish tourists. ciation (IDA) credit?'

The infrastructure necessary for the cluded the development of the tourist and "labor support" areas. expansion of tourism required a present water supply and electric This last area referred to the new number of components which were power systems serving the Banjul, communities which, as will be dis- identified by the World Bank and Kombo St. Mary, and Kombo North cussed shortly, were to be required United Nations experts. These in- Areas and their extension into the to house the labor force serving the BH B-I-'78/7

Table 3 these agencies and in addition the Gambian government pledged $2.1 The Age-group Distribution of Air Charter Tourists 1968 - 1975 million. All these funds were to be (Percentagesof Total Number of Tourists) directed to financing the infrastruc- ture relating to tourism. In answer to the question of how much tourism was going to cost, one observer re- plied:

". . . the plain answer to your 0-14 3.2 2.3 2.6 3.6 4.2 5.1 5.4 question is that the Gambia is 15-29 6.8 14.1 23.0 26.1 31.8 28.8 27.2 pledging $2.1 million directly, plus 30-49 38.4 39.9 39.5 37.6 36.9 39.0 40.1 using $9.2million from outside 50andover 50.7 43.4 34.0 31.9 25.7 26.3 27.3 donors (whichcould better be spent Not stated 0.9 0.3 0.9 1.0 1.2 0.8 -- elsewhere 1, plus expending all its internalstaff andresource efforts to Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 this industry when energies could be otherwise directed for, e.g., rural development. And this means tying Source: The Republic of the Gambia, Tourist Statistics 1966-67 -1973-74, up funds and resources until 7980, Banjul, July 1974,1974-75, Banjul, July 1976. though the World Bank program will probably need to extenditlonger. "

These totals do not include the $5 tourist industry. The power plan for socioeconomic effect of interna- million plus which is being borrowed Banjul required a switch to oil-fired tional tourism on the development of to build an international airport, "an generating. Telecommunication the Gambia, for research into the use essential prerequisite to substantial facilities had to be extended to the of groundnut shells as an alternative further development of the tourist tourist and labor support areas. fuel for electricity generation, and for industry." l1 Sewage and solid waste disposal had technical assistance. to be provided for the tourist hotels. Access roads along with secondary Funds became available from the The Investor's Perspective roads and pedestrian paths between African Development Bank, the Before considering the questions resort sites and within the labor sup- Kreditanstalt fuer Wiederaufbau, raised by these comments and the port areas were also to be con- and the World Bank to finance a five- relative economic benefits to the structed. The resort sites also year program, The Tourism and Gambia arising from this concen- required public beach facilities and Infrastructure Project, 7975-80. tration on tourism, let us look at the shopping areas. Loans of $9.2 million were granted by possibilities of tourism from the point

Part of the scheme included the establishment of a hotel training school for 50 students. This in turn required funds for the construction and equipment of classrooms, as well as for technical assistance. A food storage and marketing program was included in the list of required components with the aim of increasing the proportion of locally produced food consumed by tourists in order to reduce imports. Funds were also needed for the establish- ment of a project management unit, to finance a promotion campaign to attract foreign investors to the tourism sector, for studies of the

Agents we able to sell the Gambia as the nearest country to Europeguarantee ing a pleasant seaside climate during the winter. of view of the foreign investor. The 2. Relief from the payment of pur- An investor, interested in developing information is derived from hotel chase tax on capital products bought tourist facilities, may obtain a Devel- feasibility studies which were pre- locally and a refund of up to 90 opment Certificate and may, after pared by foreign consu~tants!~ percent of duty payable on capital the expiration of the tax holiday products bought locally. (Since none period, carry forward and set off any At the moment tourism in the is locally produced, these are net loss incurred during the tax Gambia is limited to the six months products previously imported.) holiday against chargeable income winter season, but data from the for six more years. monthly distribution of visitors to the 3. Duty relief on all imported con- Canary Islands suggested that it is struction materials and machinery. Investors were also to be encouraged not unrealistic to expect that at least by the modest salaries which would a small market for summer tourism 4. An income tax holiday of up to be paid to staff. The breakdown of could also be developed in the eight years.'3 employment required is as follows: 5 Gambia. The government's tourism development plan is supported by a policy of attracting foreign visitors and entrepreneurs to provide tour- Some recreational facilities provided for ism facilities. The incentives offered tourists. include a number of concessions.

1. An investment guarantee cover- ing fiscal stability, repatriation of capital, and the transfer of dividends NADMI).ITON and profits. PART t GOT BALL SURFING BOARD rAntF TENNIS WATT R POLO The Gambia $295 WOIICY BAri

A winter sunshine wonderland! A place where the sun shines and where waters caress you with their blissful warmth as you swim from sunsoaked golden beaches: this is The Gambia. A tiny part of Africa's immensity; a land in darkest Africa but bright with endless winter sunshine. percent would be expatriates holding I questioned the economic wisdom of million. Again, this figure was based mostly managerial and supervisory the policy. Because of its large upon data gathered from one beach positions: 50 percent skilled local import requirements, net foreign hotel.To the assumption that these employees working as waiters, exchange earnings have been small. data were applicable to the other room-boys, barmen, reception staff, Tour operators and hotel owners charter hotels operating in the junior cooks, and maintenance prefer to hire expatriates and, as a Gambia was added the assumption personnel; and, finally, 45 percent result, the impact on employment that net profits before taxes did not employed in less skilled occupations has been small. In fact, tourism has exceed 10 percent of the total turn- such as ancillary kitchen staff, provided only 2,100 jobs for 6 o~er.~~Numberswhich were watchmen, gardeners, and cleaners. months of the year. The demands of attached to such concepts (part of The estimated salaries to be paid to the industry have obliged the govern- the mystification of economic these three groups are: ment to make large investments in theory) as marginal propensity to the infrastructure for the hotel areas, save and marginal propensity to Expatriates (5%) Dl,500 Imo. thereby diverting financial resources import in an economy such as that of Skilled (50%) D1801mo. away from other and perhaps more the Gambia must necessarily be Less skilled (45%) D130Imo. beneficial uses. based totally on speculation and, in this context, the conclusions of the Local employees' salaries are paid analysis became utterly meaningless. The economist employed to analyze only during the tourist season, the economic impact of tourism con- further reducing the annual expendi- There are three direct sources of cluded that the industry had pro- revenue to the government from the ture. The feasibility studies include a duced a costlbenefit ratio which is tourist industry which can be detailed financial analysis of the "most likely substantially greater measured with a degree of accuracy. potential rate of return on invest- than one." l5His analysis, however, One of these is the revenue obtained ment in the industry, and suggest in- constitutes a spurious numerical from customs duties levied on food- vestors may expect between 13.1 formulation based upon subjective stuffs. Eighty-five percent of food- and 20 percent return depending judgments regarding the evaluation stuffs consumed by tourists are upon the class of hotel and an of most cost items. The net foreign imported at a dutiable rate of assumed interest of 8.5 percent on exchange earnings from tourist between 17.5 and 25 percent. The the capital invested with a repay- spending for the year 1973-74 were, other two sources of income are ment period of 15 years. The eco- for example, estimated at D3.69 airport taxes and the hotel or "bed nomic life of the hotels themselves is million. The data for this estimate tax," the latter being fixed at 0.5 estimated to be in the region of 30 Dalasis per bed and night.17 The 14 were based upon a 54 percent years. response rate to a questionnaire total of these earnings received by administered to departing tourists. the government directly attributable Returns on Investment Net foreign exchange earnings asso- to the tourist industry in 1973-74was Critics of the government's decision ciated with tourist accommodation Dl.48 million. to develop the tourist industry have amounted to an estimated D2.31 One of the other effects of the indus- try which has been used to promote tourism was the promise of increased employment opportunities for Gam- bians. There is, as noted, a total of 2,100 persons employed in tourism and their opportunities to earn are, for the most part, limited to the 6-month season. It was claimed by the planners and apparently docu- mented by one sociological study that manpower utilized by tourism would naturally rotate between working in the agricultural sector during the wet season and the seasonal demands of the tourist industry?* Even if employees were able- to rotate between tourist and The feasibility studies promked foreign entrepreneurs a return of from 13 to 20 percent on their investment in the tourist industry, agricultural work, the harvest season increase in such social problems as not only desirable but mandatory for and the tourist season coincide. A begging, stealing, and prostitu- any "developing Third World" study of the social and economic tion.20 The economist's equation in- society. costs of tourism which is now being cluded the figure of D1.O million as conducted in the Gambia has, how- the evaluation of these "intangible Fundamental to the argument are ever, collected data which proves costs." The requirements of the total certain explicit assumptions about this rotation does not occur. Doubts implementation of the development the characteristics of Africans and have been cast on salary levels, program designed for the tourist their traditional social organization opportunities for advancement- industry by the experts will, however, which are thought to be incompat- sometimes illiterates and secondary have far greater consequences for ible with the demands of moderniza- graduates hold the same jobs-and Gambian society than the already tion. The plan aimed to provide the other benefits such as for health observed increase in the antisocial structural means to correct these care. behavior. The evaluation of these deficiencies. Thus a palliative was consequences becomes a political offered to anyone who happened to question as to the kind of social order Examination of the economic study notice that tourism as a development reveals other unwarranted assump- thought to be desirable. industry would not have the effect tions about behavior which have upon the economy commensurate arbitrarily been assigned values and Bafuloto with the investment required. The included in the favorable analysis! In 1971 the United Nations spon- overall effect of the program would The economist assigned to the task sored basic environmental and meet the basic needs of develop- admitted, for example, that expatri- physical planning studies as the ment in society. Tourism was simply ates represent the largest portion of necessary preliminary to loan allo- a convenient catalyst which was at the wage bill in the restaurant and cation for the infrastructure required hand, and came to be described as a hotel sector (32%) but, he asserts, for the further development of the generator of national development. most of them live more or less per- tourist industry. Bafuloto refers to With tourism serving as the manently in the Gambia. Therefore the region around the beach area generator of development in the he assumes that the "leakage" in which was to be allocated to Gambia, the various ministries within foreign exchange will be only "some- tourism?' Three main publications the government came to be what higher" for this group than for resulted from the UN "expert's" in- described as the "potential clients." other Gambians as a result of the ex- vestigations and were referred to as By implication the tourist agents, patriates' demand for food with a the "pre-investment studies." Their and other foreign investors, are their higher import content and their main purpose, however, was to con- "patrons," emphasizing the depen- greater amount of foreign travel. It is vince the funding bodies and the dency relations which development, not known how many service indus- Gambian government that the re- accordin to this approach, tends to tries associated with tourism are organization of society necessary to promoteY2 The societal changes owned by expatriates nor, in the meet the requirements of the indus- which would result from this type of economists analysis, is this source of try coincides with changes which are development are based upon the all foreign exchange "leakage" even considered. An example of one such business owned by a Swedish couple is a laundryldry-cleaning establishment which serves the hotels. Radio Syd is a commercial station operating in the Gambia which is also foreign-owned.

The "intangible costs" of tourism is another area where only very subjec- tive numerical evaluations may be made. These include what are described in the economic report as the "negative demonstration ef- fects" resulting from the impact of the exposure of the Gambian society to the behavior of the European tourists. This, according to some observers, resulted in the shattering of existing cultural values and the

The econom'c life of the hotels wen? estimated to be 30 years. too familiar ideological preconcep- ". . . the question is often asked why conduct their business at the tions concerning the nature of tradi- income derived from development of beaches rather than on the tional and modern society, where the coastalland shouldbe spentin that beaches.. . . The bengdulas, a social representatives of modern society, area. To put the question simply: experiment, are designed to prevent the aid agencies, see themselves as 'Why should we spoil the waiters commercial squatting by providing transmitting the assumed advan- whilst their brother farmers in the traders with the best possible sites.. . tages of Western industrial society. country remain primiti~e?"'~~ which are irresistible magnets for tourists.. .3' At the points of In 1976, as shown in Table I, there The answer is summed up in the highest tourist traffic density were 2,047 beds available for notion of tourism as "generator." provisions are made for marketing tourists. The plan envisaged the sale The "cultural goals" of urbanization, nodes and craft centres, the latter, of 20 hotel sites to foreign investors, as expressed by the United Nations spectacularlylocated under the increasing the number of hotel beds expert, are to increase the quality proposed umbrellas of the water to 7,000 by the end of the project?3 and enjoyment of existing cultures. towers, are the gatewa ys to Kotu Because tourism is labor intensive, at The urban cultural patterns achieved and Brufut. The craft centres at the least for six months, some provision in the demonstration are ultimately water towers symbolize that both had to be included in the plan to to determine the national pattern and ancient tradition and emerging avoid the squalor of slum develop- so "the policy is to promote existing technology contribute to the ment and other problems associated cultures and access thereto, but not quality of~ife."~' with the rural-urban drift. These to bar access to those counter- could be expected to increase in cultures which inevitably emerge The beach would, as a result of this response to the employment pros- with the cultural development of a arrangement, be relieved of the pects. Although the expert recog- people." Thus the new towns pro- "socially undesirables" and such nized that urbanization is always vide the "primitive brother farmers" concerns as beach hygiene and accompanied by certain problems with a model and the project areas maintenance would be easily at- and that itsscale must necessarily be will provide "stepping stones" for tended.32 limited, urbanization in itself was not development which will reach, even- to be avoided. The assumption was tually, the remotest village.27 The plan for the development of the explicit: "no known development coastal area to serve the needs of occurs without urbanization."24 The The location of the new towns was tourism required, as already noted, existing towns in the coastal region also justified in terms of the aims of fundamental changes in social were considered too small to have this kind of development. As illus- organization. The Plan pointed out the developmental effects possible in trated on the map of the coastal area, that the established "static agricul- an urban setting and so two new the new towns were to be located tural traditions" must give way to towns were planned in the rural areas well back from the beach and the new skills in market gardening and of Brufut and Kotu. The project tourist hotel sites. land suited to market gardening was would convert this agricultural area identified and reserved for that with a population of 4,000 into an "The project attempts to turn the purpose. The traditional adminis- urban complex accommodating potential cultural conflict between tration system of the village where 50,000: the population and the near constant the alkali or village chief governed stream of tourists into cultural together with a council of elders stimulation, by a specific relationship must also, according to the Plan, be ". . . the urban population in the ofprivacy and contact. Theprivacy is transformed and the Gambia is too small to attract the established b y the maintenance of a "new town lands, Kotubanko and scale of activity which is needed for 'space bubble' between the visitors Brufutbank, will fall under the further development of the national and visited, the contact is jurisdiction of the municipal councils capital city functions. Only further established through the visitors' on which the alkali serve only as urban population growth can bring interest in events such as the fanal councillors. The council was to be about the specialized skills, processions, drumming, music, chairedby a professionally trained institutions, industries, etc. needed dancing, and in local crafts." 28 for national development. 'Q5 and Government-appointed Municipal Commissioner, In short, tourists would be attracted accountable to the Minister for By "disassociating" the labor force to the Gambians. Each resort site Local Government Landand for the industry from the existing would be equipped with a bengdula Mines. "33 urban centers the government would which, the United Nations expert be able to maximize benefits of this explained, means "meeting place" in The land tenure system was also to kind of development through strict Mandinka, a local language. 29 control. The plans for these two new be altered and legislation would towns would necessarily involve the "introduce a rationalized system of government in enormous expendi- "The bengdulasprovide sheltered land administration.. . .'I% The Plan ture and, as the expert acknowl- stalls for the sales of handicrafts and provided for such amenities as sani- edged, souvenirs, and allowpetty traders to tation, water and power supply, and included definitions of the types of settlements has prevented the evo- countryside, floating debris, and housing which would be permitted. lution of a system of urban govern- scum on scenic water." A traditional compound type of ment which satisfies present accommodation built from indige- needs." 35 One of the effects of transforming nous materials would not be the development areas into urban acceptable and legislation would The necessity for enforcing urban centers will be to alter the basic require that only "permanent" management regulations is empha- family unit which, in the Gambia, has housing be approved. It was pre- sized because the European tourists been the extended family. "The eco- sumed that the Gambia would be "are sensitive [apparently Gambians nomic rationale of the extended fam- dependent upon planning con- are not1 to health and aesthetic ily lies in the need to organize as sultants for overseeing the adminis- standards and are quickly discour- many hands as possible in the pro- tration of the urban development aged by deficiencies such as un- vision of agricultural products for all. project because "the agrarian back- collected refuse stacked along the The rationale is based on the ground of West African culture and streets, odors and smoke from assumption that agricultural pro- the comparative newness of urban burning dump sites, litter in the ductivity is determined not by the quality of labor but thequantity."36

The Plan includes market areas so that such scenes as this will be eliminated, leaving the beaches free of the "socially

undesimbles "

Building from indigenous materbls wwill be prohibited in the new "labor support" areas. SUBJECTS REFERRED SlKA POINT BARRAGE SITE TO FOR POSSIBLE FUTURE INVESTIGATION LAKE GAMBIA

NEW TRAEISGAMBIAN HIGHWAY

RAILWAY LINK TO WEST AFRICAN RAILWAY SYSTEM W-I-HI

INDUSTRIAL PORT AT ALBREDA (AGRO INDUSTRIES~FREEPORT\

SOLAR-HYDRO ENERGY STATION EXISTING TRANSGAM BlAN HIGHWAY TO KAOLACK 8 DAW With the change from agriculture to promote tourism in the Gambia as in a traditional country and tolerance is tourism and urbanization it was pre- other parts of Africa. Juffure, the part of the tradition. Without this, sumed that the extended family Mandinka village from which Alex tourism could not have achieved the would disappear. As the expert Hailey claims descent, must be highest growth-rate in ~frica."~~ points out, outside employment re- declared a national monument and duces the labor force available for protected as a traditional village to While possessing the positive virtue agriculture and "the rewards pro- retain its "appeal." West African of receptivity, Africans lack, accord- mote a new material conscious- dress, dancing, drumming, and ing to the expert, many of the skills ness." "Material awareness," ac- crafts are other aspects of the exotic and character traits which are essen- cording to the expert, will ideally re- culture which attract tourists. The tial for carrying out their own devel- place traditional values and a big plans for the new towns included opment program or for controlling or family will come to be viewed as an places acoustically designed for even managing the tourist industry. expensive luxury. Apparently this dancing and drumming. There was Tourism, the Gambian government particular expert mistakenly believed apparently no awareness that these is solemnly warned, is a commercial that polygamy was based upon dif- arts have not been professionalized enterprise and as such requires ferences in sex ratios in Africa for he as in Europe and constitute an entrepreneurship, capital, and such says that as people turn to monog- integral part of community life. specialized skills as technical com- amy, while being economically Similarly, religious activities are petence, financial ability, promo- attractive to them it will not be so recognized as requiring suitable sites tional skills, and marketing talent. morally attractive, since it may leave and facilities for expression of this "Gambian private enterprise has so "an undue number of women un- aspect of the local culture. Wild far lacked the right combination of married." animal imagery is also incorporated these factors. The need to combine into the notion of exotic culture and these factors in the right way pre- Another example of the serious lack although the Gambia has virtually no sents an obstacle to Gambian private of understanding of African culture game left, the Landrovers, Combis, enterprise.40 is illustrated in the remarks regarding and buses which are used to the effects of tourism on what is de- transport tourists on upcountry The aim of the project is to increase, scribed as the "caste system" of "safaris" are painted with zebra in time, indigenous abilities and traditional Gambia. The expert stripes. opportunities for commercial par- argues that such occupations as ticipation by limiting the duration of woodcarving are associated with a More serious than these stereotypes hotel development rights (to the "lower caste" and that the demand are those which include assumptions foreign investors) to 30 years."41 for tourists for arts and crafts will about the character of Africans. It is This is the period which the expert lead to the gradual disappearance of quite generally believed that Africans deduced would be required for the this caste system.37 acquiesced quietly in the face of Gambian's educational level to be imperialist forces3* This notion of improved sufficiently to take over the the passivity of the African is lauded management of their own industry. Stereotypes of Africans and African in the Bafuloto plan: "The Gambia is "The timing of such opportunities Society

In this discussion of the plans for implementing tourism as a develop- ment program for the Gambia we have already seen how factors such as presumptions about the proper direction for social change in line with Western values, ignorance of local social organization, and stereo- types of Africans and their culture, have influenced the arguments in favor of the adoption of the experts' proposals. But there are further stereotypes in use which also de- serve discussion.

The "exotic culture" of Africa is often used by tourist agencies to

African dancing wvuld, according to the expert provide an 'Trre~~~strblemgnet" dmwing the visitors to the visited. could be anticipated to coincide with for the potential for profits to the in the resorts provide a range of ad- the emergence of a generation of foreign investor to decline, they can vanced levels of participation in Gambians who have received train- "practice" private enterprise along touristic commerce." 43 ing and experience in hotel adminis- "the 'market routes' in the kunda tration and business manage- (settlement) which encourage com- The question of adequate education ment. rt42 merce at the minilevel." The for modernity isalso considered. The Bafuloto Plan was far-sighted government is encouraged in the It may be recalled that the hotel enough to include opportunities for plan to expand the primary school feasibility studies included in their Gambians to move through the re- system to accommodate 100 percent calculations the fact that the eco- quired stages of development of of this age group and to provide nomic life of a hotel structure was 30 business skills and incorporated secondary schools for up to 50 years. In the meantime, while the them in the plan. "The bengdulas percent. Tertiary education should Gambiansare waiting patiently (May (meeting places) encourage partici- be limited to 5 to 10 percent. The pro- we assume that patience is a virtue pation in sales to tourists at an im- vision of schools is not sufficient; which is associated with tolerance?) proved level. The shopping centers attention must be paid to the content

"Exotic Africa" imagery is emloyed by the agents to attmct toun'kts to the Gambia.

Pay a visit to Tendeba Camp

Tendeha Camp is located ap. 150 km upwards the rwer. It's a bungalow v~llagedown by the riverside just close to the bush.

There you'll have the opportunity to see "the real" Gamb~a in a closer vlew, with excursions in pirouges on the small creeks, or a trip by jeep out to the savanna and the bushes. Also you can take a morning stroll out in the bush together with a gambian guide. Later in the evening we'll lit up a log-fire, and there'll be original african dances, performed by the local inhabitans.

The restaurant will serve fried barracuda or a delicious gulasch made on wild boar. If VOLI would like to stay during the night, we can offer you rooms with one, two or three beds. The bungalow is also equipped with bar, swimming- pool and showers.

Arrangements for the bustransfer will be taken care of by the tour-leader. On the other hand you can go by taxi (ap. 50 dalasi) or by air. Tvavelling time by car is about 2 hours.

We garantee you, that a vfsit at Tendeba Camp is something you"ll never regret!

v Welcome to the hush, F Wille o Elizabeth of education. Again the expert is of basic education which may "This goodwill is expressed in gifts concerned about the fact that the stimulate an interest in related fields of clothing, informal scholarships skills of contemporary Gambians wouldappear to be the introduction andassistance to associations. In typify "both the qualities and prob- of educational toys. Atpresent the the case of tourists from Sweden, lems of African society and are stimulants normally available to there is an active Gambia-Sweden limited to those which are children in other societies are association which is assisting the unavailable in the ~ambia."~~ Red Cross Society in the Gambia. It "'Agrarian in origin'. . . . Relevant The solution to the problem as pro- is proposed that national goodwill problems exist in the field of posed by the United Nations expert associations be encouraged to entrepreneurship, supervision and serves only to magnify the banality of collect and forward, in lieu of management. These areas, these statements. He recommends clothes, educational aids and toys, together with education in sciences, that in basic education, a new source such as Quizenaire, Lego, and wouldappear to require the special of assistance may be exploited: "the Mechano, for distribution to schools attention of the education goodwill which many tourists have throughout the country. The authorities. One move at the level towards the Gambia." importation of clothes depresses

, ------PRESERVE THE ANIMAL LIFE' I Do not buy Lyde or leather goods. Do not buy "framedS'wcngs of butterfly i " - -

The vulture keeps rhe roads and /and clean. Ready for a trip tnto the bush *-

7 our creek - tours We have arrtilops, wild boars )u have the opportunity and many other wId animals at our camp

2 1 bungalows i annex. 98 beds. Bar, restaffrant souvenirshop promising weaving and tailoring it is suggested that a determined culture which might lead them to industries, whereas educational effort in the project area be made to respect its values or, at least, to con- aids would provide a foundation for minimize the social cost of the con- form to its standards of decency in 51 the types of skills which are essential flict.~~~The very location of the public behavior and dress. to de~elopment."~~ urban settlements was designed to Although attempts are made to keep minimize that conflict: "By simul- the Gambians out of the beach areas, taneous exposure of the children to no similar measures are taken to The irony of all these outrageous both a traditional sociocultural en- keep tourists out of the towns and notions stems from the fact that vironment and external influences, it settlements. Tourists appear to have trading and commerce existed in is hoped that a synthesis will be few inhibitions about dress and it is West Africa on a basis of "private reached. ... The means of the common to see them clad in the enterprise" for hundreds of years experiment are threefold: tradition1 briefest swimming attire strolling before the colonial period. If the education/stimulation, the latter along the roads and shopping in the acquisition of these skills represents provided by the Badara, which is a storesand the market. Nude beaches the highest form of human develop- window on an outside world."49 are common and topless bathing ment, then the Gambians like suits are standard gear for women. Africans everywhere possessed Since this development program Muslims congregate in large num- them, and to such a degree that the was not to be limited to the project bers on feast days to pray. Tourists long and hazardous sea voyage to areas near the coast but would also apparently find this phenomenon West Africa from the fourteenth serve as an example for the entire interesting and gather, clad only in century onward was worthwhile for country, the report pointed out that beach wear, to watch the faithful. the European traders. These came to "This window is not proposed to be Apparently there is no concern about exchange goods with people who confined to the coast, the increasing the offense such behavior causes to were supposedly backward in touristic interest in the Gambia River the local population's sense of entrepreneurship. The commercial enables touristic centers to be placed modesty. It can be argued that the abilities of the Africans were in fact further upriver each year in the form Gambian government could enact developed to such an extent that of safari-camps reached by river- and enforce legislation which would they threatened the profits of the cruisers." 50 prevent this type of behavior. There Europeans and resulted in the armed are, however, other problems which domination of Africa by Europe in have emerged which would be more It has already been noted that the order to eliminate local competi- difficult to control with legislation. ti0n.~6The persistence of these Gambia is predominantly a Muslim society and as such is characterized stereotypes, however, and their The United Nations expert who by conservative values. Beyond pro- incorporation into a development devised the development plan moting tourism in the Gambia on the plan serves to sustain dependency pointed out that, "Disparity of in- basis of its "exotic African culture," relations which were fostered during come between visitors and visited is tourists receive little or no informa- the colonial era. Throughout the UN indirectly a cause of tourism and tion about the characteristics of this reports one finds a dominant theme; must be accepted as an integral at every point in the implementation problem of the industry," but he of the program of tourism as a gen- promised that the project would erator of development, the Gam- "reduce the disparity" and that it bians must, because of their innate "particularly attempts to improve the limitations, rely on foreigners and distribution of benefits."52 Until this reliance will only grow as time now there is no evidence that any passes. As the expert puts it, "There attempts to distribute benefits in is an increasing need for expatriate economic terms have been effective. expertise to man the gaps which are Truancy among schoolchildren has increasing with development." 47 reached alarming proportions be- cause the youngsters are on the "A Window on an Outside World" beach, begging from tourists. Theft While acknowledging the fact that has increased greatly and armed the sociocultural problems asso- robberies on the beach are becoming ciated with the implementation of common. Such crimes are common the tourist industry as a development in many parts of West Africa, but program are many, the report argues they have not been so in the Gambia. that "There can be no develop- mental change without conflict,. . . While female prostitution is com- mon, male prostitution among Tourism according to the UN expert young Gambians is rampant. Middle- would provide ordinary Gambhns with a aged Scandinavian women, the age- "window on an outside world " group which predominates among tourists, openly solicit, and the At a fairly trivial level, it is certainly some European wives of Nigerians potential rewards for the young men not pleasant today for a woman to be were beaten. These were not sexual concerned are not simply limited to in the Gambia on her own and in attacks, but were analogous to the payments they receive. For West order to avoid unpleasant situations reactions to Germans or Japanese in Africans any display of affection it is necessary to .make it very clear the United States during the World between the sexes in public is re- that she isnota tourist. Unless that is Wars. In the Gambia, however, it is garded as highly objectionable and is made explicit, young men anticipate no longer safe to be on the beach a serious breach of etiquette. It is, that any woman tourist may provide alone and there have been instances however, a common sight to see the possibility for immediate finan- when rape has been committed even European women walking arm in arm cial gain and perhaps even the when the victim was accompanied. with Gambian men. A substantial longed-for opportunity to travel The evidence suggests, moreover, number of these women are abroad. Those who have traveled in that these expressions of rage are marrying young Gambians who, in West Africa will appreciate how not directed toward Gambian most cases, have no education other unusual is this behavior, for women. than that which they may have re- Europeans, and especially women, ceived as part of their Muslim are normally accorded respect. There are other social problems religious training. There is no equivalent in West Africa which are increasing in association for even the flirtatious whistle of with tourism. Although marijuana Certainly such relationships disturb workmen which one has to endure in grows wild in the tropics, traditional the continuity of familial relation- Britain. culture frowns on its use and the ships among the Gambians. Mar- legacy of the imposed English law riage ceremonies are not only being While it is certainly not meant to be makes its consumption illegal. The performed in the Government Regis- implied that male prostitution is any tourists, however, represent a lucra- ter's office, but they also take place more objectionable than female tive market for the easily obtainable in the Mosques. Although a few do prostitution, it would appear that drug, and its use among the remain in the Gambia, most of these male prostitution in this context Gambians who associate with couples return to Scandinavia. The gives rise to the more serious prob- tourists during the course of their possibility of traveling to Europe lems. These include the violent work has become common. It serves as an enormous incentive to sexual crimes which are occurring appears that some "exchange" also young African men employed at low with alarming frequency on the takes place; that is, there is some wages in the tourism industry. One beaches of the Gambia. Rape in evidence of hard drugs entering the young man, the lifeguard at the hotel West Africa is a crime which rarely Gambia through the agency of the where I stayed, explained how a happens and in other West African European tourists. While it may be German woman had proposed countries it is almost unheard of for a possible to label these problems as marriage to him. He was, however, European woman to be attacked. A merely symptoms of the "intangible already committed to marry a local rare exception to this rule occurred in costs" of tourism, the reality of the girl. The German woman sent him Nigeria after Brigadier Murtala situation makes nonsense of such money throughout the rainy season Mohammed was assassinated, when platitudes as: and returned the next year to try to persuade him. She argued that she could give him "everything." As he put it, "It was very difficult for me. I earn 100 Dalasis a month [less than $501." There is no precise informa- tion on the numbers of young men who are involved, but one Gambian, whose patron was Swedish, told me that in the city where he lives in Sweden there are more than a hundred such Gambians. Their problems ate so acute that he and some friends have formed an asso- ciation to attempt to give assistance of various kinds. There are stories of such Gambians who have been brought back to their country be- cause they became insane. What- ever individual problems these young men may face, the practice has wider ramifications for the Gambia. "Tourism in the Gambia has, so far, At the same time, the Papua New must belong to the producers, so been marked b y a naturaland Guinea leadership was keenly aware that a minority does not appropriate genuine person-to-person interest of the backwardness of their own thesurplus. At the political level, this of the population and the visitors, economy and of how little control means a wide-scale democratization until now mainly from Scandinavia. their people had over that economy. of power. Human rights have to be The attitude is reflected in the An awareness of these realities established and guaranteed and expression 'Hello, m y friend'. . . ," impelled them to attempt to devise power has to be shared."55 policies which were based upon the and such meaningless statements as: aims of another development. The leadership of Papua New Guinea took the principles of another devel- "Tourism in itself promotes The approach of another develop- opment seriously in the drafting of international contacts and ment does represent one definite their new Constitution and in the cooperation, but t the1 project also advance in that its aims are made policies they devised for administer- promotes nationalandinternational explicit and the concepts used are, ing the newly independent country. dialogue of development aspects not for the most part, defined clearly Eight major aims were delineated as directly related to tourism. The enough to permit examination. It follows: project promotes an orientation to may be interesting to consider the dialogue towards action by another development in the light of people f~rpeople."~~ criticism of the notion of tourism as a 1. A rapid increase in the proportion generator of development in the of the economy under the control of Another Development Gambia. Papua New Guinean individuals and Tourism over the past 2 years has groups and an increase in the pro- fallen off by an estimated 8 to 10 per- According to Professor Ghai, the portion of personal and property cent. While most believe that this proponents of another development income that goes to Papua New decline is only temporary, some advocate a reordering of the pri- Guineans; observers predict the trend will con- orities of development goals so that tinue. I asked the United Nations the first goal would be the eradica- 2. More equal distribution of eco- representative who is now working tion of poverty and the satisfaction nomic benefits, including movement in the Ministry of Planning just what of the minimum human needs for toward the equalization of incomes would happen if the tourist industry food, shelter, health, and education. of the people and toward the equali- collapses. His reply was, "Well, the Fulfillment of such an aim would, it zation of services in different areas of Gambian government will still have may be assumed, require that the the country; to pay back their debt." Given the focus be on rural agricultural limited resources of this country, it is development. It also implies a basic 3. Decentralization of economic hard to see just how this would be equity in the distribution of the re- activity, planning, and government possible. Moreover, the Gambia's sources produced by and available to spending, with emphasis on agricul- indebtedness is not limited to the the country. Another development tural development, village industry, loans associated with tourism. But would also aim to be endogenous better internal trade, and more even were tourism to remain viable and self-reliant. It should be based on spending channeled to local and area for the foreign investors, the future resources that belong to the country. bodies; for the Gambia appears less than Dependence on foreign resources promising. Is there any other model and skillsshould as far as possible be 4. An emphasis on small-scale for development? avoided. Key decisions should be artisan, service, and business activ- made by the people of the country, ity, relying where possible on typi- In a discussion of the role of law in not by outsiders. Development, cally Papua New Guinean forms of underdeveloped countries, Profes- according to this approach, should business activity; sor Yash Ghai has considered a dif- be in harmony with the environment. ferent approach to development The ecological balance should not be 5. A more self-reliant economy, less which is referred to as another devel- upset by excessive rates of con- dependent for its needs on imported opment in relation to the newly sumption, nor should resources be goods and services and better able to independent country of Papua New squandered in pursuit of short-term meet the needs of its people through ~uinea.~~As he points out, when gains which would otherwise be the local production; Papua New Guinea became inde- heritage of future generations. pendent in 1975 its leaders had 6. An increasing capacity for meet- observed the failure of development The realization of the goals of ing government spending needs efforts in both Africa and Asia. They another development require struc- from locally based revenue; had seen how Third World countries tural transformations both internally have suffered from increasing social and in international economic and 7. A rapid increase in the equal and stratification, the despoilation of the political relations. "At the economic active participation of women in all environment, and the negative influ- level, this means that ownership and forms of economic and social ences of transnational corporations. control over the means of production activity; 8. Government control and involve- Such a reassessment itself makes it structural changes in the economy ment in those sectors of the necessary that the privileged nations andsociety will only take place after economy where control is necessary of the world come to understand the rural development has hadits full to achieve the desired kind of devel- history of their relations with the rest impact."59 of the world which permitted them to opment.56 The Plan incorporates the aim to achieve the way of life which they place the control of the economy in It is clear that the policies and objec- now enjoy, and how this history has the hands of Gambians and to tives which have been devised by the led to the political struggles African countries are today experiencing?' decentralize economic activity, Papua New Guineans are in con- planning, and government spending siderable contrast to the aims of with the emphasis on agricultural de- development as expressed in the The Gambia's Future velopment. The plan also includes Bafuloto Project. They contain no There are those who strongly ques- self-reliance as an objective. These demoralizing innuendoes regarding tion whether the Gambian economy and other elements of the Five Year the capacities of the indigenous has or will ever benefit from tourism. Plan appear to be in fairly close population to manage their own Only recently has the government harmony with the model of another affairs. The traditional patterns of become aware of the social costs development which Papua New social organization are not seen as that accompany this particular devel- Guinea is attempting to implement. handicaps to progress toward their opment program. In addition to goals.But behind such idealism re- recognizing the importance of It is a very great pity that such a large garding the future of Papua New costlbenefit ratios and other finan- proportion of the Gambia's re- Guinea lies the somber truth that cial considerations, moreover, Gam- sources in both manpower and despite any Third World country's bians have begun to consider some money will be primarily focused on attempts to be self-reliant, the aims of the larger issues. the implementation of the Bafuloto of another development cannot be Plan over the next few years. As we achieved without international col- The Gambian government in its Five have seen, its aims are in direct con- laboration for the transformation of Year Plan for Economic and Social flict with those of another develop- the relations between rich and poor Development incorporates some of ment and with the objectives of the countries in order to redress existing the aims and spirit of another de- Gambian government as expressed inequities. Another development velopment. The emphasis through- in the Five Year Plan. It can only be recognizes "that the patterns of con- out the plan is on rural development, hoped that the consequences of the sumption in the rich countries have the principal objective being to kind of development which has been to change, so that they consume less reduce the disparity between urban promoted by the international than their present disproportionate and rural incomes in favor of the rural agencies, where the benefits accrue share of the resources of the population. largely to foreign investors, will not world."5Z Another development result in insurmountable barriers to would leave no room for the pro- "The strategy to improve incomes, another development in the Gambia. motion of such charlatan develop- develop production of goods and A great deal will depend on how ment programs, which are only very services to satisfy the basic needs of Western industrialized countries as thinly disguised maneuvers for the the population, reduce the "donors" and the international promotion of economic self-interest. dependence of the economy on agencies as interpreters of the con- Cooperation with countries attempt- external factors, and effect cept of development respond to the ing to realize the objectives of an- socioeconomic structural change for challenge of another development. other development in Africa will re- accelerated self-sustained quire the rigorous exposure and re- development and for self-reliance, jection of the persistent stereotypes will be based on comprehensive rural of Africans which are too frequently development with agriculture as the incorporated in aid programs in order base andlever for effecting change (May 1978) to justify dependency relations. in attitudes andstructure, as wellas Another development demands a for improving living conditions and radical reassessment of the arrogant development capabilities. Major presumptions that modernity, devel- opment, or progress can only be defined in terms of the values held by western industrialized countries. 22IBHB-1-'78

NOTES

1. Tinker, I., et al., (eds.) Women and 19. Facht, J., op. cit. How can, for have meaning to the indigenous popula- World Development, New Y ork, 1975. example, such concepts as marginal tion is seen as an important link in the propensity to save or marginal propen- Gambianization of the development 2. Mittelholtz, B. "The Gambia: An sity to import be given numerical values process" (Part 7 of 3, p. 87).Since only a Overview of its Human Environment," in the absence of empirical data? small proportion of the indigenous popu- mimeographed report, Attorney Gen- lation is literate in English, he could have eral's Chambers, Banjul, the Gambia, 20. lbid. recommended that these words be n.d. written in Arabic script. The use of this 21. Bolt, D. Bafuloto: Environmental script to write indigenous languages was 3. Bolt, D . Ba fuloto: Environmental Studies, Part 7 of 3. UNDP Physical discussed in Barbara Harrell-Bond, Studies, Part 2 of 3. UNDP Physical Planning and Development Project, The "Local Languages and Literacy in West Planning and Development Project, The Planning Office, Banjul, the Gambia, Africa" [BHB-1-'771, AUFS Reports, Planning Office, Banjul, the Gambia, January 1974. "Bafuloto," according to West Africa Series, Vol. XVII, No. 2, November 1973. (Hereafter cited as Part Mr. Bolt, the United Nations expert, is a 1977. After writing that Report I dis- 2of3.) local term meaning land between two covered that the usage is given more rivers and has been used to name the recognition in the Gambia where 4. Mittelholtz, B., op. cit. area reserved for the tourist industry as signposts at the Ministry of Works in shown on the map. "Expert" is the label Banjul, for example, were printed in 5. Facht, J. "The Economic Effects of given to consultants employed by the English, the official language, and in Tourism in the Gambia," unpublished United Nations. Mandinka and Wolof, the latter written in report, November 1976. Arabic script. 22. Part 2of 3, see especially p. 75. 6. Alex Hailey, an American Black, after 30. Part 7 of3, p. 11. conducting research traced his ancestry 23. lbid. to the village of Juffure, the Gambia. His 31. Part Iof 3, p. 11. ston/ has been televised in a series 24. lbid., pp. 30,39, and especially p. 72. entitled Roots. 32. Such notions as the "space bubble" to separate Gambians from Europeans 7. Facht, J., op. cit. 25. Bolt, D. National Settlement Net- and the emphasis upon hygiene sound work Studies UNDP-UNIOTC Physical very similar to the arguments used in 8. lbid. Planning and Development Project. Sierra Leone when racist attitudes began GAMl691003 First Action Phase, part b, to be explicitly incorporated into colonial 9. Hans Munk Hansen Group Hotel January-June 1974. (Hereafter cited as policy and the Hill Station settlement Feasibility Study, a report for the Govern- National Settlement Network Studies.), was proposed in order to separate ment of Zambia, unpublished 1976. pp. 13-14,41. Africans and Europeans for ostensible (Hereafter cited Hans Munk.) health reasons. See Spitzer, L. "The Mosquito and Segregation in Sierra 10. lbid. Leone," Canadian Journal of African 27. lbid., pp. 9, 33-34. Snow-ball effect, Studies2, No. 1 (Spring 19661, pp. 49-61. 1 1. lbid. demonstration effect, and the multiplier effect were other expressions which 33. Part 1of 3, p. 7 12. lbid. were employed to make the point that the planned urban development resulting 34. lbid., p. 8. 13. lbid. from the tourist industry would be the model for development throughout the 35. lbid., p. 63. 14. lbid. Gambia. 36. lbid., p. 113. 15. Facht, J., op. cit. 28. lbid, p. 11. "Fanal" refers, according to the expert, to the "handcrafted illu- 37. lbid., p. 114. Since one of the sources 16. lbid. minated model of a boat, carried in pro- of foreign exchange to the Gambia cession at Christmas" (Part I of 3, p. 8). would be through tourist spending, the 17. A warning to tourists. Bed tax is Although the end of Ramadan, a Muslim plan advocated that local products be added to the hotel bill after the cost of fasting period, may have occurred available for purchase. Carvings made by accommodation has been computed. It around Christmas when Mr Bolt was in artists in West Africa are functional. does not, therefore, detract from hotel the Gambia, the procession has nothing There is no surplus and although trade in profits. to dowith the Christian holiday. It occurs African art has motivated a considerable in the Gambia and in Sierra Leone each amount of effort to copy traditional art in 18. Peil, M. "Unemployment in Banjul: year at the end of Ramadan. order to meet the commercial demand, The FarmingITourist Trade-off," Man- artists cannot work with sufficient speed power and Unemployment Research, 29. Mr. Bolt states that, "The use of or produce in sufficient quantity to meet Vol. 10, No. 1, April 1977. names for concepts and locations which the market of thousands of tourists in the Gambia. Moreover, the copies of African 55. lbid. art usually on sale look old and original. This takes time even though the aging is 48. lbid., p. 53. 56. lbid. accomplished through artificial means such as burying the sculpture in a termite 49. lbid. Badala is "the local term" for 57. Davidson, B. "The Nation States of mound. The United Nations experts have coast. Africa," New Statesman, March 24, now found a solution. There is now a 1978. plan to start a school for teaching African 50. lbid., p. 54. artists how to mass produce tourist art. 58. Ghai, op. cit. 51. Although one could draw this con- 38. Zekiros, A. and M.C. Wiley. "Africa in clusion simply by observing tourist be- 59. Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Studies Textbooks," unpublished havior, interviews with many tourists in- Social Development 7975/76 - 1979/80. mss., African Studies Program, Univer- dicated that they knew nothing of Republic of the Gambia, July 1, 1975, pp. sity of Wisconsin-Madison, 1977. African society and had been given no 1-2. information about the Gambia before they came other than the fact that there were beautiful beaches and modern 40. lbid., p. 37. hotels.

41. lbid.

42. Tourism as a Generator in National 53. lbid., pp. 29 and 71 Development: A Proposed Development Technique in the Gambia, Seventh 54. Ghai, Y.P. "Law and Another De- Quarterly Report, Planning Office, March velopment," Dag Hammarkjold Founda- 15,1973, p. 9. tion, n.d.

43. Part2of3, p. 57 (emphasis added).

44. lbid., p. 42.

45. lbid., p. 46.

46. Rodney, W. How Europe Underde- veloped Africa, London and Dar es Salaam, 1972.