University of Hail Design of a Hybrid Wind and Solar Electric System

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Hail

Design of a Hybrid Wind and Solar Electric System

Senior Design Project Final Report

University of Hail Department of Electrical Engineering

Design of a Hybrid Wind and Solar Electric System

Essam Raed Gaffar Ali 201316466

Mohammed Mohsen Fadhel Salem 201316502

Anas Taha Salem Fadaaq 201316468

Under the supervision of

Dr. Ahmad Alzamil

Feb/2019

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

At the very beginning, we thank Almighty God for his guidance and protection throughout our whole life. Then, we want to express deep gratitude to our parents for their help, support, and love.

During the period of our study at the university, we have received great help from many doctors and professors at the university, whom we would like to put on record here with deep gratitude and great pleasure, we would like to thank UOH staff for boosting our ideas by giving us the chance to transfer such thoughts into reality. Moreover, we want to spotlight on our supervisor Dr.Ahmed AL-Zamil and thank him for his assistant, time and effort which were very precious and helpful to fulfill our project.

Finally, during these days which we spent preparing our project, we have exposed ourselves to a different electrical aspect which is the green energy as well as gaining and learning many skills that definitely will add something to our career.

Content Page ACKNOWLEDGMENT 3

ABSTRACT 11

INTRODUCTION 12

Chapter 1 General Introduction of Project 13

1.1 Background 14

1.2 Our Objectives 16

1.3 The Mythology 16

Chapter 2 Solar System 17

2.1 Solar Energy 18

2.2 Major PV System Components 18

2.3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells 19

2.3.2 Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays 20

2.3.3 The controller of solar charge 21

2.3.4 Inverter 21

2.3.5 Batteries 21

2.4 Types of Solar PV Systems 21

2.4.1 Off-Grid System ( Stand-alone system) 21

2.4.2 Grid-Tied System(On-grid system) 22

2.4.3 Hybrid system 23

2.5 Factors That Affect Solar Panels 23

2.5.1 The Shading 23

2.5.2 High Temperatures 23

2.5.3 Dirt and Dusts 23

2.5.4 Snow Blocking Cells 24

2.6 Orientation 24

2.6.1 Fixed Tilt 24

2.6.2 Adjusting The Tilt Twice a Year 24

Content Page

2.7 Solar Resources - The Solar Components 25

2.7.1 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 25

2.7.2 Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) 25

2.7.3 Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) 25

2.8 HOMER Calculations for Solar System 26

Chapter 3 Wind System 27

3.1 Introduction 28

3.2 Wind Power 28

3.3 Wind Speed 29

3.4 Air Density 29

3.5 Wind Turbines Functionality 29

3.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines 30

3.5.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines Components 30

3.8 HOMER Wind Turbine Output Power Calculation 31

Chapter 4 Solar and Wind Sites Analysis 34

4.1 Site Information(Hadramaut) 35

4.2 Site Information(Lahij) 37

4.3 Site Information(Aden) 39

4.4 Site Information(Sana) 41

Chapter 5 HOMER Optimization ( Residential Load ) 44

5.1 Introduction 45

5.2 The Description of the system 45

5.2.1 Metrological Wind and Solar Data 45

5.3 The Load Profile 47

5.4 HOMER Simulation Model 48

5.5 System Components 50

5.6 Simulation Results 50

Content Page 5.7 Electrical output 51

5.8 Cost Summary 52

5.9 Emissions 52

Chapter 6 HOMER Optimization ( Commercial Load ) 53

6.1 The Description of the system 54

6.1.1 Metrological wind and solar data 54

6.2 The Load Profile 56

6.3 HOMER Simulation Model 58

6.4 System Components 59

6.4.1 PV Array 59

6.4.2 Wind Turbine 59

6.4.3 Converter and Battery 60

6.5 Simulation Results 60

6.7 Electrical Output 62

6.7.1 Production results 62

6.7.2 Cost Summary 64

6.7.3 Compare Economics 65

6.7.4 Grid 65

6.7.5 Emissions 67

Conclusion 68

References 70

Figure Content Page Fig 1.01 Republic of Yemen Map 14

Fig 1.02 Yemen Electric Power Generation by Fuel Type 15

Fig 2.01 PV Cell 19

Fig 2.02 Series and Parallel Connection 20

Fig 2.03 Off-Grid Solar System 21

Fig 2.04 On-Grid Solar System 22

Fig 2.05 Hybrid System 23

Fig 2.06 The Solar Components 25

Fig 3.01 Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines 30

Fig 3.02 Wind Power Curve 32

Fig 4.01 Hadramout Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at 36 Different Height

Fig 4.02 Lahij Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at 38 Different Height

Fig 4.03 Aden Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at 40 Different Height

Fig 4.04 Sanaa Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at 42 Different Height Fig 4.05 Solar Sites Analysis 43

Fig 4.06 Wind Sites Analysis 43

Fig 5.01 The Chosen Location 45

Fig 5.02 Monthly Average GHI Data 46

Fig 5.03 Monthly Average Wind Speed 46

Fig 5.04 Daily Load Profile 47

Fig 5.05 Seasonal Load Profile 47

Fig 5.06 Schematic of Hybrid power system 49

Fig 6.01 Air Port Location 54

Fig 6.02 Monthly Average GHI 55

Figure Content Page Fig 6.03 Monthly Average Wind Speed 55

Fig 6.04 Daily Load Profile 56

Fig 6.05 Seasonal Load Profile 56

Fig 6.06 Schematic hybrid power system 58

Fig 6.07 Monthly Average Electric Production 62

Fig 6.08 PV output (kW) 63

Fig 6.09 Wind Turbine Output 63

Fig 6.10 Renewable Energy Output 63

Fig 6.11 Cost Summary 64

Fig 6.12 Energy Purchased from Grid 66

Fig 6.13 Energy Sold to Grid 66

Table Content Page Tab 2.01 Types of PV Cells 19

Tab 2.02 Tilt Adjustment 24

Tab 3.01 Surface Roughness 32

Tab 3.02 Air Density at (STP) 33

Tab 4.01 Solar Resources ( Hadramout) 35

Tab 4.02 Tab 4.02 PV OUT (Hadramout) 35

Tab 4.03 Wind Speed & Power Density ( Hadramout) 35

Tab 4.04 Solar Resources (Lahj) 37

Tab 4.05 PV OUT (Lahj) 77

Tab 4.06 Wind Speed & Power Density (Lahj) 37

Tab 4.07 Solar Resources (Aden) 39

Tab 4.08 PV OUT (Aden) 39

Tab 4.09 Wind Speed & Power Density (Aden) 39

Tab 4.10 Solar Resources (Sanaa) 41

Tab 4.11 PV OUT (Sanaa) 41

Tab 4.12 Wind Speed & Power Density (Sanaa) 41

Tab 5.01 Monthly Average GHI 46

Tab 5.02 Monthly Average Wind Speed 46

Tab 5.03 Electric Load Profile of One Year 48

Tab 5.04 System Components 50

Tab 5.05 Simulation Results 51

Tab 5.06 Tab System Components 51

Tab 5.07 Cost Summary 52

Tab 5.08 Emissions 52

Tab 6.01 Monthly Average GHI 55

Table Content Page Tab 6.02 Monthly Average Wind Speed 55

Tab 6.03 Electric Load Profile of One Year 57

Tab 6.04 PV properties 59

Tab 6.05 Wind Turbine properties 59

Tab 6.06 Converter and Battery properties 60

Tab 6.07 Simulation Results 61

Tab 6.08 Electrical Production results 62

Tab 6.09 Cost Summary 64

Tab 6.10 Compare Economics 65

Tab 6.11 Grid Data 65

Tab 6.12 Annual Emission 67

ABSTRACT

The essential purpose of our project is to illustrate the notion of the hybrid solar-wind system and motivate the developing countries to reconsider consuming fossil fuel and start approaching the concept of green energy. This mid-report only contains four chapters. We are going to give a clue about Yemen geographical location in the first chapter as well as the objects and the methodology with we are going to follow an approach. Then, we will demonstrate the concept of solar energy, the basic principle of working and the components of it. Also, the pros and cons of using those panels, and the factors responsible for declining the efficiency percentage. In the third chapter, we are going to provide information about the wind turbine such as the principle of working, the components of the wind turbine and how it transfers the wind power into electricity and the elements which specify how much power we can get by considering some factors such as the altitude. Finally, we have assembled some data from four cities in Yemen regarding many to the amount of solar radiation and the wind blowing and we have analyzed these data to choose the best location.

INTRODUCTION

Relying on Fossil Fuel (coal, oil, and gas) have been an issue which concerns many countries because they are finite. consume them for long enough will eventually run out. Yemen has been relying on such power in all its plant’s. During the last year’s most of the people didn’t have access to the electricity due to the difficulties of extracting the Oil and the global raising of Fuel prices which operate all the generations planets in Yemen as well as the dramatically increasing of inhabitants which cause more demands on electricity. Despite all the extracting issues, Coal, Oil, and Gas are the main elements which cause greenhouse effects and environmental pollution.

Finding an alternative power source that people could actually rely on is the best solution to tackle such problem, so we have decided to use wind and solar energy due to the huge amount of solar radiation and wind blowing which my country exposed to almost all the year by designing wind-solar hybrid system and choosing the best place to implement our project.

Chapter 1 General Introduction of Project

1.1 Background about Yemen 1.2 SDP Objectives 1.3 Mythology

1.1 Background

In the modern world, attention has been expanding on non-conventional renewable energy sources due to many reasons. It is understandable that reservation sustainability and the world oil market instability are huge problems for any country relying on conventional sources. Walking towards renewable power is found to be an optimum solution for the previous concerns as well as the environmental issues that are emerging in developed countries. However, the circumstances are different when talking about developing economies. Yemen is positioned at the southern peak of the Arabian peninsula exactly between Oman and Saudi Arabia. The area of Yemen is 527.970 square kilometres. It is bounded by water from two directions, the Red Sea and Bab Almandab from the west, and the Gulf of Aden with the Indian Ocean from the south. The major natural resources of Yemen are oil and natural gas. In 2005, Yemen was producing an average of 439.000 Barrels per day 50% of the productions from Masila and the rest 50% is produced in the remaining fields. The amount of gas reservation in Yemen is about 19.6 trillion cubic feet. The majority of Yemen’s electric energy supply depends on fossil fuels including Matzoth, Diesel, and recently LPG ( Liquefied Petroleum Gas ). As acquired, 79.91% of installed Electrical capacity comes from Oil Fuels, 20% from Natural Gas and only 0.09% from renewable energy.

Fig 1.01 Republic of Yemen Map of

Although the foremost sources of electricity generation are oil and gas, the majority of Yemen does not have access to electricity.

Nearly most of Yemen's citizens are deprived of basic power services even before the last conflict. Amongst the MENA region, Yemen was rated as the least electrified country with an average of 243kWh for almost one-sixth of regional places. The supply and demand of power are truly out of balance. Generation capacity was about 1300MW in 2015 with 20% shortage of the country peak demand that gives only half of the population access to electricity which is often unreliable. The remainder of the

Yemeni population lacks any form of Fig 1.02 Yemen Electric Power electricity access. Generation by Fuel Type of To Ensure energy security, the energy sources used in Yemen ought to be diversified. Additionally, guaranteeing the continuity of electricity supply is very important and this is going to be achieved by extending the renewable energy generation. In terms of potentials Yemen has a high potentials of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and geothermal. This resources ought to be used in order to supply energy to meet the current need and to minimize the dependence on fossil fuel sources.

Through this thesis, we are going to discuss the design and optimization of the wind- solar hybrid power generation systems. The potentials of implementing such a project in Yemen is about to be investigated in a geographical manner in various locations by assembling metrological data from different sources. Later, the discussed places will be examined by applying a Hybrid Optimization Model for Energy Recourses (HOMER).HOMER is the main software that will be used to examine the data. HOMER is an optimizer used for either off-grid or on-grid power systems with a diversity of applications.

1.2 Project Objectives

The main aim of this project is to design a hybrid system of wind-solar for electrical generation at an indented location in Yemen. This project is expected to make Yemen's electricity more resilient and reduce the dependence on fuels.

In brief, the objectives are: • Preparation meteorological data for Yemen. • Discuss the problem of the power generation and the necessity for sustainable energy in Yemen . • Studying wind turbine energy system. • Studying the PV solar energy system. • Studying hybrid solar–wind energy system. • Overview of the software tool (HOMER) . • Design of the system for the choosed location in Yemen by using HOMER.

1.3 The Design Methodology • Preparation of the meteorological data of the proposed locations. • Analyze wind and solar meteorological data available for the locations. • Selecting the best location which has available both wind and solar energy . • Setting of the system parameters. • Using (HOMER( to design the hybrid system for the selected area.

Chapter 2 Solar Systems

2.1 Solar Energy 2.2 Photovoltaic Power Generation

2.3 Major PV System Components

2.3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells

2.3.2 Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays 2.3.4 The controller of solar charge 2.3.5 Inverter

2.3.6 Batteries

2.4 Types of Solar PV Systems

2.4.1 Off-Grid System ( Stand-alone system) 2.4.2 Grid-Tied System(On-grid system)

2.4.3 Hybrid system

2.5 Factors That Affect Solar Panels

2.5.1 The Shading 2.5.2 High Temperatures 2.5.3 Dirt and Dusts 2.5.4 Snow Blocking Cells 2.6 Orientation 2.6.1 Fixed Tilt 2.6.2 Adjusting The Tilt Twice a Year 2.7 Solar Resources - The Solar Components: 2.7.1 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 2.7.2 Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) 2.7.3 Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)

2.1 Solar Energy

Sun is considered the biggest source of energy in life. Sun is a huge star that has temperature that arises from reactions of transforming the hydrogen to helium. This process is named as Nuclear Fusion, which generates a high temperature and the constant emission of energy. Solar energy is released principally by electromagnetic emission and about one over a third of energy emitted is bounced back. Solar spreads a tremendous amount of energy to earth. The entire quantity of energy that is radiated from the sun to the earth is around 10,000 times of the annual world energy consumption. Commonly two methods are used to generate electricity from sunlight. Firstly, photovoltaic (PV) and secondly the solar thermal systems. This thesis uses a photovoltaic way

2.2 Major PV System Components

Solar PV system includes many components which should be selected according to system type, site location, and applications. The main components for the solar PV system are - PV cells. - PV module and array. - The controller of solar charge. - Inverter . - Batteries.

2.3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Cells PV cells are made up of semiconductor material. For instance, silicon which is currently the most commonly used component in the semiconductor industry. The photovoltaic cell is comprised of many layers of materials, each with a particular purpose. The vital layer of a photovoltaic cell is the especially semiconductor layer. It is comprised of two different layers (p- type and n-type .It is what actually converts the Sun's energy into useful Fig 2.01 PV Cell electricity through a method called the photovoltaic effect.

Types of Photovoltaic Cells There are three types of PV cell used in the world market: Monocrystalline Silicon, Polycrystalline Silicon, and Thin Film.

Mono-Si Poly-Si Thin Film

Efficiency Most efficient Less efficient Least efficient

(18 - 22%) (14 - 18%) (10 - 12%) Manufacturing From single By fusing Si Many layers

Si crystal Crystals of PV material Suitable for High temp. Standard Moderately Temperature high temp.

Area need/kW Least Less Large

Low Low Moderate Performance at low light

Tab 2.01 Types of PV Cells

2.3.2 Photovoltaic Modules and Arrays Solar cells are considered as the primary building block of the PV system. Yet, it seldom used alone because it is unable to provide enough voltage and power. That is why different cells are joined in parallel or series connections in order to obtain a larger output as possible.

Series Type of Wiring Series wiring improves the voltage that is coming out of a solar array while maintaining the current alike. Series wiring happens when the positive side of a solar module attached to the negative of a different solar module.

Parallel Type of Wiring

Parallel wiring increases the current which outputs from a solar array while keeping the voltage the same. Parallel wiring happens when the positives of various modules are attached to each other and all the negatives sides are connected together.

Fig 2.02 Series and Parallel Connection

2.3.3 The controller of solar charge It does the regulation of the voltage and current that are coming out of the panels later it goes to the battery. Furthermore, It blocks the battery from overcharging and lengthens battery life. 2.3.4 Inverter It is an electronic device that changes direct current ( DC ) which is coming out from the PV panels to alternating current (AC). 2.3.5 Batteries The work of batteries is to store energy generated by the system and preserve it for later use.

2.4 Types of Solar PV Systems

2.4.1 Off-Grid System ( Stand-alone system)

An off-grid system is meant to be self- governing from the grid, and the batteries job is to store energy for use at night - No reliance on the grid. -Short lifetime and maintenance of batteries. - Higher cost due to higher components. - Decreased efficiency Fig 2.03 Off-Grid Solar System

2.4.2 Grid-Tied System(On-grid system) The most popular type of PV systems. They generate solar electricity and supply it to the loads as well as the grid. System components involved in PV array and inverter. The on-grid system is similar to a conventional electric powered system except that part or all of the electricity comes from the sunlight.

-It is much cheaper compared to stand-alone or grid-tied with battery backup systems .

-It doesn't need much maintenance.

- If there is a surplus in the amount of energy, the extra energy is given to the utility grid.

-Used in high voltage electricity production such as buildings, residential rooftops, and solar farms.

- Grid-direct systems have higher efficiency due to the absence of batteries.

Fig 2.04 On-Grid Solar System

2.4.3 Hybrid system The hybrid system combines multiple sources of power to maximize the availability of power. It may store energy from sun, wind or diesel generator and back it up with battery.

Fig 2.05 Hybrid System

2.5 Factors That Affect Solar Panels 2.5.1 The Shading Photovoltaic systems are affected by shading in a negative way. A well-designed system demands a clear path to sun rays from morning to afternoon annually. Surprisingly, even the shadow of one branch of a tree without any leaves can reduce the amount of power output. when designing, we need to consider that a place could be not shaded in part of the day however in the other part of the day may be shaded. Additionally, in different seasons shading could differ.

2.5.2 High Temperatures In terms of the temperature effect on the PV system. When the cell goes high temperature the resistance accordingly rises and those two are inversely proportional to the electrons passing through. That implies that the production will decrease because electrons cannot pass at the same amount as before.

2.5.3 Dirt and Dusts Dirt on solar panels allows smaller power to be generated because dust blocks the sunlight from striking the surface of the solar cell and decreases the performance.

2.5.4 Snow Blocking Cells When snow falls in winter, it blocks the generation of electricity from solar until it is blown away.

2.6 Orientation acing the true south if you are in the northern part of the hemisphere and the vice verse is crucial to expose the solar panels to the highest amount of sunlight. many books and articles indicate that the solar panels should be tilt to the location attitude plus 15 degrees in winter or minus 15 in summer. However, there is a way to raise efficiency by 4 percent more than the conventional way.

2.6.1 Fixed Tilt setting the angle in a fixed position has some disadvantages such as getting less power compared to the adjusting angle. However, many people still using the fixed angle because they find the output a bit less than the adjusting angle and it doesn't exhaust them by adjusting it more than once a year, so they are okay with it. by using one of these formulas we can find easily the best angle for a fixed tilt .

-If the latitude is below 25°, we multiply the latitude by 0.87 .

- If the latitude is between 25° and 50°, we use the latitude multiply by 0.76, plus 3.1 degrees.

2.6.2 Adjusting The Tilt Twice a Year

If you are going to alter the tilt of your solar panels twice a year, and you want to get the most energy over the whole year.

Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere

Adjust to summer angle on March 30 September 29

Adjust to winter angle on September 10 March 12

Tab 2.02 Tilt Adjustment

2.7 Solar Resources - The Solar Components:

In terms of solar components, radiation is what we need to study. The solar radiation can be transmitted, absorbed, or scattered across an intervening medium in ranging amounts depending on the wavelength. After studying the Complex interactions Between the Earth's atmosphere and the solar radiation it results in three primary broadband parts of interest to solar energy technologies :

2.7.1 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) The Direct Normal Irradiance or what is called as the Direct Solar Radiation is defined as the quantity of the solar radiation obtained per unit area with a perpendicular surface to the rays. The DNI is developed from the sun in a straight line. It is mainly measuring the greatest achievable beam radiation and it is monitored by a device called Pyrheliometer.

Fig 2.06 The Solar Components

2.7.2 Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) The Diffused Horizontal Irradiance is the radiation that is separated or diffused by the particles floating in the air. This sort of beam is drawn as a horizontal that does not have a specific direction. Pyranometer is the device used to measure the DHI

2.7.3 Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) It is additionally identified as Global Solar Radiation, it is the cumulative value of DNI & DHI as in the next formula:

퐺퐻퐼 = 퐷푁퐼 ∙ 퐶표푠(푧) + 퐷퐻퐼

Where: GHI = Global Horizontal Irradiance DNI = Direct Normal Irradiance DHI = Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (Z) = Zenith Angle The GHI is measured by the total of direct and scattered radiation being received on a

2.8 HOMER Calculations for Solar System To calculate the PVOUT in array by HOMER :

퐺̅̅̅푇̅ 푃푃푉 = 푌푃푉 푓푃푉 ( ) [1 + 훼푃(푇퐶 − 푇푐,푆푇퐶)] 퐺푇,푆푇퐶 where: = the rated capacity of the PV array, meaning its power output under standard test YPV conditions [kW]

fPV = the PV derating factor [%]

2 퐺̅̅̅푇̅ = the solar radiation incident on the PV array in the current time step [kW/m ]

2 퐺푇,푆푇퐶 = the incident radiation at standard test conditions [1 kW/m ]

αP = the temperature coefficient of power [%/°C]

Tc = the PV cell temperature in the current time step [°C]

Tc,STC = the PV cell temperature under standard test conditions [25°C]

The Derating factor

The derating factor is used by HOMER as a scaling factor to account for the things that make losses in the PV array to calculate the output effectively.

STC account for Standard Test Conditions, currently companies that make the PV systems rate their output voltage according to STC:

-The Radiation is set to 1 kW/m2

-The Cell temperature is set to 25°C

-The wind should be zero. 26

Chapter 3 Wind System

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Wind Power 3.3 Wind Speed

3.4 Air Density

3.5 Wind Turbines Functionality

3.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

3.5.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines Components

3.8 HOMER Wind Turbine Output Power Calculation

3.1 Introduction the energy which we can get from the wind is another form of solar power. The atmosphere heats up faster in the equator regions than in the rest of the globe due to the uneven distribution of the solar radiation .Lands heat up and cool down faster than oceans. This differential heating of the earth leads to a global atmospheric convection system and resulting in varying air pressure fluctuations. The movement of air caused by pressure difference within the atmosphere is called wind. This pressure causes air mass to move from a region of high pressure to the low-pressure areas. Wind power is the transformation of wind energy into more utilizable configurations, typically electricity using wind turbines.

3.2 Wind Power Kinetic energy is the main energy received from the wind. The blades catch the kinetic energy and convert it into beneficial mechanical energy and this energy is turned into electrical energy. ퟏ 푬 = 풎풗ퟐ 풌풊풏풆풕풊풄 ퟐ

Where m mass and v velocity .

We calculate mass as follow mass air_ density  ( area of rotor )  velocity   Av

Substituting we get ퟏ ퟏ 푷 = (흆푨푽)푽ퟐ = 흆푨푽ퟑ 풘풊풏풅 ퟐ ퟐ

As shown in the equation above, there are three important parameters that contribute to the operation of a wind energy. As shown in the equation above, there are three important parameters that contribute to the operation of a wind energy,

3.3 Wind Speed The amount of energy in wind varies with the cube of the wind speed. Basically, if the wind speed doubles, there is eight times more energy in the wind(2^3=2x2x2=8). However, a bit of change in wind speed has a large influence on the amount of power available in the wind.

3.4 Air Density Air dense is directly proportional to the amount of energy we get from the turbine. Also, The air density changes with elevation as well as the temperature. Air dens are inversely proportional to elevations.

3.5 Wind Turbines Functionality

A wind turbine is a machine that converts the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy. The easiest way of understanding how a wind turbine works are to imagine it as the opposite of a fan, where turbine blades rotate from the wind and make energy, instead of using energy to make wind. The wind rotates the turbine blades, which spin a shaft connected to a generator. The spinning of the shaft in the generator makes electricity.

All wind turbines basically work the same way with minor adjustments depending on size and configuration. The wind turns the blades to rotate a shaft which connects to a generator which produces electricity. Essentially the rotors provide the kinetic energy of the wind and convert it into electrical energy.There are two basic types of wind turbines:

1. Horizontal-axis turbines 2. Vertical-axis turbines

3.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines Horizontal axis wind turbines are very popular. All the components are located at the top of the tower. The blades are in the direction of the wind and The shaft is horizontal to the earth. To acquire efficiency, the wind turbine has some elements that are combined with it]such as an anemometer, wind vane, and a controller to record speed and direction of the wind. When the wind shifts its direction Yaw motor adjust the blades to face the wind.

3.5.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines Components

In the case of the vertical axis wind turbines, we can notice that the shaft, as well as the blades, are connected vertically to the earth. Furthermore, the turbine should be near to the ground, unlike the horizontal type.

Fig 3.01 Horizontal and Vertical Wind Turbines

3.8 HOMER Wind Turbine Output Power Calculation

HOMER measures the output power of the wind turbine by applying a three-step process. First, determines the wind speed at the hub height of the wind turbine. Then, it calculates the amount of power the wind turbine generates and the wind speed at standard air density. Lastly, it adjusts the power output value for the original air density.

1) Calculating Hub Height Wind Speed

If you choose to apply the logarithmic law, HOMER gives you the privilege to calculates the hub height wind speed by these equations:

푙푛(푧ℎ푢푏/푧표) 푈ℎ푢푏 = 푈푎푛푒푚 ∙ 푙푛(푧푎푛푒푚/푧표) where:

Uhub = the wind speed at the hub height of the wind turbine [m/s]

Uanem = the wind speed at anemometer height [m/s]

zhub = the hub height of the wind turbine [m]

zanem = the anemometer height [m]

z0 = the surface roughness length [m] ln(..) = the natural logarithm

The anemometer height defined as the height above ground at which the wind speed data are measured. Actually, Wind speeds peers with the height above ground, so if the wind turbine hub height is not the same as the anemometer height, HOMER adjusts the wind speed data accordingly. A standard anemometer height for meteorological measurements is 10m. Anemometers installed accurately to determine wind power potential are often placed higher than 10m because wind turbine towers are typically between 25m and 100m height. The closer the anemometer is placed to the eventual hub height of the wind turbine, the more accurately it measures the wind resource to which the wind turbine is exposed. The roughness length is applied in mathematical models to show the roughness of the surface.

Terrain Description z0 Very smooth, ice or mud 0.00001 m Calm open sea 0.0002 m Blown sea 0.0005 m Snow surface 0.003 m Lawn grass 0.008 m Rough pasture 0.010 m Fallow field 0.03 m Crops 0.05 m Few trees 0.10 m Many trees, few buildings 0.25 m Forest and woodlands 0.5 m Suburbs 1.5 m City center, tall buildings 3.0 m

Tab 3.01 Surface Roughness

2) Calculating Turbine Power Output At Standard Air Density

In calculating the turbine power output at standard air density we need to refer to the wind power curve to discover the output power from the wind turbine. By using the sketch below:

- The hub-height wind speed is in red. - The wind turbine power output is in blue.

Fig 3.02 Wind Power Curve

Temperature Temperature Density, Maximum

0C oF dry air water content 3 ] 3] [kg/m [kg/m -25 -13 1,423

-20 -4 1,395

-15 5 1,368

-10 14 1,342 -5 23 1,317 0 32 1,292 0,005 5 41 1,269 0,007

10 50 1,247 0,009

15 59 1,225 0,013

20 68 1,204 0,017 25 77 1,184 0,023 30 86 1,165 0,030 35 95 1,146 0,039

40 104 1,127 0,051

Tab 3.02 Air Density at (STP)

3)Applying Density Correction

In order to adjust to the original statuses, the calculation of the power value is foretold by the power curve using the air ratio like the coming equation:

휌 푃푊푇퐺 = ( ) ∙ 푃푊푇퐺,푆푇푃 휌0 where:

PWTG = the wind turbine power output [kW]

PWTG,STP = the wind turbine power output at standard temperature and pressure [kW]

ρ = the actual air density [kg/m3]

3 ρ0 = the air density at standard temperature and pressure (1.225 kg/m )

Chapter 4 Solar and Wind Sites Analysis

4.1 Hadrmout 4.2 Lahj 4.3 Aden 4.4 Sanaa

4.1 Site Information

Site Name: Hadramaut

Latitude: 16.666670

Longitude: 49.5000000

Elevation : 987 m

Solar Resources [kWh/m2] Per Year [kWh/m2] Per Day

Global Horizontal 2436 6.674 Irradiation Direct Normal Irradiation 2421 6.633 Diffuse Horizontal 781 2.140 Irradiation

Tab 4.01 Solar Resources ( Hadramout) Photovoltaic Power Per Year Per Day Output

Photovoltaic electricity 1850 kWh 5.068 kWh Global tilted irradiation 2567 kWh/m2 7.034 kWh/m2

Tab 4.02 PV OUT (Hadramout)

Wind Speed - At height (50m) At height (100m) At height (200m) Wind Power Density

Wind Speed 7.48 m/s 8.15 m/s 8.59 m/s Power Density 511 w/m2 623 W/m² 782 W/m²

Tab 4.03 Wind Speed & Power Density ( Hadramout)

Wind Power Density Wind Speed

50m

100m

200m

Fig 4.01 Hadramout Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at Different Height

4.2 Site Information

Site Name: Lahj

Latitude: 13.0500000

Longitude: 44.8833300

Elevation : 134 m

Solar Resources [kWh/m2] Per Year [kWh/m2] Per Day

Global Horizontal 2168 5.940 Irradiation Direct Normal Irradiation 1699 4.655 Diffuse Horizontal 946 2.592 Irradiation

Tab 4.04 Solar Resources (Lahj)

Photovoltaic Power Per Year Per Day Output

Photovoltaic Electricity 1591 kWh 4.359 kWh Global Tilted Irradiation 2228 kWh/m2 6.105 kWh/m2

Tab 4.05 PV OUT (Lahj)

Wind Speed - At height (50m) At height (100m) At height (200m) Wind Power Density

Wind Speed 9.54 m/s 10.3 m/s 10.83 m/s Power Density 848 W/m² 1020 W/m² 1241 W/m²

Tab 4.06 Wind Speed & Power Density (Lahj)

Wind Power Density Wind Speed

50m

100m

200m

Fig 4.02 Lahj Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at Different Height

4.3 Site Information

Site Name: Aden

Latitude: 12.7909610

Longitude: 45.0072260

Elevation : 20 m

SOLAR RESOURCE [kWh/m2] Per Year [kWh/m2] Per Day Global Horizontal 2175 5.959 Irradiation Direct Normal Irradiation 1682 4.608 Diffuse Horizontal 932 2.553 Irradiation

Tab 4.07 Solar Resources (Aden)

Photovoltaic Power Per Year Per Day Output

Photovoltaic electricity 1608 kWh 4.405 kWh Global tilted irradiation 2224 kWh/m2 6.094 kWh/m2

Tab 4.08 PV OUT (Aden)

Wind Speed - At height (50m) At height (100m) At height (200m) Wind Power Density

Wind Speed 7.6 m/s 7.86 m/s 7.94 m/s Power Density 447 W/m² 499 W/m² 555 W/m²

Tab 4.09 Wind Speed & Power Density (Aden)

Wind Power Density Wind Speed

50m

100m

200m

Fig 4.03 Aden Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at Different Height

4.4 Site Information

Site Name: Sana

Latitude: 15.3500000

Longitude: 44.2000000

Elevation : 2258 m

SOLAR RESOURCE [kWh/m2] Per Year [kWh/m2] Per Day Global horizontal 2342 6.416 irradiation Direct normal irradiation 2286 6.263 Diffuse horizontal 776 2.126 irradiation

Tab 4.10 Solar Resources (Sanaa)

Photovoltaic Power Per Year Per Day Output

Photovoltaic electricity 1830 kWh 5.013 kWh Global tilted irradiation 2461 kWh/m2 6.743 kWh/m2

Tab 4.11 PV OUT (Sanaa)

Wind Speed - At height (50m) At height (100m) At height (200m) Wind Power Density Wind Speed 6.57 m/s 6.67 m/s 6.67 m/s Power Density 292 W/m² 300 W/m² 304 W/m²

Tab 4.12 Wind Speed & Power Density (Sanaa)

Wind Power Density Wind Speed

50m

100m

200m

Fig 4.04 Sanaa Wind Speed & Power Density Curves at Different Height

Solar System Analysis

2500 2450

2400 ] ] Year Per 2 2350 2300 2250

2200 2150 2100 2050 2000 Hadramaut Sana Aden Lahij

Global horizontal horizontal irradiation[kWh/m Global Site Name

Fig 4.05 Solar Sites Analysis

Wind System Analysis 12

4 Wind Speed(m/s) 2

0 Lahij Aden Hadramaut Sana Site Name

Fig 4.06 Wind Sites Analysis

Chapter 5 HOMER Optimization ( Residential Load )

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The Description of the system

5.2.1 Metrological Wind and Solar Data 5.3 The Load Profile 5.4 Homer Simulation Model 5.5 System Components

5.6 Simulation Results

5.7 Electrical output 5.8 Cost Summary 5.9 Emissions

5.1 Introduction

In renewable systems, the consumer is offered the ability to generate clean and quiet electricity. That means helping the environment in terms of gasses pollution as well as reducing noise thus having a peaceful atmosphere. In this chapter, we will discuss the optimization steps of a hybrid system using HOMER. All the steps and results that are obtained from the program are going to be clarified and discussed. Basically, HOMER is going to be used to perform an economic analysis on a hybrid system from solar and wind. A precise simulation based on an hourly base and with consideration of the peak load for consumers in terms of days and months to have a full picture of the results.

5.2 The Description of the system

Our system was designed based on assumed data from the chosen location and those data were processed by the HOMER to get the final results. In the upcoming sections, we will discuss the metrological data, load profile, and the main designing components.

Fig 5.01 The Chosen Location

5.2.1 Metrological wind and solar data

We have chosen our design location to be in Lahj ( 12 53' 14.87 N 43 22' 00.53'' E) as in Fig 5.01. The solar radiation, as well as the wind speed data, are collected for this area. In Fig 5.02, we can see the daily average solar radiation in (kWh/m2/d) ranging from 5.395 to 6.758. And in Fig 5.03 reveals the average wind speed data in(m/s) ranging from 3.760 to 7.480. The solar data were taken from the National Renewable Energy Lab Database and the wind data were taken from NASA Surface Metrology and Solar Energy Database. The Orange line in Fig 5.02 is the clearness index, which is the portion of t radiation that is carried into the atmosphere to hit the Earth.

Fig 5.02 Monthly Average GHI Data

Fig 5.03 Monthly Average Wind Speed

Month Clearness Index Daily Month Average Radiation Speed (kWh/m2/day) (M\s) Jan 0.633 5.395 Jan 6.070 Feb 0.624 5.796 Feb 5.680 Mar 0.635 6.409 Mar 5.010 Apr 0.623 6.575 Apr 3.830 May 0.638 6.758 May 3.920 Jun 0.600 6.293 Jun 6.510 Jul 0.560 5.880 Jul 7.840 Aug 0.584 6.128 Aug 7.290 Sep 0.614 6.260 Sep 5.200

Oct 0.662 6.283 Oct 3.760 Nov 0.684 5930 Nov 4.820 Dec 0.648 5.340 Dec 5.560 Tab 5.01 Monthly Average GHI Tab 5.02 Monthly Average Wind Speed 46

5.3 The Load Profile

In order to calculate the output of the system, we need to introduce an important factor which is the load in terms of the load profile given the table Tab 5.03 in terms of hours for one year period. The table was assumed for a typical residential load, and the loads increase in summer because of the air conditioning loads and that is obvious when seeing the seasonal load profile in Fig 5.05. In Fig 5.04, we can see the load profile in one winter day and the loads are not high because the use of air conditioning is not present. Also, in coastal areas of Yemen, the use of heaters in the winter is not present because the temperature in winter is moderate.

Fig 5.04 Daily Load Profile

Fig 5.05 Seasonal Load Profile

Hour January February March April May June July August September October November December 0 1.087 1.087 1.087 1.087 5.087 5.087 5.087 5.087 5.087 1.087 1.087 1.087 1 1.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 2 1.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 3 1.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 5.076 1.076 1.076 1.076 4 1.262 1.262 1.262 1.262 5.262 5.262 5.262 5.262 5.262 1.262 1.262 1.262 5 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 5.400 5.400 5.400 5.400 5.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 6 1.440 1.440 1.440 1.440 5.440 5.440 5.440 5.440 5.440 1.440 1.440 1.440 7 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 1.400 8 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 9 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 10 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.396 11 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 1.426 12 1.553 1.553 1.553 1.553 5.553 5.553 5.553 5.553 5.553 1.553 1.553 1.553 13 1.415 1.415 1.415 1.415 5.415 5.415 5.415 5.415 5.415 1.415 1.415 1.415 14 1.334 1.334 1.334 1.334 5.334 5.334 5.334 5.334 5.334 1.334 1.334 1.334 15 1.318 1.318 1.318 1.318 5.318 5.318 5.318 5.318 5.318 1.318 1.318 1.318 16 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 1.327 17 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 1.526 18 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 1.985 19 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 1.802 20 1.541 1.541 1.541 1.541 5.541 5.541 5.541 5.541 5.541 1.541 1.541 1.541 21 1.384 1.384 1.384 1.384 5.384 5.384 5.384 5.384 5.384 1.384 1.384 1.384 22 1.240 1.240 1.240 1.240 5.240 5.240 5.240 5.240 5.240 1.240 1.240 1.240 23 1.163 1.163 1.163 1.163 5.163 5.163 5.163 5.163 5.163 1.163 1.163 1.163 Tab 5.03 Electric Load Profile of One Year

5.4 HOMER Simulation Model

In our work, the selection and sizing of components of hybrid power system has been done using HOMER software. HOMER is user friendly software. HOMER's fundamental capability is simulating the long-term operation of a micro power system. Its higher-level capabilities, optimization and sensitivity analysis, HOMER can simulate a wide variety of micro power system configurations, comprising any combination of a PV array, one or more wind turbines, and many no of generators, a battery bank, an ac-dc converter.

Fig 5.06 Schematic of Hybrid power system

The Fig above shows Hybrid Power System Design for present location using Homer. It consists of Photovoltaic array, a wind turbine generator ,converter, and batteries are presented in simulation model. In normal operation, PV and WTG supply the load demand. The excess energy from PV and WTG is stored in the battery till full capacity of the battery is reached.

5.5 System Components

PV Array Wind Turbine Converter Battery Generator

Rated 5(KW) Minimum 0 kW Capacity 4.6 kW Battery Lead acid capacity Output type battery

Minimum 0 Maximum 3 kW Capital 300 $ Batterie 62 output Output cost s numbers Maximum 4.85(KW) Total 3 kW Lifetime 20 year Connect Parallel output Rated ion type Capacity Capital 3000 $ Total 2.959 _ _ Bus 12 v Cost Production kWh/yr Voltage

Life time 25 year Life time 20 year _ _ Capital 300 $ cost

Efficiency 13% Hub 17 m _ _ Life 10 year height time

Total 8.658 Capital 18000 _ _ Efficienc 80% Production kWh/yr Cost $ y

Tab 5.04 Tab System Components

5.6 Simulation Results

Several simulation results have been obtained by considering different PV capacities, different numbers of batteries and different numbers of WGs. It can be noticed from table that the first system consist of PV/WG/Converter/Battery is the most economical because the presence of all components. The capital cost of hybrid PV/WG/Battery/Converter system is 52.980 $.

Solar Wind Converter Batteries Wind PV(kW) Capital turbine numbers turbines cost($) numbers

Yes Yes Yes 62 1 5 52.980

No Yes Yes 138 15 ------313.200

Yes Yes Yes 56 2 5 69,780

Yes Yes Yes 60 2 5 70,380

Tab 5.05 Simulation Results

5.7 Electrical output

The annual electric energy production from system components. Electric production from various energy sources per year is discussed in table:

Production kWh/yr %

Generic fate PV 8,658 74.5

Generic 3kw 2,959 25.5 total 11,617 100

Tab 5.06 System Components

5.8 Cost Summary

The system cost is defined as sum of PV cost (Cpv), Wind Turbine Generator cost

(CWTG), battery cost (CBAT) and converter cost (CCONV).

Components Capital($) Replacement($) Q &M($) Salvage($) Total($)

Converter 1,380.00 439,95.00 11.893.32 247,94 13,465.33

Lead acid 18,600.00 16,431..94 8,015..06 2,227.89 40,819.11 battery

Wind 18,000.00 5,738.53 2,326.95 3,234.03 22,831.45 turbine(3kw)

Flat plate 15,000.00 0.00 64,638 0.00 15,646.38 PV

System 52,980.00 22,610.43 22,881.70 5,709.86 92,762.27

Tab 5.07 Cost Summary 5.9 Emissions

Table show the total amount of each pollutant produced annually by the power system. Pollutants originate from the consumption of fuel. The annual emission of the hybrid off grid system is tabulated in table.

Pollutant Emissions (kg/yr)

Carbon dioxide 0

Carbon monoxide 0

Unburned hydrocarbons 0

Particulate matter 0

Sulfur dioxide 0

Nitrogen oxides 0

Tab 5.04 Emissions

Chapter 6 HOMER Optimization (Commercial Load )

6.1 The Description of the system 6.1.1 Metrological wind and solar data 6.2 The Load Profile 6.3 HOMER Simulation Model 6.4 System Components

6.4.1 PV Array 6.4.2 Wind Turbine 6.4.3 Converter and Battery 6.5 Simulation Results

6.7 Electrical Output 6.7.1 Production results 6.7.2 Cost Summary

6.7.3 Compare Economics 6.7.4 Grid 6.7.5 Emissions

6.1 The Description of the system

In this chapter, we are discussing the optimization of a commercial load with higher demand than the residential load. The same steps are going to be followed in order to find similarities and differences. We are going to assume a load and this time it is going to be in Aden which is a city in Yemen. The assumed load is for supplying Aden Air Port with electricity using a hybrid solar-wind system.

Fig 6.01 Air Port Location

6.1.1 Metrological wind and solar data

Fig 6.01 displays the location of Aden Air Port in which the commercial load is going to be analyzed . The solar radiation, as well as the wind speed data, are collected for this area. In Fig 6.02, the daily average solar radiation in (kWh/m2/d) is ranging from 4.061 to 6.415. Also, in Fig 6.03 the average wind speed data in (m/s) ranging from 3.830 to 10.230. As in the previous chapter ,the solar data were taken from the National Renewable Energy Lab Database and the wind data were taken from NASA Surface Metrology and Solar Energy Database. The Orange line in Fig 6.02 is the clearness index.

Fig 6.02 Monthly Average GHI

Fig 6.03 Monthly Average Wind Speed

Month Clearness Index Daily Month Average Radiation Speed 2 (kWh/m /day) (M\s) Jan 0.547 4.654 Jan 6.960 Feb 0.545 5.061 Feb 6.280 Mar 0.576 5.810 Mar 5.270 Apr 0.572 6.037 Apr 3.830 May 0.606 6.415 May 4.320 Jun 0.573 6.017 Jun 8.300

Jul 0.534 5.610 Jul 10.230 0.565 5.928 Aug Aug 9.730 Sep 0.583 5.942 Sep 6.290 Oct 0.625 5.923 Oct 4.290 Nov 0.636 5.509 Nov 5.850 Dec 0.572 4.711 Dec 6.700 Tab 6.01 Monthly Average GHI Tab 6.02 Monthly Average Wind Speed

6.2 The Load Profile

The load profile in this chapter is different than the load profile in chapter 5.In the previous chapter the load was residential which means there will be a peak loads in certain period of the day according to the work hours and weather. However, In commercial loads are always at its peak specially for loads such as air ports.

Fig 6.04 Daily Load Profile

Fig 6.05 Seasonal Load Profile

Hour January February March April May June July August September October November December 0 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 1 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 2 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 3 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 4 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 5 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 6 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 7 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 8 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 9 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 10 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 11 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 12 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 13 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 14 15 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 16 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 17 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 18 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 19 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 20 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 21 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 22 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331 23 376 433 373 410 485 546 801 621 670 489 455 331

Tab 6.03 Electric Load Profile of One Year

6.3 HOMER Simulation Model

Fig 6.06 Schematic hybrid power system

The Fig above shows Hybrid Power System Design for commercial load using Homer. It consists of Photovoltaic array, a wind turbine generator , a grid , a converter, and batteries are presented in simulation model. In normal operation, PV and WTG supply the load demand. The excess energy from PV and WTG is stored in the battery till full capacity of the battery is reached and the rest generated energy send to the grid.

6.4 System Components :

6.4.1 PV Array

Quantity Value Units Rated capacity 500 Kw Minimum Output 0 kW Maximum Output 499.95 kW Hours of Operation 4,340 hrs/yr Efficiency 17.3 % Life time 25 Year

Tab 6.04 PV properties

6.4.2 Wind Turbine

Quantity Value Units

Rated capacity 250 Kw

Total rated capacity 36000 Kw

Minimum Output 0 kW

Maximum Output 36,000 kW

Hours of Operation 7,552 hrs/yr

Hub height 48 M

Life time 20 Year

Tab 6.05 Wind Turbine properties

6.4.3 Converter and Battery

Converter

Capacity 900 kw

Efficiency 96%

Lifetime 10 year

Battery

Lifetime 20year

Connection type Parallel

Bus Voltage 48 v

Tab 6.06 Converter and Battery properties

6.5 Simulation Results

Several simulation results have been obtained by considering different PV capacities, different numbers of batteries and different numbers of WGs. It can be noticed from table that there are eight optimizations results. We have analyzed the first result according to Electrical output, Electrical output, Compare economics, Grid and Emissions.

Result Solar Wind Grid Converter Battery Wind PV(kw) number turbine turbines numbers

1 Yes Yes Yes No No 144 8,117

2 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 144 11,059

3 No Yes Yes No No 144 ----

4 No Yes Yes Yes Yes 144 -----

5 Yes No Yes NO NO ----- 9,178

6 Yes No Yes Yes Yes ---- 9,154

7 NO No Yes No NO ------

8 No No Yes Yes Yes ------

Tab 6.07 Simulation Results

6.7 Electrical Output

The annual electric energy production from system components per year is discussed in table:

6.7.1 Production results

Production kWh/yr %

PV 2,114,926 2.66

Wind turbine 2,114,926 96.7

Grid Purchases 491,475 0.617

Total 79,648,940 100

Renewable fraction 99.4%

Tab 6.08 Electrical Production results The monthly average electric production from PV , wind turbine and grid for entire year is shown in Fig.

Fig 6.07 monthly average electric production

Fig 6.08 PV output (kW)

Fig 6.09 Wind Turbine Output

Fig 6.10 Renewable Energy Output

6.7.2 Cost Summary

The system cost is defined as sum of all system components cost. In case number 1 the system components cost are PV cost (Cpv), Wind Turbine Generator cost (CWTG) and grid cost.

Name Capital($) Replacement($) Q &M($) Total($)

Grid 0.00 0.00 -48.1M - 48.1M

PV 48,701 0.00 2,099 50,800

Wind turbine 8.63M 2.75M 558,469 10.4M

System 8.68M 2.75M -1.55M - 37.7M

Tab 6.09 Cost Summary

Fig 6.11 Cost Summary

6.7.3 Compare Economics

Solar Wind Grid Converter Battery Wind PV(kw) NPC($) turbine turbines numbers

Base No No Yes No No ------4.53M System

Current Yes Yes Yes No No 144 8,117 -37.7M System

Tab 6.10 Compare Economics

6.7.4 Grid

Month Energy Purchased ( kWh) Energy sold(kWh) Peak January 19,269 7,340,726 558 February 28,069 5,064,743 669 March (kWh) 37,376 3,354,769 574 April 71,870 1,023,780 700 May 75,331 1,653,521 697 June 25,706 10,302,728 876 July 27,306 14,689,307 1,145 August 22,850 13,841,000 992 September 55,631 5,289,067 954 October 73,655 1,600,807 745 November 38,005 4,410,137 661 December 16,406 6,702,913 543 Annual 491,475 75,273,499 1,145 Tab 6.11 Grid Data

Fig 6.12 Energy Purchased from Grid

Fig 6.13 Energy Sold to Grid

6.7.5 Emissions

Table show the total amount of each pollutant produced annually by the power system. Pollutants originate from the consumption of fuel. The annual emission of the hybrid on grid system is tabulated in table.

Pollutant Emissions (kg/yr)

Carbon dioxide 310,612

Carbon monoxide 0

Unburned hydrocarbons 0

Particulate mat\ter 0

Sulfur dioxide 1,347

Nitrogen oxides 0

Tab 6.12 Annual Emission

Conclusion

Our planet has been suffering since the industrial revelation. The consequences of such revelation is the greenhouse effect which caused by CO2 emission that cause floods, storms and climate fluctuation. As a matter of fact, we must take actions to tackle this global issue that has been concerned all humanity. change starts with individuals and youngster efforts to widen the hazardous of these emissions among our surrounding and find alter resources instead of fossil fuels, so we have decided to take a step forward and make actions by design a friendly system to preserve our planet and insure the safety of the next generation.

Initially, we have done some researches about the clean energy particularly in Yemen and we figured out that Yemen has convenient green power resources to design and implement many clean energy projects whether by using solar, wind or geothermal to generate power.

After that, we have chosen wind and solar to design our project due to the abundant amount of such resources that gives Yemen noteworthy privilege. Generally, we have done studies to indulge and know better about these resources which will help us to choose wisely the parameters that we need to design the project. Additionally, we used the HOMER software to do some calculations to boost the position of our project.

The next step was, doing a study in four different sites whichare Hadramout, Aden, Lahij and Sana’a. In solar system. we have assembled many data according to solar resources, air temperature and PV output power. on the other hand, we have also gathered information about wind speed and power density. we have analyzed the data which indicate that Lahij is the best place to design the wind system. Whereas, Hadramout is the most suitable place to design the solar system.Since the values differ from place to another. The solar output power of all sites is in its highest form because Yemen is located in the solar built. However, the critical point in choosing where to implement the hybrid solar-wind system is where wind is in at its highest form which is Lahij.

In chapter 4, we used the HOMER software to test domestic load in rural area that the governmental grid system doesn’t reach to, so we have designed hybrid wind-solar off grid system and concluded it wasn’t the proper solution because the high cost of executing such project for small load. Thus, the best solution for rural sites is using only the solar PV cells. Whereas, the optimum solution for commercial load is the hybrid solar-wind system.

Eventually, we tested a steady commercial load which is Aden airport to know if we can use the hybrid system to feed huge consumption of power. The results were satisfying and the hybrid system was the optimum solution.

References

[1] library of congress ( https://www.loc.gov/ )

[2] UNDP (Prospects of Solar Energy in Yemen)

[3] https://www.evwind.es/2009/12/22/wind-power-in-yemen/2997 - ch2 wind -

[4]EVOENERGY (https://www.evoenergy.co.uk/blog/18514/what-is-a-kwp/)

[5] Gelma Boneya Huka, Design of a Photovoltaic-Wind Hybrid Power Generation system for Ethiopian Remote Area.

[6] Homer Database

[7](WINDUSTRY)( http://www.windustry.org/community-wind/toolbox/chapter-15- turbine-selection-and-purchase) [8] Best Practices Handbook for the Collection and Use of Solar Resource Data for Solar Energy Applications. [9]Solar Electric System Design , Operation and installation [10] Umesh S Magarappanavar, Sreedhar Koti, Optimization of Wind-Solar-Diesel Generator Hybrid Power System using HOMERINTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY [11] J. K. Kaldellis - Stand-alone and Hybrid Wind Energy Systems_ Technology, Energy Storage and Applications (Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy) (2010, CRC Press)

College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department

EE411: Senior Design Project (Semester 182, 2019) “Final Report” Wireless Power Transmissions

Supervisor: Prof. Mohammad Eleiwa

Done by: Student Name Student ID

Mohammad Yousef Alomaim 201411926

Ziyad Mohammad Almotairi 201408248

Salim Alnekhelan 201409852

Submission Date:

2019/04/04 Abstract

The concept of wireless power transmission is the transfer of power without the use of wires and the first one who discover this technology Nicholas Tesla. Wireless energy can be transmitted across the electromagnetic field which eliminates the use of wires. In this project we will develop a wireless power transmission project in a small range. This project can be used to feed small loads. This technology is a project for the future because it is an emerging technology, and in the future the efficiency of energy transmission can be developed. This project will achieve a reduction in the number of wires and batteries and thus reduce the cost, and also achieve greater welfare of users by the transfer of electricity wirelessly.

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Acknowledgement

As we progress and open the roads to us and reach everything we dream of, we must remember who was the reason for our success, who supported us and held our hand to continue, from being stimulated and encouraged, we are pleased to present to you in this report our project on the transfer of power wirelessly, which includes a mix of our study and knowledge during the past years. We thank all those who assisted us in the research and implementation of this project, especially Professor Mohammad Eleiwa, Chairman of Electrical Engineering Department, who gave us all the continuous support and encouragement.

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Table Contents: List of Figures: ...... 6 List of Tables: ...... 8 List of Abbreviations: ...... 9 1. Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 10 1.1. Introduction: ...... 10 1.2. History of WPT: ...... 11 1.3. Advantages & Disadvantages of WPT: ...... 12 1.4. The Applications: ...... 13 1.5. WPT In Futures: ...... 14 1.6. Major Concerns of WPT ...... 15 1.7. Economic Impact of WPT: ...... 16 1.8. Tesla Wireless Theory: ...... 16 1.9. Objectiveives and Design Specifications: ...... 17 2. Chapter 2: Techniques of WPT ...... 18 2.1. Introductions: ...... 18 2.2. Inductive coupling: ...... 18 2.3. Resonant inductive coupling: ...... 19 2.4. Microwaves:...... 20 2.4.1. Solar Power satellite: ...... 21 2.4.2. The Rectenna of Microwaves: ...... 23 2.5. Light waves:...... 25 3. Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework ...... 27 3.1. Introduction: ...... 27 3.2. Faraday law: ...... 27 3.3. Mutual Inductance: ...... 28 3.4. Resonance Frequency: ...... 31 4. Chapter 4: Design Specifications ...... 32 4.1. Introductions: ...... 32 4.2. Voltage Regulator: ...... 32 4.3. MOSFET:...... 33

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4.4. Coils: ...... 33 4.5. Capacitors: ...... 34 4.6. Diode: ...... 34 4.7. Arduino Uno R3: ...... 35 5. Chapter 5: Explanation Operation ...... 37 5.1. Introductions: ...... 37 5.2. Electromagnetic Fields: ...... 37 5.3. Producing Electromagnetic Fields: ...... 39 5.4. Circuit Design: ...... 40 6. Chapter 6: Implementation and Result ...... 41 6.1. Introductions: ...... 41 6.2. Inverter converter: ...... 42 6.3. Resonance circuit: ...... 43 6.4. Rectifier converter: ...... 45 6.5. Design of the Coils: ...... 46 6.6. Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling: ...... 48 6.7. Power Transmission Efficiency Vs. Distance and Coupling: ...... 49 6.8. Design, Simulation and Implementation of Rectenna for WPT using microwaves: ...... 49 7. Chapter 7: Conclusion ...... 52 8. Chapter 8: References ...... 55

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List of Figures:

Figure 1 (Wireless Power Transfer)...... 10 Figure 2 (WPT) ...... 10 Figure 3 (Advantages of WPT)...... 12 Figure 4 (Disadvantages of WPT)...... 13 Figure 5 (Charging electronics devices)...... 13 Figure 6(Electric vehicle charging)...... 14 Figure 7 (Medical uses)...... 14 Figure 8 (WPT in Futures)...... 15 Figure 9 (Nicolas Tesla Tower)...... 16 Figure 10 (Inductive coupling)...... 18 Figure 11 (Resonant inductive coupling)...... 19 Figure 12 (Microwave Power Transfer)...... 21 Figure 13 (Solar Power satellite)...... 22 Figure 14 (Model of The SPS)...... 22 Figure 15 (Rectenna Block Diagram)...... 23 Figure 16(The Rectenna of Microwaves )...... 24 Figure 17 (Rectena design)...... 24 Figure 18 (Schematic layout of the rectenna)...... 24 Figure 19 (Transmission of light waves by laser)...... 25 Figure 20 ( L-SPS system diagram)...... 26 Figure 21 (Michael Faraday)...... 27 Figure 22 (mutual inductance between Tx & Rx)...... 28 Figure 23 (Distance & Diameter of coils)...... 30 Figure 24 (Resonance Circuit)...... 31 Figure 25 (The basic hardware )...... 32 Figure 26 (Voltage Regulator)...... 33 Figure 27 (MOSFET)...... 33 Figure 28 (Coils)...... 33 Figure 29 (capacitor)...... 34 Figure 30 (Diode)...... 35 Figure 31 (Arduino Uno R3) ...... 35 Figure 32(The code programing of Arduino ) ...... 36 Figure 33 (block diagram of WPT)...... 37 Figure 34 (Electromagnetic Fields)...... 38 Figure 35( Electromagnetic Fields)...... 38 Figure 36 (Producing Electromagnetic Fields)...... 39 Figure 37 (Transmitter Design)...... 40 Figure 38 (Receiver Design)...... 40 Figure 39 (Model of the WPT)...... 41 Figure 40 (Full bridge inverter and half bridge inverter)...... 42 Figure 41 (Our Design inverter)...... 42 Figure 42 (graph output of the inverter circuit)...... 43

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Figure 43 (Rx Resonance Circuit)...... 43 Figure 44 (The Result with C= 1u F)...... 44 Figure 45 (The result of different values of capacitor in TX & RX )...... 45 Figure 46 (Full wave Bridge Rectifier)...... 45 Figure 47 (Rectified Output Waveform)...... 46 Figure 48 (Types of Coils)...... 46 Figure 49 (The coils)...... 47 Figure 50 (50 turns VS 20 turns)...... 48 Figure 51 (Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling)...... 49 Figure 52 (The efficiency with distances)...... 50

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List of Tables:

Table 1 (50 turns VS 20 turns)...... 48 Table 2 (Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling)...... 49 Table 3 ...... 49

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List of Abbreviations:

WPT: “Wireless power transfer”

RX: “Receiver”

TX: “Transmitter”

EMF: “Electromotive force”

LCD: “Liquid Crystal Display”

LED: “Light Emitting Diode”

MOSFET: “Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor”

Q: “Factor Quality factor”

RF: “Radio frequency”

IPT: “Inductive Power Transfer”

MRC: “Magnetic Resonance Coupling”

SPS: “Solar Power Satellite”

MPT: “Microwave Power Transmission”

RF: “Resonance Frequency”

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1. Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Introduction:

Wireless power transmission is technology that enables an energy transferring from the source to the load over an air gap without interconnecting conductors. This technology using an electromagnetic induction method was discovered by Nikola Telsa in the year 1899. Based on that concept, this technology is developed to transfer power within a small range to feed small loads. Currently engineers are trying to discover how to increase the efficiency of wireless power transmission.

Figure 1 (Wireless Power Transfer). This way is just piratical to transfer the energy for short distance with low power. Also this technology provides efficient, fast, and low maintenance cost as compared to previous technologies. Also power loss of this technology is very less as compared to wired electricity transmission.

Figure 2 (WPT)

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In order to transmit electricity wirelessly we need to convert electricity into an electromagnetic field. And in order to generate an electromagnetic field, we need coil (the transmitted coil) which is connected to an electrical circuit with AC source or DC source connected to inverter. So, this coil will generate an electromagnetic field as a result of pass the current through the coil and the higher the current passing through the coils, the more electromagnetic field. Also, to increase the quality of transport, we need to make sure that the transmitter coil and the receiver coil hold the same frequency so as not lose a large amount of energy during the transfer and this process is called resonance.

1.2. History of WPT:

 1826: André Marie-Ampere developed a general law of which is based on supply of electricity.  1831: Michael Faraday developed Faraday's Law of Induction, one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetic.  1864: James Clarke Maxwell developed a mathematical model of the behavior of electromagnetic radiation, combining dating, experiments and background laws in the population.  1888: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz refers to the presence of electromagnetic radiation. He re-created the electromagnetic radiation generator he manufactured as the first radio transmitter.  1891: Nicolas Tesla performs the Hz instrument.  1893: Nicolas Tesla is a show in which he lights a group of light bulbs wirelessly.  1894: Nicolas Tesla shines wirelessly a set of hollow shapes using electrodynamics induction.  2007: A research team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (NGAM Illumination) with 60 watts wireless at a distance of two meters and effectively up to 40%.

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1.3. Advantages & Disadvantages of WPT:

The advantages of wireless power transfer are showing in the following:

 Simple design.  Lower maintenance.  Practical for short distance.  Reduce the cost of wires and batteries.  Avoid the problem of e-waste.  Not subject to the weather conditions.  The ability transferring energy through barriers.

Figure 3 (Advantages of WPT).

The disadvantages of wireless power transfer are showing in the following:

• Lower efficiency.

• Not applicable for long distances for induction coupling techniques.

• Limited.

• High Cost.

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Figure 4 (Disadvantages of WPT).

1.4. The Applications:

The applications of wireless power transmission are showing in the following:

 Charging electronics devices.  Electric vehicle charging.  Solar Power Stellate  Medical uses.

Figure 5 (Charging electronics devices).

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Figure 6(Electric vehicle charging).

Figure 7 (Medical uses).

1.5. WPT In Futures:

In day to day the amount of E-waste problem had increased. In our wireless transmission it doesn’t need any cables wires and other materials. So the E- waste problem can be minimized. Another advantage is it reducing the cost. In wire transfer the power flow is in one direction i.e unidirectional. But in WPT the power flow omnidirectional. It is the one of the big advantage. If you need more lamp in your place means simply place the lamp where ever you need it there is no need for the electrician. There is no collaboration wire due to the absence of wire in the power transmission . The probability of fault occurrence is very low. There are no short circuit problems and arc will produce. It will not interfere with any biological organisms like humans. The figure as shown below describe the wireless power transfer futures.

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Figure 8 (WPT in Futures).

There are more number of researches are going in WPT to improve the efficiency. In future, the world would completely wireless. Some of the companies are giving sponsor ship to the wireless ideas. For example, Toyota Company is introducing a new method of charging the electrical vehicles. The vehicles can automatically charge when it is leaved in a garage.

1.6. Major Concerns of WPT

Wireless power transmission is possible, but at present it is considered limited, due to some problems in transmission efficiency. There is a common question about wireless power transmission. Is it safe to use?

Of course, WPT is not "electricity in the air," but a technique that uses magnetic fields that move between the coils. With proper design, electric and magnetic fields can be kept at the level of human safety limits. Another concern for consumers is the safety of electromagnetic energy and its impact on the human body. So far, its effect has not been directly demonstrated to humans. Electromagnetic energy is also involved in applications such as mobile phones, radar and wireless Internet.

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1.7. Economic Impact of WPT:

Many countries will benefit economically from this new technology. To implement this technology, we need different receivers stations, such as television and radio stations. This also requires a single energy receiver using the resonance phenomenon and the receiver of each electrical device. Among the economic advantages of this technology will not need electric wires to transfer energy or fossil fuels, and will become networks to extend electricity is not mandatory, eventually will become electricity, such as direct television technology.

1.8. Tesla Wireless Theory:

Nicolas Tesla was the first to think of the electric transport of electricity. The tower was known as the Tesla Tower for the Wireless Transmission of Electric Power between 1898 and 1901. The idea was to create an electric field between two metal plates connected to the side with an induction coil wrapped inside a secondary coil, And to observe the electric power was used tubular discharge electric, and already succeeded experiment and light the tubes.

Figure 9 (Nicolas Tesla Tower).

Tesla reached two theories which are by using two sources of one type with a distance on the surface of the earth, a stream of electricity can be induced. To

| P a g e 16 consider the Earth as a powerful oscillator to replace the first plate to produce electricity, so the Earth is experiencing disturbances that are an electric current moving above the Earth's surface. To improve this theory, he use the layer of the troposphere (at an altitude of 8 km) Density or atmospheric pressure in this layer so that he can get rid of the resistance of this layer to transfer the electricity, and thus moving electricity over long distances.

1.9. Objectives and Design Specifications:

Objectives

The purpose and our main objective of this project is to implement the technology of transmission of wireless energy as well as knowledge of the methods of transport, also to research and exploration of ways to develop this technology and strengthen our understanding.

In this project we are planning to:

1. transfer the power wirelessly by using resonate inductive coupling technique in a short range to charge a small load wirelessly.

2. Design, simulate and implement rectenna for wireless power transfer using microwaves.

Design Specifications

1. The efficiency of the inductive coupling WPT prototype is about 50% at few cm distances between the transmitting and receiving coils with different orientations.

2. The designed rectenna for microwave WPT system with bandwidth of 200MHz from 0.8 GHz up to 1 GHz and VSWR < 2.

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2. Chapter 2: Techniques of WPT

2.1. Introductions:

In this chapter we are going to show the different techniques of wireless power transmission some of them costly and some of them difficult to implant it. There are several major depend on it range types technics of WPT are in the followings:

 Short range: Inductive coupling.  Short range: Magneto dynamic coupling.  Short range: Capacitive coupling.  Medium range: Resonant inductive coupling.  Long range: Microwave.  Long range: Light waves.

2.2. Inductive coupling:

Inductive coupling is the most common used wireless power and It is the oldest and simplest one compared to the others. In this technique the power will transfer between two coils which are transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) by mutual electromagnetic induction.

Figure 10 (Inductive coupling).

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The principles of this technique is applying Ac current in the transmitter coil in order generates magnetic field which will induces a voltage in the receiver coil. But, unfortunately the power can be transmitted only up to few meters, and the transformer is an example of this technique. The operating frequency of this technique in the Kilohertz range. Transformer is an example of inductive coupling. Also this type has several of advantages some of them in the following points:

 Easy in implementing.  High efficiency in short distance.  Ensured safety.

2.3. Resonant inductive coupling:

This technique almost similar to the pervious one but here the power is transferred by electromagnetic fields between two resonant circuits, one in the transmitter and the other in the receiver. Each resonant circuit consists coil connected to a capacitor on parallel.

Figure 11 (Resonant inductive coupling).

Resonance makes the coils interact very strongly and by using this technique the efficiency of WPT will be increased. But you should make sure in this technique the frequency of the resonant circuits are the same in order to have high energy transfer. The operating frequency of this technique in the megahertz range.

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Some advantages of resonant inductive coupling are showing in the following points:

 It has the ability to transfer power over longer distance than that of inductive coupling.  Can charge several receivers at the same time.

2.4. Microwaves:

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves. Microwave name is called electromagnetic waves that radiate from any circuit to the AC. Electromagnetic waves generally arise when the speed of electrical charges changes. Microwave waves can propagate in space at light speed 299 792 458 m / s The range of microwave frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 300 MHz to 300 GHz offset by a wavelength ranging from 0.3 to 30 cm. The World War II is the main factor in detecting microwave waves by using radar, which is a very important device during war and can not be dispensed with.

The use of microwave waves, especially in the field of communications, has been used, where HF waves are used as signal carriers that contain information and have very small long distances. This is done by a process called frequency modulation or amplitude of the wave. Modulation was initiated by the towers where AM or FM The tower signs and adjusts one of these processes and sends

| P a g e 20 it to the next tower and so on until you reach the desired place. Microwave energy is also the most important use of microwave as it converts electrical energy into thermal energy. In this technique the power is transfer through space by means of microwaves. In the beginning the microwaves are generated by the microwave generator. And then it passes through the Coax-Waveguide Adapted.

Figure 12 (Microwave Power Transfer).

Finally it will passes through the tuner and directional coupler device. The radiation is then transmitted over the air through antennae, where it is received by the antenna at the rectenna, at which the microwave radiation passes through a low pass filter, then a matching network, then a rectifier as it is converted to DC power.

2.4.1. Solar Power satellite:

SPS is one of the applications of MPT ,and its concept is based on collecting solar power in outer space and transmitting it to Earth wirelessly. The advantages of this technology is collecting solar energy with higher collection rate and longer collection period during day and night. There are many advantages to outer space, including absence of weather, as there is no atmosphere and clouds blocking the sun, and will treat the sun in it is always, rather than just the time of day, in addition to providing large areas in the ground. These properties make the solar energy imported from space more efficient and efficient compared to its counterparts on Earth. Transferring solar energy from

| P a g e 21 space to the Earth's surface will be a great achievement and will have positive repercussions for all the people of the Earth.

Figure 13 (Solar Power satellite).

The SBSP concept is attractive because space has several major advantages over the Earth's surface for the collection of solar power:

 It cells solar is always subject to the sun in the space.  Does not subject to weather conditions.  Easily change the path of power transfer.

Figure 14 (Model of The SPS).

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On other hand it is disadvantages are in the followings:

 Energy losses during several phases of conversion from photons to electrons to photons back to electrons.  Difficulty maintenance solar cells in the space plus the cost of the maintenance.  High cost.

2.4.2. The Rectenna of Microwaves:

The rectenna is a special type of receiver antennas used to convert electromagnetic energy to DC energy. Rectenna is an important component of wireless transmission applications, and it is designed from a diodes. The purpose from diodes is to convert the Ac energy to Dc energy. Then this energy is amplified by an electronic amplifier and then passed to filters. They are also used in wireless transmission systems that transmit energy by radio waves.

Figure 15 (Rectenna Block Diagram).

To implement the microwave power transmission (MPT), we need a microwave generator and then transfer it to space. After that this microwave which are in the space received by The receiver then the microwave are convert to DC energy.

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The device used for this process it call rectenna or rectify antenna . In order to have maximum efficiency in the rectenna, the frequency must be 2.45 GHz.

Figure 16(The Rectenna of Microwaves ).

Figure 17 (Rectena design).

Figure 18 (Schematic layout of the rectenna).

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2.5. Light waves:

The light is amplified by the ray-induced version, a highly coherent and powerful beam of light that can be so high that it can hole 200 holes above the pinhead. This beam also shares the frequency. The word laser is used to express any region of the magnetic spectrum known as a White or visible spectrum and ranges from long radio waves to short gamma rays and has seven regions which are gradually: violet - blue - nilly - green - yellow - orange - red These regions have different mismatched noise - like frequencies while we see laser on the contrary. The operations frequency of this tinqinque is in tiara Hz.

Figure 19 (Transmission of light waves by laser).

Lasers generate phase-coherent electromagnetic radiation at optical and infrared frequencies from external energy sources by preferentially pumping excited states of a “lasant” to create an inversion in the normal distribution of energy states. Photons of specific frequency emitted by stimulated emission enter and are amplified as standing waves in a resonant optical cavity. The most efficient DC-to-laser converters are solid-state laser diodes commercially employed in fiber optic and free-space laser communication. Alternatively, direct solar- pumping laser generation has a major advantage over conventional solid state or gas lasers, which rely on the use of electrical energy to generate laser oscillation since the generation of electricity in space implies automatically a system level

| P a g e 25 efficiency loss of roughly 60%. To generate a laser beam by direct solar pumping, solar energy needs to be concentrated before being injected into the laser medium. The required concentration ratio is dependent on the size of the laser medium, the energy absorption ratio and the thermal shock parameter (weakness of the material to internal stress caused by a thermal gradient).

Figure 20 ( L-SPS system diagram).

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3. Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework

3.1. Introduction:

In this chapter elaborates on the method of wireless power transfer that was selected which is Resonant Inductive Coupling. And we will present all theoretical equations for this technique which are in the following.

3.2. Faraday law:

The concept of transmitting power wirelessly is based on Faraday law which is a fundamental law in electromagnetic which proves the interaction of the magnetic field with the electric current to produce an electric driving force in a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction, which is the main principle of the transformer.

Figure 21 (Michael Faraday).

The Faraday Act of Electromagnetic Induction uses the ΦB magnetic flow through a hypothetical surface Σ and is confined to a closed circuit. Because the closed circle may move only Faraday wrote Σ (t) to the surface. Magnetic flow can be defined by surface integration:

훟퐁 = ∬ 퐁(퐫, 퐭). 퐝퐀 횺(퐭)

Where:

B is the magnetic flux density.

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Faraday's law states that the resulting electric driving force also depends on the rate of change in the magnetic flow:

풅훟퐁 ∈= − 풅풕

For N loops:

풅훟퐁 ∈= −푵 풅풕

3.3. Mutual Inductance:

Mutual inductance is a phenomenon that arises between two parts of the electrical circuit which are in the transmitter and the receiver parts ,when the change in the value of the current occurs in one of them the electric impulse occurs in the other. The current in the transmitter coil generates a magnetic field and as the current increase the magnetic field is increase. Induction arises from the connection between the two circuits and the magnetic field between the two coils. mutual inductance is measured by Henry's unit.

Figure 22 (mutual inductance between Tx & Rx).

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Wireless power transmission technology based on that principle, as shown below, the transmitter and the receiver coils, where M indicates the mutual inductance between two coils. Mutual inductance occurs when a change of current in a coil affects an effort in another nearby file. This situation is important as the work of the electric transformer depends on it, and sometimes causes undesired effect in an electrical circuit. Mutual inductance M is also a measure of the bond between two conductors. The mutual inductance between the circuit is calculated as follows:

퐌 = 퐤√퐋ퟏ퐋ퟐ

Where: k coefficient of coupling 0

The coupling coefficient is one of the most important factors to challenge the quality of coupling between the sending and receiving files. The value of coupling coefficient is from 0 to 1. When the coupling factor k = 0 means that there is no coupling between the transmitter and receiver coils. When the coupling coefficient value as k = 1 means there is total coupling between the transmitter and receiver coil. In the transformer for example, it value almost close to one. The expression of the coupling coefficient value, k, can be expressed in the following equation:

풓ퟐ ∗ 풓ퟐ ∗ 퐜퐨퐬 휶 푲 = 푻 푹 ퟐ ퟐ √풓푻풓푹 ∗ √풙 + 풓푹

Where:

rT is the radius of primary coil .

| P a g e 29 rR is the radius of secondary coil .

α is the angle of orientation between TX & RX coils. x is the distance between the two coils.

The power of the transmitter coil can be transferred to the receiver coil based on the faraday theory of electromagnetic induction. The number of turns must be equal in both the receiver coil and the transmitter in order to have good efficiency. The coupling factor has an impact on the efficiency of transmission between the receiver and transmitter, and the greater the value of the coupling factor increases the efficiency also increase. in addition to that it has the effect of reducing the loss of energy.

The transmit and receive coils are coupled most when: • When the number of turns the coils in the transmitter and receiver are equal in size and number. • When the distance between the transmitter coil and the receiver coil is close.

Figure 23 (Distance & Diameter of coils).

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3.4. Resonance Frequency:

Is an electrical circuit consisting of a coil, a capacitor and a conductor that are parallel or series and form a harmonious resonance. The resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in nature in many forms and also through which the physical system tends to vibrate with extreme intensity. At the begging the capacitor is charged from the source and the capacitor then charges the inductive, over time naturally the charge value on the capacitor reduces resulting inductive charging . After that the inductive charge the capacitor is charged and so on the process is done until the energy in the resonant circuit is become zero because of small resistance in the induction.

Figure 24 (Resonance Circuit).

The resonance circuit stores electrical energy by oscillating at what is called the resonance frequency. The resonance frequency depends on the selected induction and capacitor value. which is the capacitor stores the electric energy either the inductor stores the magnetic energy which is depend on the current power passing through it. The resonance can be as fast as hundreds of thousands of times a second, measured in kilohertz. In this resonance circuit, the energy is exchanged at the resonance frequency between the inductor (stored magnetic energy) and the capacitor (stored electrical energy). The resonance frequency and the quality factor of this resonance are in the following equation:

ퟏ 풘풐 = √푳푪

풘 푳 푸 = 풐 푹

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4. Chapter 4: Design Specifications

4.1. Introductions:

In this chapter we will show and explain the basic hardware requirements to implement the Resonant Inductive Coupling technique in order to transfer the power wirelessly which are in the followings:

 Voltage Regulator.  MOSFET.  Transistors.  BreadBoard.  12 v Buttery  Arduino Uno R3  Coils.  Capacitors.  Resistors.  Diode.

Figure 25 (The basic hardware ).

4.2. Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. It has three terminal which are Input, Output and Ground.The purpose from use it in our design to maintain the input voltage on specific level which is 12 volts.

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Figure 26 (Voltage Regulator).

4.3. MOSFET:

The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a one of the family the transistor. The purpose from use it is to amplify electronic signals in order to increase inductive voltage.

Figure 27 (MOSFET).

4.4. Coils: coils is wire with a number of turns to forming a shape. And our purpose from use it is to create electromagnetic field by pass alternating current through the coils.

Figure 28 (Coils).

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4.5. Capacitors:

It is a device that stores electric energy or electrical charge for a period of time in the form of an electric field. The electric capacitor consists of Two panels of material conductive between them a buffer material example and if the ceramic insulation on the capacitor called the capacitor name of the ceramic.

Figure 29 (capacitor).

The capacitor's capacitor capacity is used to store electrical charge with capacitance or capacitance and its measurement unit is Farad. The AC power filter is used to prevent the passage of DC current in the circuit and also it use for charging and discharging in current circuitry that convert Ac current to Dc current. The value of capacitors in Resonant inductive coupling technique change circuit the resonant frequency and quality factor of a circuit. As we decrease it value the frequency increase.

4.6. Diode:

The diode function connects the power supply in one direction only and acts as a insulator in the other direction. For example if we apply Ac voltage to the diode the positive half cycle will pass but the negative half cycle will not. Our purpose from use it is to implant it in the inverter circuit in order to change the form of the source from DC to AC.

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Figure 30 (Diode).

4.7. Arduino Uno R3:

Is an electronic development board consisting of an open source electronic circuit with a programmable microcontroller designed to facilitate the use of interactive electronics in multidisciplinary projects. Arduino is mainly used in the design of interactive e-projects or projects aimed at building different environmental sensors such as temperature, wind, light, pressure, etc. Arduino can be connected to various programs on the PC, and is based on the programming language of the open source programming language. The code for the Arduino language is similar to the C language and is one of the easiest programming languages used to write microcontroller programs.

Figure 31 (Arduino Uno R3)

Our purpose from use it in our design project is generate Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) in order to control the gate of the transistor which is the amplify current circuit. PWM is give us the ability of controlling the speed switch of the

| P a g e 35 transistors. The idea is to control pulse pulses in a single cycle, meaning that high frequency and low frequency are switched at a certain speed so that the final output has a value between them.

Figure 32(The code programing of Arduino )

The digital signal has two values as known 0 and 1. For example, 0 =0 volt and 1 =12 volts, while the analogue signal is a value between zero and 12 volts. Duty cycle or the so-called cycle of digital signal service is the ratio of high voltage in one cycle of the signal, which is programmable or modification and knowledge of the mathematical relationship:

풕 푫 = 풐풏 풕풐풏 + 풕풐풇풇

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5. Chapter 5: Explanation Operation

5.1. Introductions:

In this section we are going to explain the operation of transmission wirelessly. At first we need to convert electricity into an electromagnetic field. And in order to generate an electromagnetic field, we need coil (the transmitted coil) which is connected to an electrical circuit with AC source or DC source connected to inverter. So, this coil will generate an electromagnetic field as a result of pass the current through the coil and the higher the current passing through the coils, the more electromagnetic field.

Figure 33 (block diagram of WPT).

Also, to increase the quality of transmission, we need to make sure that the transmitter coil and the receiver coil hold the same frequency .The efficiency of transmission depends on lots of parameters such as the distance between the coils, frequency, current and the design of the coils. The block diagram as shown below show the summery of the process.

5.2. Electromagnetic Fields:

The electromagnetic Fields of the nineteenth century were introduced, and these developments led to the development of new devices and technologies that have a great impact on modern society. Electromagnetism Is the production of an electric field due to magneto-sphere change. Interestingly, the electromagnetic

| P a g e 37 field is generated even if there are no wires. The electromagnetism fields that are propagated with electromagnetic waves are called EM waves. Electromagnetic waves propagate. The antenna is a wire connected to a alternating source designed to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. The alternating source generates variable voltages in the antenna.

Figure 34 (Electromagnetic Fields).

Figure 35( Electromagnetic Fields).

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5.3. Producing Electromagnetic Fields:

An alternating source connected to an antenna can send electromagnetic waves and the frequency of the wave is equal to the alternating current of the AC alternator and is set at approximately 1 kHz. The common way to generate large frequency electromagnetic waves is to use a coil (coil) and an electric capacitor to connect together, respectively. If the capacitor is charged with a battery, it will store electrical charges and thus produce the electric voltage difference between the electric field and when the battery is separated, the capacitor loses a charge by the flow of electrons stored in it, The capacitor has shipped the magnetic field of the coil, generating an impulse electric force, The capacitor is recharged in reverse, and the process is repeated.

Figure 36 (Producing Electromagnetic Fields).

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5.4. Circuit Design:

The circuit was designed by using resonant inductive coupling technique and ensuring that the power transfer was as efficient as possible and the transfer within the near field. Next chapter, we are going to implement, analyze and measure the designed circuit which showing below.

U1 LM7812CT Q3 R1 IRFZ44N LINE VREG VOLTAGE 470Ω COMMON D3 R3 D7 V1 BYV26E 10kΩ 1N4742A 12V C1 TX 312pF 5mH

R4 D2 D4 10kΩ 1N4742A BYV26E R2 Q4 470Ω IRFZ44N

Figure 37 (Transmitter Design).

D1 D6 BYV26E BYV26E 0V 10V 10ms 20ms Q1 RX C2 X1 arduino 2N2222A 312pF 5V 5mH D8 D5 BYV26E BYV26E

Figure 38 (Receiver Design).

The above circuits contents several parts which are in the followings:

 Inverter convertor part.

 Resonant current part.

 Mutual inductions part.

 Rectifier converter part.

 Amplify Current Circuit.

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6. Chapter 6: Implementation, Results and Verifications

6.1. Introductions:

In this chapter we are going to show all the steps of this project implementation and the problems which we faced during implementing the project. Also we will show the results with details of wireless power transmission. As we discussed in the previous chapter, the design of the project of wireless power transmission is divided into several parts. In this chapter we will discuss the methods of constructing each part separately with its results.

Figure 39 (Model of the WPT).

Also in this chapter we will discuss the difference between the results of using two method of wireless power transmission techniques which are resonant inductive coupling and inductive coupling. In addition to that, we will clarify the importance of coupling frequency between the transmitter coil and receiver coil and how to achieve this coupling between them. We will also explain the effect of the distance between the transmitter and receiver coil with the results and the ways to improve the distance between them. We will also discuss the importance of shape and coil design and how to calculate its value.

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6.2. Inverter converter:

One of the most important parts of the project and the purpose of its use is to provide an AC power source so that we can generate a magnetic field as we have explain it in details in the previous chapters. Of course, since we are using a DC battery, we will need this converter. This means that if we have Ac source does not need to be used this converter. Also, the inverter converter has several types such as Full bridge inverter and half bridge inverter.

Figure 40 (Full bridge inverter and half bridge inverter).

In this project we used this type of half bridge invert which contains two MOSFET. It is considered as switch open and close very fast per second by controlling of it gate. The design also contains 4 diodes two of them are a Zener type and the purpose from them to control the opening and closing of the MOSFET. the resulting of open and close the MOSFET very fast per second will convert the form of sources from dc to ac and also amplify the electrons signals.

Figure 41 (Our Design inverter).

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As showing below the graph output of the inverter circuit.

Figure 42 (graph output of the inverter circuit).

6.3. Resonance circuit:

This circuit is the difference between resonant inductive coupling and inductive coupling techniques. This circuit is characterized by increasing the efficiency of transmission between the transmitter and receiver coils by a large percentage which we will verify it later. This circuit is responsible for controlling the frequency as we explained in pervious chapters in this equation:

ퟏ 풘풐 = √푳푪

RX C2 312pF 5mH

Figure 43 (Rx Resonance Circuit).

| P a g e 43

By determining the values of the capacitor and the coil we can calculate the frequency of the transmission and as more this frequency increase the transmission distance and efficiency will increase. After the values of the capacitor and the coil are determined, we calculate the frequency of wireless power transmission as shown below:

ퟏ 풇풐 = = ퟏퟐퟕ. ퟎퟒퟐퟓ 푲 푯풛 ퟐ ∗ 흅√(ퟓ ∗ ퟏퟎ−ퟑ)(ퟑퟏퟐ ∗ ퟏퟎ−ퟏퟐ)

We also notice the smaller the value of both the capacitor and coli, the higher the frequency value. The figure below show the output voltage result with C= 1u F.

Figure 44 (The Result with C= 1u F).

After that we were change the value of the capacitor to C= 312p F as we notice the efficiency is increased. So far what we understand from decreasing the value of the capacitor the efficiency will increase. In the figure below show the result of different values of capacitor in transmitter and in the receiver. Or on other word, the transmitter and receiver are in different frequency. as we notice the result is zero because there is no mutual inductance between the coils because they are in different frequency.

| P a g e 44

Figure 45 (The result of different values of capacitor in TX & RX ).

6.4. Rectifier converter:

An electrical device that converts an AC signal to a DC signal. It is commonly used in many electrical applications and electronic devices such as electric charger. Our Purpose from use it is feed the load with dc sources. There are several types of rectifier converter but what we will use is Full wave Bridge Rectifier. As shown below the design circuit of Full wave Bridge Rectifier.

Figure 46 (Full wave Bridge Rectifier).

The operations principles of Full wave Bridge Rectifier is on the positive half cycle of the sources D1 & D4 will be in forward biased so they will conduct , but D2 & D3 will be in reverse biased so the will open circuit. On other half cycle which is the negative D2 & D3 will be in forward biased so they will conduct , but

| P a g e 45

D1 & D4 will be in reverse biased so the will open circuit. As shown below the graph of the input of sources and the output of the rectifier circuit.

Figure 47 (Rectified Output Waveform).

6.5. Design of the Coils:

The coils are often made of isolated wires of pure red copper, all of which are isolated from each other. Copper occupies the first place in the materials used in the coil industry because it has several advantages including its high electrical conductivity. Copper is characterized by slow oxidation, It is a high melting and easy to weld, and it is easy to shape it. There are four famous types of coils, and often the choice between these four types based on the number of turns required and the value of the current it carry. In this project the type of coil will be flat shape.

Figure 48 (Types of Coils).

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Figure 49 (The coils).

In order to have high efficiency in the transmission of power between coils, they must be equal in size and number of turns. Each coil of the transmitter and the receiver contains 50 turns. The diameter of each coil is 21 cm with a width of 1.5 cm . Diameter of isolated copper wire used in coils is 0.8 mm. The following equation enables us to calculate the value of the coil by substitute the above values:

푳 푫 ퟖ푫 풄풐풊풍=푵ퟐ 흁 흁 [퐥퐧 −ퟐ] 풐 풓(ퟐ) ( 풅 )

Where: L = inductance of the coil in henneries (H)

N2 = number of turns μ0μ0 = permeability of free space = 4π×10−7 μrμr = relative permeability D = loop diameter d = wire diameter

| P a g e 47

The figure below show the different result of 50 turns VS 20 turns.

Figure 50 (50 turns VS 20 turns).

What we notice from the above results by increasing the numbers of coils turns, the induction voltage in the receiver coil is also increased.

Table 1 (50 turns VS 20 turns).

Number of turns Vo

50 5 V

20 1 V

6.6. Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling:

In this section we are going to show the different result of two different techniques of wireless power transmissions. As we mentions in the previous chapters the only different between those techniques is the resonant circuit. As show below in the figure the output voltage in resonant inductive coupling technique more efficiency than inductive coupling technique.

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Figure 51 (Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling).

Table 2 (Resonant inductive coupling Vs Inductive coupling).

Value of Capacitor Vo

312p F 5 V

0 F 1.8 V

6.7. WPT Efficiency Vs Distance and Coupling Coefficient:

Wireless power transmission distance is one of the most important factors in efficiency. Where the greater the distance the less efficient the transfer between coils. It is also one of the most difficult challenges in this project to transfer energy as far as possible. As we explained in the previous sections all our experiments to transfer energy as far as possible. In the table shown below, showing the relationship between the distance and energy efficiency.

Table 3

Distance Vo 0 cm 5.5 V 3 cm 4.6 V 5 cm 4.16 V

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7 cm 3.56 V 10 cm 2.7 V 15 cm 0.844 V 20 cm 0.475 V 30 cm 0.152 V 40 cm 50m V 50 cm 10m V 57 cm 0 V

Figure 52 (The efficiency with distances).

Figure 53 (The efficiency vs K).

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6.8. Design, Simulation and Implementation of Rectenna for WPT using microwaves:

7. We used Ansoft HFSS Antenna Design Kit to simulate the experiment of wire monopole antenna when : 8. Frequency = 0.925 GHz Monopole Lengh = 7.05 cm Monopole Radus = 0.217cm 9. Feed Gap =0.217 cm Ground Plane Width =21.72 cm.

Fig. 54 Design of a resonant monopole Antenna at frequency f=0.925 MHz

| P a g e 51

The desired (pre-specified) operating frequency range of the microwave power transmission system is 200MHz from 0.8 GHz up to 1GHz with VSWR < 2.

Return loss = -10 dB= 20 log R 1 Log R =- 2 1 1 R = 10-1/2 = = , which means that 11% of the incident power will be reflected. √10 3.16 ퟏ+퐑 ퟏ+ퟏ/√ퟏퟎ ퟒ.ퟏퟔ Voltage Standing Wave Ratio VSWR = = = ≈ 2. ퟏ−퐑 ퟏ−ퟏ/√ퟏퟎ ퟐ.ퟏퟔ

Using HFSS software program we have the Monopole model as the following figure:

Fig .55 Monopole Model using HFSS soft ware program

Fig. 56 Return loss | P a g e 52

At ( -10 dB) return loss level, we have fL= 0.88GHz and fu= 0.98GHz so ,

B.W = 980 – 880 = 100MHz. The targeted (pre-defined) bandwidth of 200 MHz could be obtained by arraying such monopoles.

The constructed monopole antenna: Using the HFSS model parameters, the monopole antenna has been constructed from copper wire at the center of a square copper ground plane as shown in Fig.33.

Fig . 57 Constructed Monopole Antenna

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Chapter 7: Conclusion

We have studied the different techniques of wireless power transmission using inductive coupling , resonant inductive coupling and microwave. And based on that studied we choices to proceed our project by using resonant inductive coupling technique. Also in this report we discussed the method of constructing each part separately with its results. Also we discussed the difference between the results of using two method of wireless power transmission techniques which are resonant inductive coupling and inductive coupling. In addition to that, we clarify the importance of coupling frequency between the transmitter coil and receiver coil and how to achieve this coupling between them. Also we explain the effect of the distance between the transmitter and receiver coil with the results and the ways to improve the distance between them. Also we discuss the importance of shape and coil design and how to calculate its value. In addition, we did side study about the rectenna and solar power satellite.

And based on this study, we can say through the implementation of this project will achieve a reduction in the number of wires and batteries and thus reduce the cost, and also achieve greater welfare of users by the transfer of electricity wirelessly.

In conclusion, we have achieved the project objectives with realistic constrains and complying with the relevant standards by verifying the concept of WPT via two different techniques:

1. resonant inductive coupling, where we have designed and constructed a circuit with efficiency more than 50% producing wirelessly about 5 V and 2 A in its output circuit to charge a small load such as mobile phone.

2. Rectenna to be used for WPT using microwaves, where we have designed, simulated and implemented a simple monopole antenna using HFSS to be used in rectenna system array in the ground station of solar power satellites (SPS).

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Chapter 8: References

Relevant Engineering Standards:

 TA 15: “Wireless Power Transfer (WPT)”.  PT 62827: “Wireless Power Transfer – Management”.  PT 63006: “Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) Glossary of Terms”.  IEC 61980-1 Ed 1.0: “Electric vehicle wireless power transfer”.

Website:

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/  https://www.ieee.org/  http://www.sciencedirect.com/  http://www.tfcbooks.com  http://www.witricity.com/

Books:

 “Wireless Interconnect using Inductive Coupling by Sang Wook Han”.

 “Design And Implementation Of An Inductive Power Transfer System For Wireless Charging Of Future Electric Transportation By Kunwar Aditya”.

 “Wireless Interconnect using Inductive Coupling in 3D-ICs By Sang Wook Han”.

 “Wireless Power Transfer: Control Algorithm To Transfer The Maximum Power By Javier Rojas Urbano”.

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University of Hail College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department

Final Senior Project Report

Power Generation and Inverter Design ( DC / AC )

By Meshal Sulaiman Abdulaziz Alnuzhah ID : 201401298 Mousa Mohammed Ali Alateeq ID : 201408299 Umair Butt Mahboob Butt ID : 201316379

Supervisor Dr. Badr Alshammeri

A Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Hail Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Shaban – 1440 H / April – 2019 G

Acknowledgments Our acknowledgement is presented to our dear Dr. Badr Alshammari and Dr. Tawfik Gusemi for his great and precious time spent with us during the period of our Senior Project . There were helpful and kind with us during the period of semester presenting all types of help, guidance, and direction to learn and acquire new experiences . Also, we thank Allah then we thank the teachers of the department of electric engineering in the college for their efforts with us during the years of study at University of Hail .

Abstract This Project is an attempt for improving the communication in rural areas by developing an off-grid portable cellphone backup charger which uses various forms of renewable energy. The various forms of energy used in this project are solar, wind and heat due to their availability and cleanliness. With the advancements in power, now it is able to harvest energy from sources which are impossible to harvest using traditional energy conversion methods. In this project, a proposed converter for the cell-phone charger was designed, constructed, and then tested. Results show the functionality of the proposed converter to charge Cell-phones. Further improvement of design will also be described.

List of Contents Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………...……... i Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………...ii Chapter 1 : Introduction …………………………………………………………... 1 1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………..…………………. 2 1.2 Objective……………………….…...... …2 1.3 Design Requirements ………………………………………...... …3 1.4 Problem Statement…………………………………………………………..3 1.5 Solution Statement……………………….……………………………….…3 1.6 Renewable Energy and Traditional Energy…………………………………4 1.7 Project Plan………………………………………………………………….5 Chapter 2 : Hardware ……………...…………………………...…………………. 6 2.1 Design Specification …………….……………………………………….…7 2.2 Components of the Project…………………..……………………………... 7 2.2.1 Input…………………………………………………………………...7 2.2.2 Loads…………………………………………………………………16 Chapter 3 : Inverter Simulation in MATLAB………………..………..……...... 19 3.1 Bridge Inverter …………………………..……………...... 20 3.2 Simulation……………………………………………..……...... 22 Chapter 4 : Result of the Application …………………………………………….24 4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………..25 4.2 Devices……………………………………………………………………..25 4.2.1 Voltmeter ……………………………………………………………25 4.2.2 Clamp Amber ………………………………………………………..25 4.2.3 Solar Power Meter …………………………………………………..26 4.2.4 Infrared Thermometer ……………………………………………….27 4.3 Test & Results …………………………………………………………….28 4.3.1 Solar Module ………………………………………………………...28 4.3.2 Wind Module ………………………………………………………...29 4.3.3 Loads Module ………………………………………………………..30 4.4 Final Assembly ……………………………………………………………30 Chapter 5 : Conclusion …………………………………………………………….33

iii

5.1 Conclusion ……………………………………………..…………………34 5.2 Recommendation …………………………………………………………34 Reference ………………………………………………………….………………...35 Appendix A …………………………………………………………………………36

List of Figures

Figure 1: Block Diagram for Project………………………………………...………....……...3 Figure 2 : Solar Panel………………………………..…………………….………..……....…8 Figure 3: DC Turbine ………….……………………………………..….…………...... 9 Figure 4: Regulator for Solar Panel …………………....…………………….……………... 10 Figure 5: Regulator for DC Turbine ………………..………………………………………. 11 Figure 6: Gel Storage Battery……………………………..………………….………...... 12 Figure 7: Inverter Block Diagram …………………………………..………………………..13 Figure 8: Inverter in The Project ……………………………...... 13 Figure 9: Inverter Circuit …...………………………..………...... …15 Figure 10: USB ( DC )……………………………………….…………………………...… 16 Figure 11: Lamp ( DC )………………………………..………...... …..17 Figure 12: Fan ( DC )…………………………………………………………...... ….17 Figure 13: LED …………………………………………..………...... …18 Figure 14: Back of LED ………………………………………...... ….18 Figure 15: Half – Bridge Inverter…………………………………….…...... 20 Figure 16: Full – Bridge Inverter ………………………………………...... 20 Figure 17: IGBT Information………………………………………...... 21 Figure 18: The Amplitude of DC Source………………………………………...... 21 Figure 19: The Half – Bridge Inverter Output Signal……………………………………...... 22 Figure 20: The Full – Bridge Inverter Output Signal ……………………………………….23 Figure 21: Voltmeter …………………………………………………………………………25 Figure 22: Clamp Amber …………………………………………………………………….26 Figure 23: Solar Power Meter …………………………………………………………….….26 Figure 24: Infrared Thermometer…………………………………………………………….27 Figure 25: Final Product ……………………………………………………………………..31

List of Tables

Table 1.1: Compare Between Renewable Energy and Traditional Energy …………...……...4 Table 1.2 : Project Plan ………………………………..…………………….…………….…..5 Table 2.1 : Compare Between Poly and Mono ………………………………………………..7 Table 4.1 : Solar Panel Output ……………………………………………………………….28 Table 4.2 : Wind Turbine Output …………………….………………………………………29 Table 4.3 : Loads Output ……………………………………………………………………..30 Table 4.4 : Verification Check List …………………………………………………………..32 Table A : Cost Analysis ……………………………………………………………………...36

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Objective

1.3 Design Requirements

1.4 Problems Statement

1.5 Solution Statement

1.6 Renewable Energy and Traditional Energy

1.7 Schedule of the Project

1.1 Introduction Solar panels are the medium to convert solar energy into the electrical energy and can convert the energy directly or heat the water with the induced energy. PV (Photo- voltaic) cells are made up from semiconductor structures as the same in the computer technologies. Sun rays are absorbed with this material and electrons are emitted from the atoms , the release activates a current. Photovoltaic is known as the process between radiation absorbed and the electricity induced and the solar power is converted into the electric power by a common principle called photo electric effect. The solar cell array or panel consists of an appropriate number of solar cell modules connected in series or parallel based on the required current and voltage. The wind energy is a renewable source of energy, which used to convert the wind power into electric power. Electric generator inside the turbine converts the mechanical power into the electric power. Also , wind turbine systems are available ranging from 50W to 3-4 MW. The energy production by wind turbines depends on the wind velocity acting on the turbine. Wind power is able to feed both energy production and demand in the rural areas and It's used to run a windmill which in turn drives a wind generator or wind turbine to produce electricity. Energy stored in the battery is drawn by electricals loads through the inverter, which converts DC power into AC power. The inverter has in-built protection for Short-Circuit, Reverse Polarity, Low Battery Voltage and Over Load.

1.2 Objectives

The objective of the project is to generate green energy from the renewable energy sources such as solar panel and wind energy, which using Hybrid Power Generation pollution free earthing system and to maintain the level of traditional energy resources is obtained. By using the solar and wind energy generation system the global warming will be reduced. In the project generation of energy by using domestic solar panels and domestic wind mill arrangement is made. During day time power is generated from the solar panel and during night and rainy season the power is generated from the windmill arrangement. The battery is used to store the generating energy and gives required timings. Thus generating the green energy from the natural resources. The other project goal is to design a portable cell phone power backup/charging unit that uses two renewable sources of energy, and can be used in rural areas or disaster

2 affected areas without electricity from the grid. The project goal is to design a portable cell phone power backup/charging unit that uses two renewable sources of energy, and can be used in rural areas or disaster affected areas without electricity from the grid.

1.3 Design Requirements The single line diagram for project . It shows how to connect the project component together as shown in figure 1 :

Fig. 1 Single Line Diagram for Project

1.4 Problems Statement There are some problems in traditional energy that  Electricity is expensive  In power plant they are using Oil which is expensive  Some of village didn’t have electricity  Global warming  Maintenance of electricity take a time a lot

1.5 Solution Statement As a requirement, in the project, two renewable sources of energy is included solar and wind sources. The main advantage of having these two as sources is that it is readily available, free of cost and little maintenance. After considering various options and components of design, the design shown in figure 1 is selected to implement.

1.6 Renewable Energy and Traditional Energy The difference between renewable and Traditional energy comparison in overall as shown in table 1.1 :

Table 1.1 COMPARE BETWEEN RENEWABLE AND TRADITIONAL ENERGY

Renewable Energy Traditional Energy

Cost in industry Expensive Cheaper

Economic Low High

Problems Encountered Weather . Drilling – Weather – Lightning .

Supplies For a permanent period for a temporary period

Maintenance Easy to Make Hard to Make Maintenance . Maintenance .

Impact on the Environmentally friendly. Negative impact on the Environment environment .

1.7 Project Plan The following table displays various goals that project achieved during last 14 weeks .

Table 1.2 PROJECT PLAN Week

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Task Brainstorming and planning × ×

Component Selection × ×

Programming In MATLAB × × ×

Submit report & × Presentation for Mid-point

Connection × × ×

Testing ×

Final Report and Poster × ×

Chapter 2 Hardware

2.1 Design Specification 2.2 Components of the project 2.2.1 Inputs

2.2.2 Loads

2.1 Design Specification

Hybrid system solar panel (50 W) and wind turbine has four fans are connected to the two regulators then connected to the gel storage battery (45A) and supply (12 v) after that supplies two ways DC to DC and DC to AC. DC to DC supply, we connected directly after battery which support mobile, lamp and fan etc. But DC to AC we use inverter (500w) after gel battery which support led .

2.2 Components of the project

2.2.1 Input As per the requirement input sources of the project has to be renewable, available in rural areas and cheap. So two renewable energy sources: Solar for day time, Thermal for night time, and wind during traveling time is used in the project : A - Solar Panel The types of Solar Panels : 1- Poly 2- Mono The following table is compares between the poly and mono : Table 2.1 COMPARING BETWEEN POLY AND MONO Poly Mono

Design

Costly Cheaper Expensive

Quality Good Excellent

Size Bigger Smaller

Colors Blue Black

Watt 50 – 100 – 150 … 50 – 100 – 150 …

The cell which used in the project is poly , the main considerations given in picking solar cells in the project is durability, strength, output power and customer safety. Considering those as requirements and price, maximum power voltage 17.5 V and current 7 A solar panel are selected. The advantages of the solar panel module is that it is weather proof, strong, tempered glass protected (If it breaks, it will shatter without leaving sharp edges so safe for the customers ) and thermal electric insulated coating on rear side [ 4 ] .

Fig. 2 Solar Panel To attain voltages more than minimum input voltage of DC-DC converter (12 V) . To reduce the charging time, the current has to be increased.

B - DC Turbine To utilize the wind energy, a DC generator has to be used. The most common DC generator convenient is the computer fan because of its availability, price and light weight. We use two fans are connected in series which is then connected in parallel with the two other fans connected in series. This setup will allow to increase the voltage and current by two times than the rated voltage of single fan. The output of

DC generator is then connected to the DC-DC converter and it is connected to a battery pack [ 1 ] .

Fig. 3 DC Turbine

C - Regulators

In automatic control, a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated characteristic. It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values in a machine. The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or an advance set value; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme. It can be used generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or controlling items or objects.

Examples are a voltage regulator (which can be a transformer whose voltage ratio of transformation can be adjusted, or an electronic circuit that produces a defined voltage), a pressure regulator, such as a diving regulator, which maintains its output at a fixed pressure lower than its input . As shown in figure 4 and 5 [ 1 ] .

Fig. 4 Regulator for Solar Panel

Fig. 5 Regulator for DC Turbine

D - Gel Storage Battery

The battery back used in the senior project is a standard Li-Poly (40Ah) battery. The main advantage of using 40Ah battery is during the day time unit can charge for a longer time and store more energy in the battery and during the times when power is not available, the store energy can be used to charge up to two regulators and one inverter due to its high storage capability.

Fig. 6 Gel Storage Battery

E - DC / AC Inverter

* Introduction for inverter An Inverter is an electronic device capable of transforming a DC current into an alternating current (AC) at a given voltage and frequency. For example, if we have to supply a household appliance that operates in alternating current 220V (60Hz frequency) but we do not have the AC power available, we can still power it by using an inverter such as a 12V (DC) . It is therefore indispensable to use it to power by DC, electrical devices that work in AC. Inverters are used in stand alone photovoltaic systems for powering electrical devices of isolated houses, mountain huts, camper vans and boats, and are also used in grid-connected photovoltaic systems to enter the current produced by the plant directly into the power grid distribution (photovoltaic inverters). The inverters are also used in many other applications, ranging from UPS to the speed controllers of electric motors, from switching power supply to lighting. The term "inverter" also refers to a "rectifier-inverter" group, powered by alternating current and used to vary the voltage and frequency of the output alternating current in function of the input voltage (for example, for power supply of particulars operating machines). The most popular inverters used to supply AC power are three types:

11 square wave inverters (suitable for purely resistive loads), modified sinusoidal wave inverter (suitable for resistive and capacitive loads, with inductive loads can produce noise ) And pure sinusoidal wave inverters (suitable for all types of loads because they faithfully reproduce a sinusoidal wave equal to that of our domestic power grid) as shown in figure 7 and 8 [ 2 ] .

Fig. 7 inverter block diagram

Fig. 8 Inverter in the project

* Types of Inverters

Inverters are classified into two main categories  Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) − The voltage source inverter has stiff DC source voltage that is the DC voltage has limited or zero impedance at the inverter input terminals.

 Current Source Inverter (CSI) − A current source inverter is supplied with a variable current from a DC source that has high impedance. The resulting current waves are not influenced by the load.  Single Phase Inverter : There are two types of single phase inverters − full bridge inverter and half bridge inverter : - Half Bridge Inverter : This type of inverter is the basic building block of a full bridge inverter. It contains two switches and each of its capacitors has a voltage output equal

to . In addition, the switches complement each other, that is, if one is switched ON the other one goes OFF. - Full Bridge Inverter : This inverter circuit converts DC to AC. It achieves this by closing and opening the switches in the right sequence. It has four different operating states which are based on which switches are closed.  Three Phase Inverter : A three-phase inverter converts a DC input into a three-phase AC output. Its three arms are normally delayed by an angle of 120° so as to generate a three- phase AC supply. The inverter switches each has a ratio of 50% and switching occurs after every T/6 of the time T (60° angle interval). The switches S1 and S4, the switches S2 and S5 and switches S3 and S6 complement each other.

* Inverter Work

Most inverters are of the variable voltage, variable frequency design. They consist of a converter section, a bus capacitor section and an inverting section. The converter section uses semiconductor devices to rectify (convert) the incoming fixed voltage, fixed frequency 3-phase AC power to DC voltage which is stored in the bus capacitor bank. There it becomes a steady source of current for the power devices which are located in what is known as the inverting section. The inverting section absorbs power from the DC bus cap bank, inverts it back to simulated 3-Phase AC sine waves of varying voltage and varying frequency that are typically used to vary the speed of a 3- phase induction motor [ 3 ] .

An inverter is used to produce an un-interrupted 220V AC or 110V AC (depending on the line voltage of the particular country) supply to the device connected as the load at the output socket. The inverter gives constant AC voltage at its output socket when the AC mains power supply is not available [ 3 ] .

Lets look how the inverter makes this possible. To grasp the functioning of an inverter, we should consider in the following situations.

. When the AC mains power supply is available. . when the AC mains power supply is not available. Automation in an Inverter.

Inverter contains various circuits to automatically sense and tackle various situations that may occur when the inverter is running or in standby. This automaton section looks after conditions such as overload, over heat, low battery, over charge etc. Respective of the situation, the automation section may switch the battery to charging mode or switch OFF. The various conditions will be indicated to the operator by means of glowing LEDs or sounding alarms. In advanced inverters LCD screens are used to visually indicate the conditions [ 2 ] .

Fig. 9 Inverter circuit

* Components of the Inverter

The main component for inverter to design it as following

 Microcontroller  Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)  MOSFETs  Filters  Transformer ( step up )  Resistance  Capacitor  Breadboard  Fan

2.2.2 Loads A - USB ( DC ) All the outputs from the DC-DC converter go to a source selector shown in figure 10 Source selector allows you to manually select which source to use in order to charge the Cellphone and switch ON fan .

Fig. 10 USB ( DC )

B - Lamp ( DC )

Wind turbine dc load , we use ( 12 V ) lamp which is use very common almost everywhere . In addition , we use switch for turn it ON and OFF as shown in figure 11 .

Fig. 11 Lamp ( DC )

C - Fan ( DC )

After entering the dc volt to the regulator then from the same regulator to the DC fan 12 v , as shown in figure 12 .

Fig. 12 Fan ( DC )

D - LED ( AC )

AC load we use ( University of Hail ) LED which is made by us . We used to desing it breadboard , small lamp and wires . There is two figures as shown in figures 13 , while switch ON & OFF .

Fig. 13 LED

This is the backside of the LED. It was made by us and it's about led bulbs have positive and negative wires. Networking method for led : each letter approximately 10 small led bulbs each positive leg connected with the positive leg and same as negative legs , this means that all letters in led we make it like that. IN addition, The last word of university (y) we take a positive leg and negative leg then joint to the last word of hail (L) . This is the way we make it our project led ( University OF Hail ).

Fig. 14 Back of LED

Chapter 3 Inverter Simulation in MATLAB

3.1 Bridge Inverter

3.2 Simulation

3.1 Bridge Inverter

The system consists of two independent circuits illustrating single-phase PWM voltage-sourced inverters.

The Half-Bridge Inverter block As shown in figure 15 and the Full-Bridge inverter block as shown in figure 16 are modeling simplified model of an IGBT/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored .

Fig. 15 Half-Bridge inverter

Fig. 16 Full-Bridge inverter

Fig. 17 IGBT information

The converters are controlled in open loop with the PWM Generator blocks. The two circuits use the same DC voltage (Vdc = 400V), carrier frequency (1620 Hz) and modulation index (m = 0.8) as shown in figure 18 .

Fig. 18 The Amplitude of DC Source

In order to allow further signal processing, signals displayed on the Scope block are stored in a variable named Scope Data For FFT, in structure with time format.

3.2 Simulation

Run the simulation and observe the current into the loads and the voltage generated by the PWM inverters.

Once the simulation is completed, open the Powerful and select FFT Analysis to display the 0 - 5000 Hz frequency spectrum of signals saved in the Scope Data For FFT structure. The FFT will be performed on a 2-cycle window starting at t = 0.07 - 2/60 (last 2 cycles of recording). Click on Display and observe the frequency spectrum of last 2 cycles.

The fundamental component of V inverter is displayed above the spectrum window. Compare the magnitude of the fundamental component of the inverter voltage with the theoretical values given in the circuit. Compare also the harmonic contents in the inverter voltage.

The half-bridge inverter generates a bipolar voltage (-200V or +200V) as shown in figure 19. Harmonics occur around the carrier frequency (1620 Hz +- k*60 Hz), with a maximum of 103% at 1620 Hz .

Fig. 19 The half-bridge inverter output signal

The full-bridge inverter generates a monopolar voltage varying between 0 and +500V for one half cycle and then between 0 and -500V for the next half cycle as shown in figure 20 . For the same DC voltage and modulation index, the fundamental component magnitude is twice the value obtained with the half-bridge. Harmonics

21 generated by the full-bridge are lower and they appear at twice the carrier frequency (maximum of 40% at 2*1620+-60 Hz). As a result, the current obtained with the full- bridge is smoother.

Fig. 20 The full-bridge inverter output signal

Chapter 4 Result of the Applications

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Devices

4.3 Test & Results

4.4 Final Assembly

4.1 Introduction

We successfully achieved all the goals we planned. The project works as we proposed. The project can be edited easily to add more components in the future.

4.2 Devices

The devices that use in the project to obtain results ( voltmeter , clamp amber , solar power meter and infrared thermometer ) as shown in following :

4.2.1 Voltmeter

This device is used to measure the voltage difference applied between two electric load terminals or to measure the voltage of the source. This device shall be connected in parallel with the source or the electric load with the power supply condition. The electrical circuit to measure its voltages shall be closed. The type of voltage to be measured is frequency or constant as shown in figure 21 [ 1 ] .

Fig. 21 Voltmeter

4.2.2 Clamp amber

The Clamp Amber is an electric current meter. It shows the current value as soon as the loop of the device is placed around the wire as shown in figure 22 . The device is

24 very important to measure and control the current intensity, or the technical evidence of the state of the circuit and the places of imbalance, especially in the field of electric motors [ 1 ] .

Fig. 22 Clamp amber

4.2.3 Solar Power Meter

This device measures the power of solar radiation. Use the SP505 to measure the effectiveness of solar film, measure solar radiation, check solar insulated windows, check headlight intensity, and find the optimal incidence angle for solar panel as shown in figure 23 [ 1 ] .

Fig. 23 Solar Power Meter

4.2.4 Infrared Thermometer

An infrared thermometer is a thermometer that measures the heat through a portion of the heat radiation called the black body radiation that radiates through the body to measure its temperature. Sometimes laser detectors are called if the laser is used to help the thermometer or the temperature gun, to describe the device's ability to measure the temperature remotely. By knowing how much infrared radiation is radiating from the distance as shown in figure 24 [ 1 ].

Fig. 24 Infrared Thermometer

4.3 Test & Results

4.3.1 Solar Module The average of various charging test runs of solar module is displayed in table 4.1

Table 4.1 SOLAR PANEL OUTPUT

From solar regulator Vout 12.4 – 12.8 V

From solar regulator Iout 3.8 - 4 A Panel Output

Is written behind the Power 50 W solar

We observe with

Time to charge Battery stopwatch Time 5 – 6 hr

Time to charge Cellphone We observe from 2.5 - 3 hr load ( USB ) phone Time

Time to keep the fan work We observe with 3.5 hr Time stopwatch

The runs varied from bright sunny day to cloudy day. The output voltage of solar panels were varying from 12.4 – 12.8 V depending on the amount of sunlight it receives. According to the test results the equipment can be operated at various

27 weather conditions and also able to charge the battery in around 5 to 6 hours. From the energy acquired in 5 to 6 hours, it is able to charge up to two cell-phones.

4.3.2 Wind Module Wind module is tested by holding it outside of a moving vehicle. Around 1900 rpm for one wind . The module is producing a voltage around 12 v and current around 0.18 A as shown in figure 4.2 . The current is not sufficient enough to charge a cellphone directly, but can be used for energy harvesting for battery system .

Table 4.2 WIND TURBINE OUTPUT

From voltmeter Vout 12 V

From multimeter Iout 0.18 A

P = V*I

The answer will

Wind turbine Output multiply by

( 4 ) 8.64 W Power Because it has 4 wind

We observe from Time 11 - 12 Time to charge Battery stopwatch hr

We observe from Time 2 hr Time to keep the lamp stopwatch work

4.3.3 Loads module The average of various charging test runs of loads module is displayed in table 4.3

Table 4.3 LOADS OUTPUT

From regulator Vout 12 V

Fan DC I = P / V Iout 1 A

From the box of fan Power 12 W

From the lamp Vout 12 V

Lamp DC I = P / V Iout 0.41 A

From the lamp Power 5 W

Cell Phone charge ( USB ) From the regulator Vout 5 V

From the regulator Vout 6 V

LED AC From multimeter Iout 0.3 A

P = V * I Power 1.8 W

4.4 Final assembly

The one of the main challenge faced in this project is to design a final product which incorporates all these input modules solar panel ( 50W ) , regulators , battery , inverter , wind turbine , fan DC , lamp DC and LED . Due to the difficulties in drilling hinge holes in iron rode of solar panel and wind . The picture of final product is shown in figure 25 . The top part have solar panel and wind turbine in the middle . Then , there is two regulator one for solar panel and the other one for wind turbine . Battery is under the regulators and at the bottom we put inverter in the left side . About loads , there are four loads in the project . Three DC loads from regulators

29 and one AC load from inverter . We use lamp fan and USB charger for DC loads , but for AC load we use LED ( University OF Hail ) .

Fig. 25 Final Product

The final product is 47 cm(width) X 80 kilo (weight) x 190 cm height excluding the solar panel extension. If it is commercially manufactured, by making iron rode , using custom designed wood for regulators . The size of the product can be reduced significantly.

The solar panel module of this product works perfectly fine and the design could be used to commercially produce the product. The wind module needs a design improvement to have a better result . Another improvement that could be suggested is to use different type of AC load .

The component of the project verification check list has shown in table 4.4 .

Table 4.4 VERIFICATION CHECK LIST System Test

Solar panel Verified Wind turbine Verified Battery Verified LED Verified Inverter Verified Fan Verified Lamp Verified Regulator Verified

Chapter 5 : Conclusion

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

Finally, the working in the project achieved the main learning outcomes of the senior project which can be stated as follows :

 Solar photovoltaic (pv) -wind turbine (wt) hybrid system is the best way to utilize

 There is not just one local Available RE resource but multiple renewable RE resources  Remote located village communities, with no hope for any future grid connection ,can consider to tap into their own local renewable energy resources and convert them through various contextualized renewable energy technologies into useful energy services .  It reduces the dependence on one single source and has increased the reliability.  The project improve the efficiency of the system as compared with their individual mode of generation

5.2 Recommendations

The project made very specific recommendation for traditional electricity :  The project use in villages where there is no electricity .  It will save a lot of government money just invest initial setup only .  The project saver for environment and also ozone layer .  It can use indoor and outdoor .  It is much more saver then normal electricity because in normal electricity we have 99% chance of shock in hybrid system only 10% chanse of shock .

References

[1] Employees of ALFANAR Company . [2] Toshiba Electronic Devices & Storage Corporation ( 2018 ) DC- AC inverter circuit. [3] Jim Dulop solar ( 2012 ) Inverters , definition and terminology, applications and types. [4] Lecture Notes

Appendix A The project complete in less cost with excellent efficency . Also , components of the project easly to get evrywhere .

Table A Cost Analysis

Item Cost (SR) Solar Panel 230

Wind turbines 124

Battery 300

Regulators 360

Lamp 20

Fan 35

Inverter 120

LED 350

Project Structure 250

Project Connection 60

MATLAB Program --

Total 1849

University of Hail Electrical Engineering Department

Senior Design Project

Simulation and Implementation of Flame Detection System

Yasir Fehaid Alshammari 201410032

Khaled Marfoua Alshammri 201410767

Supervised by

Dr. Ahmed Althunian

May, 2019

Abstract s to develop f In this project, the flame detection system is designed and implemented to detect a fire in 3-Axis. The system can be used at the industrial plants, buildings or houses. The system design consists of two main functions:

 An early alarm will be raised so that people can be evacuated to an assembly area.  A fire pump is activated to provide a water flow at a high pressure.

The system design contains flame sensor, controller, LED and buzzer. When the fire has occurred. The flame detector will detect the fire. Then the alarm and water pump will be activated in synchronicity.

Table of Contents page Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 1.2-Project Aim ...... 2 1.3-Project Objective ...... 2 1.4-Project Requirement ...... 2 1.4.1-Hardware Requirements ...... 2 1.4.2-Software Requirements...... 2 1.5- Description of Software Requirements ...... 2 1.5.1- Arduino 1.8.7 compiler ...... 3 1.5.2- Proteus 8 Program ...... 3 1.5.3- Fritzing Program ...... 3 1.6- Description of Hardware Requirements...... 3 1.6.1- Arduino Uno ...... 3 1.6.2- Flame Sensor ...... 4 1.6.3- Water pump ...... 4 1.6.4- Servo motor ...... 5 1.6.5- LED ...... 5 1.6.6-Buzzer ...... 6 1.6.7-Relay ...... 6 1.7- Description of The Project ...... 7 Chapter 2: Software ...... 7 2.1.1- Wiring Diagram ...... 7 2.1.2- Circuit Diagram and simulation implementation ...... 7 2.1.3- The Code ...... 9 Chapter 3: Hardware ...... 11 3.1.1- Sensor part ...... 11 3.1.2- Pump and Water tank part ...... 12 3.1.3- Control part ...... 12 Conclusion ...... 13 References ...... 13

Table of Figures page Figure 1. Arduino Uno ...... 4 Figure 2. Flame Sensor ...... 4 Figure 3. Water Pump ...... 5 Figure 4. Servo Motor ...... 5 Figure 5. LED ...... 6 Figure 6. Buzzer ...... 6 Figure 7. Relay ...... 6 Figure 8. Wiring Diagram ...... 8 Figure 9. Simulation ...... 8 Figure 10. Hardware ...... 11 Figure 11. Flame sensor and servo motor ...... 11 Figure 12. Control part ...... 12

1.3-

Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction Automatic detectors like Flame detection, Smoke detection, Fire Alarms etc. are part of a safety equipment that help us in keeping our homes, offices and stores safe from fire accidents. Almost all modern houses, apartments, malls, cinema halls, theatres, office buildings and shops are equipped with such safety equipment and it is mandatory in some regions to fire safety devices. The properly selected and installed automatic detector can be a highly reliable fire sensor.

When present, humans can be excellent fire detectors. The healthy person is able to sense multiple aspects of a fire including the heat, flames, smoke, and odors. For this reason, most fire alarm systems are designed with one or more manual alarm activation devices to be used by the person who discovers a fire. Unfortunately, a person can also be an unreliable detection method since they may not be present when a fire starts, may not raise an alarm in an effective manner, or may not be in perfect heath to recognize fire signatures. a trained person with portable fire extinguishers may be an effective first line of defense. However, should an immediate response fail or the fire grow rapidly, extinguisher capabilities can be surpassed within the first minute. More powerful suppression methods. It is for this reason that a variety of automatic fire detectors have been developed.

The purpose of this thesis is to establish a system that can detect fire and extinguish it in the shortest time subject to a few effective factors. In this case, the system aims to put out the fire before it spreads increasing the security of home, laboratory, office, factory and building that is important to human life.

1.2 Project Aim The aim of project is to design and implement an automatic fire protection system by flame detection with automatic put out fire.

1.3 Project Objective

The objective from this project is to study the system theoretically. Also, to design and simulate the flame detection system using software. Then, convert the simulation design into hardware design. Finally, to compare the simulation result with the hardware result.

1.4 Project Requirements Project requirements are conditions or tasks that must be completed to ensure the success or completion of the project. They provide a clear picture of the work that needs to be done.

1.4.1 Hardware requirements We need these hardware requirements Arduino Uno, Flame sensor, Resistor, Bread Board, LED, Buzzer, Wires, Relay, Water pump, Servo motor and 9v battery to present the project to committee.

1.4.2 Software requirements We need these programs Arduino 1.8.7 compiler, Proteus 8 program and Fritzing program to show wiring connection and implement the software.

1.5 Description of Software Required Software requirements is a field within software engineering that deals with establishing the needs of investors that are to be solved by software.

1.5.1 Arduino 1.8.7 compiler The open-source Arduino Software (IDE) makes it easy to write code and upload it to the board. It runs on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. The environment is written in java and based on processing and other open-source software.

1.5.2 proteus 8 program Proteus 8 Professional is a software which can be used to draw schematics, PCB layout, code and even simulate the schematic. It is developed by Labcenter Electronic Ltd. Proteus is ahead in simulating the circuits containing the micro controllers where we can simulate the circuit by uploading the hex code to the Micro-controller.

1.5.3 Fritzing program Fritzing program is a software program to help designers translate their prototypes into real products. is a great open source tool for anyone to teach, share, and prototype their electronic projects! It allows you to design a schematic, and thus a part, which can then be added to very professional-looking wiring diagrams.

1.6 Description of Hardware Required We have a lot of pieces to accomplish the hardware part of the project.

1.6.1 Arduino Uno Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on Processing. Arduino Uno is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Arduino

1.6.2 Flame sensor In this project we are using an IR based flame sensor. It is based on the YG1006 sensor which is a high speed and high sensitive NPN silicon phototransistor. It can detect infrared light with a wavelength ranging from 700nm to 1000nm and its detection angle is about 60°. Flame sensor module consists of a photodiode (IR receiver), resistor, capacitor, potentiometer, and LM393 comparator in an integrated circuit. The sensitivity can be adjusted by varying the on board potentiometer. Working voltage is between 3.3v and 5v DC, with a digital output. Logic high on the output indicates presence of flame or fire. Logic low on output indicates absence of flame or fire. Flame sensor is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Flame Sensor

1.6.3 Water pump The general features of magnetic water pumps include a rotatory impeller located in a closed case driven by a rotating magnetic field produced by individual magnets. Rotation of the impeller produces a force that drives the liquid through and out of the pump case. This water pump work on 6-12v. Water pump is shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. Water pump 1.6.4 Servo motor A servo motor has everything built in: a motor, a feedback circuit, and most important, a motor driver. It just needs one power line, one ground, and one control pin. the servo motor has arm that can turn 180 degrees. Servo motor is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. Servo motor

1.6.5 LED LED Light Emitting Diode. Unlike diodes, LED does not use silicon crystals as a semiconductor element. It uses a combination of other semiconductor materials that emit photons of different colors when a current pass through it. It is formed by two polarities, one positive or anode and the other negative or cathode. At the junction between both a potential barrier is formed to prevent the exchange of electrons between the two regions. When voltage is applied and LED is directly polarized, the electrons from source flows through it and whenever an excess electron negatively charged overcomes the potential barrier resistance, crosses it and it combined with a positive gap in excess. The energy acquired by the electron to cross the barrier, becomes electromagnetic energy that releases as a light photon. LED shown in figure 5.

Figure 5. LED

1.6.6 Buzzer Is a piezoelectric transducer, a device that converts electrical signals into sound. Piezoelectric materials have the possibility of varying its volume when being crossed by electrical currents. As shown in figure 6.

Figure 6. Buzzer

1.6.7 Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch that can be turned on or off, letting the current go through or not, and can be controlled with low voltages, like the 5 V provided by the Arduino pins. A relay consists of an electromagnet that, when energized, causes a switch to close or open. Relays provide complete electrical isolation between the control circuit and the circuit being controlled. Relay is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7. Relay 6

1.7 Description of the project This project work is complete on its own in automatically for detect and put out the fire. The flame sensor is connected on servo motor and the servo motor will cover 3-Axis the 3-Axis is (45,90,135) degree. First, when the flame sensor detects the fire, the servo motor will stop and flame sensor will send pulse to Arduino throw pin 6. After that, the Arduino will send two pulses. The first pulse to led and buzzer that are connected in pin 8 in Arduino board and the second pulse to energize relay that are connected in pin 10 to turn on the water pump. After put out the fire, the buzzer, led and water pump will still be working for a few second to ensure that the fire is completely gone. After that, the buzzer, led and water pump will stop working and the servo will continue move.

Chapter 2

2.1 Software we use software to processing and analyzing the designing, constructing, and testing for the project. 2.1.1 Wiring Diagram Wiring diagram is to representation of the physical connections and physical layout of an electrical system or circuit. It shows how the electrical wires are interconnected and can also show where fixtures and components may be connected to the system. As shown in figure 8. 2.1.2 Simulation Simulations is used to test the design by proteus 8 program as shown in figure 9.

Figure 8. Wiring Diagram

Figure 9. Simulation

2.1.3 The Code: -

Chapter 3

3.1 Hardware The hardware consists of three main parts: sensor part, control part and pump & water tank part.

Figure 10. Hardware 3.1.1 Sensor part In this part there are flame sensor and water hose mounted in servo motor as shown in Figure 11. The servo motor helps flame sensor to covers several angles.

Figure 11. Flame sensor and servo motor

3.1.2 Pump and water tank part In this part there are pump and small water tank to provide a water flow at a high pressure to put out fire.

3.1.3 Control part In this part there is Arduino Uno which represent the controller and other things like relay, breadboard, buzzer and wires as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12. Control part

Conclusion

What we have designed is not a robot but an automatic fire fighting system that detects and put out the fire. By mounting it and making it into a fire monitoring system we can target only the fire flame and decrease the chance of collateral damage. This system can overcome deficiencies in risk management, building construction, and emergency response. it may also provide enhanced flexibility of building design and increase the overall level of fire safety.

References

[1] Hou Lichun. Infrared Sensor for Obstacle Avoidance System. Science and Technology Advisory Review, 2007

[2] Evans, Brian. (2011). Beginning Arduino Programming. Apress.

[3] McRoberts, Michael. (2011). Beginning Arduino. Apress.

[4] Zualkernan, I.A. InfoCoral: Open-Source Hardware for Low-Cost, High-Density Concurrent Simple Response Ubiquitous Systems; 2011 11th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Page(s): 638 – 639.

College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department

EE411: Senior Design Project (Semester 182, 2019) “Final Report” Optimal Solution of the Overload Issues in South Hail

Supervisor: Dr. Ayoob Alateeq

Done by: Student Name Student ID

Mohammed Faraj Al- 201400297 Shammari Mohammed Nasser Al-Tamimi 201403360

Hatim Rasheed Al-Mangour 201007973

Submission Date:

2019/04/04 Abstract

The importance of the project shows that the great urban growth of Hail is currently moving south of the city because of the spread of residential plans significantly. This has led to increased growth in demand for electrical service, so to avoid the problems of electric overloads on the medium and low electrical network, which is often in the summer. The project aims to design a 33 kV-13.8 kV power distribution station, which will be able to strengthen the electrical network by extending 10 feeders with a medium voltage of 13.8KV with a total capacity of 60MVA to reduce and transfer loads of loaded feeders. The data obtain from Saudi Electricity Company and the municipality of the south of the city, and emulate this software by using PowerWorld Simulator. After design a new substation in Al-Wadi area the section B in ALNUGRAH substation, the loads decrease from 85% - 66%. Where the loads in section C decrease from

70% - 66%, so this optimal solution can be exist for coming years.

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Acknowledgement

We are pleased to present our acknowledgement to who assisted us in this project research and implementation especially Dr. Ayoob Alateeq, who advise and support and encouragement.

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Table Contents: List of Figures: ...... 5 List of Tables: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1. Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 6 1.1. Introduction: ...... 6 1.2. Analysis of Overload: ...... 7 1.3. Proposed Project: ...... 8 2. Chapter 2: Project Excution ...... 9 2.1. Substution 8907 ...... 9 2.2. Substution S/S 7928: ...... 10 2.3. Load distrbution plan: ...... 13 3. Chapter 3: Simulation Result ...... 21 3.1. Powerworld Simulator: ...... 21 3.2. S/S8907 Simultion: ...... 22 3.3. S/S7928 Simultion: ...... 25 4. Chapter 4: Conclusion ...... 29 4.1. Conclusion: ...... 29

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List of Figures:

Figure 1 The Location on Google Maps...... Error! Bookmark not defined.1 Figure 2 Single Line Diagram of New S/S 7928 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.2 Figure 3 Single Line Digram of 8907 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.3 Figure 4 Interconnection between S/S7928 and S/S8907...... Error! Bookmark not defined.4 Figure 5 S/S 8907 simulation by using PowerWorld before applying the optimal solution……………………2Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 6 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s 8907 before applying the optimal solution.. ... 22 Figure 7 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s8907 after applying the optimal solution by using powerworld software...... 23 Figure 8 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s8907 after applying the optimal solution...... 23 Figure 9 S/S 7928 simulation by using PowerWorld after transferred from the S/S 8907...... 24 Figure 10 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after transfer load from S/S 8907...... 25 Figure 11 S/S 7928 simulation by using PowerWorld after fiv years………………….……………………………..26 Figure 12 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after five years...... 126 Figure 13 S/S 7928 simulation by using PowerWorld after ten years.. . Error! Bookmark not defined.7 Figure 14 Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after ten years.. Error! Bookmark not defined.7

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1. Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Introduction:

An electrical power system is the heart of industrial growth and welfare as well as socioeconomic development. An electrical power system is a network rely on tri-phase AC power - the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution throughout the modern world. An electrical power system a network of electrical components that have been deploy to supply, transport and use electrical power. An example of an electrical power system is a power supply network for an extended area. The network power system can be dived into power generators, a transmission system that transfers energy from the generating centers to the loading centers, and a distribution system that feeds energy to homes and neighboring industries. Therefore, the global electrical system aims to achieve stability and high efficiency of the electrical network by ensuring continuity of nutrition and avoid interruptions and problems on the electrical grid, which may require a long time to reform. In fact, there is always shortage of generation, losses of transmission lines, heating in transformers as compared to the rapidly increasing load demand. However, heavy loading of a system or tripping of any one of its lines in the grid causes the reduction of the receiving end voltage. If this voltage is decrease beyond the limit, overload problem and voltage instability may be observe. This study is motivated to contribute in solving one of the long term instability voltage phenomena, which is overload power systems. In other word the system has limitation of generation and transmission line or limitation from transformers, knowing that the temporary solutions (the remedial actions that operator can be made) are not useful to elevate the overload problem. For example converting from single to bundle or parallel conductor in transmission line, adding new parallel generator to the main generators, adding reserve distribution generators to the system, and adding parallel transformers to the old transformer. Any power system may face either one of these limitations or all of them together. The study will introduce the solution of overloads which faced by Saudi Electricity Company last Aug 2018 in south of Hail city by a simulate application for the real company data of overload problem. Depend on The main objective of this proposed method is to enhance the voltages of the

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whole power system. In addition, programming the work to be arrive to Achieving the vision of Saudi Arabia 2030. To apply this requires the presence of engineers with a high efficiency in engineering Electric have all the possibilities that include high quality service electrical system design that meets customers' needs.

1.2. Analysis the Overload

The maximum load on each circuit is not the ideal target. For a margin of safety, it is best if the normal load on a circuit does not exceed 66 percent of the maximum (rated) load.

Two simultaneous processes create electric load growth or change, both at the system and at the distribution level. Increases in the number of customers in the utility service area, and increases in the usage per customer cause electric load to grow. No other process causes load growth: If the electric demand on a power system increases from one year tithe next, it can be due only to one or a combination of both of these processes:

 New customers are add to a system due to migration into an area (population growth) or electrification of previously non-electric households. Customer growth causes the spread of electric load into areas that were “vacant” from the power system’s standpoint.  Changes in per capita usage occur simultaneously and largely independently of any change in the number of customers. In developing economies, this is drive by the acquisition of new appliances and equipment in homes and businesses. In developing nations, per capita load growth often decreases, due to improving appliance efficiency.

In this project the Municipality Data in figure show that the great urban growth, density population and construction are the only cause of overload in distribution network during the past three years locate at south of Hail city.

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1.3. Proposed Project:

The case of the proposed study, the design of the distribution station at the medium voltage level, 33 - 13.8 kV, with 5 bus bars. The substation consists of three main power transformers 33 - 13.8 kV with a maximum capacity of 60MVA maximum, and twelve loads with a maximum current capacity of 1674A. PowerWorld was use to simulate the study of these cases. We obtained the load data from the Saudi Electricity Company and then calculated the amount of overload. After the calculations, we designed the station and charted the station plan and identified the location, the method of linking and the load distribution plan.

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2. Chapter 2: PROJECT EXECUTION

2.1. The overloaded Substation S/S 8907

The S/S 8907 is a distribution station that steps up the voltage from a 132KV/ to 13.8KV. This substation has three transformers where each transformer consisting of the capacity 60MVA. In addition to that there are three buses in the substation where each bus has 11 feeders and the total station’s feeders are 33 feeders. The station suffers from overloads because of the increase in the demand shown in the following table . (Summer session) feeders in red rows are the overloads. .

Feeder

Average(A) Minimum(A) Maximum(A) No Line Voltage 127.015 111.88 142.15 S1 191.872467 144.2802 239.4647 S2 55.53964615 28.76765 82.31165 S3 139.885 119.52 160.25 S4 238.8790512 183.77 293.9881 S5 207.2920303 168.3277 246.2564 S6 161.3816757 131.3396 191.4238 S7 128.3957787 108.7411 148.0505 S8 213.0114517 178.0608 247.9621 S9 13.8 KV 193.2811279 159.5518 227.0105 S10 50.21131229 18.09199 82.33064 S11 2129.953 1671.292 2588.906 S12 1534.12 1110.0258 1957.985 S13 170.951561 133.2093 208.6939 S14 192.7967758 161.4538 224.1398 S15 263.4923401 217.5497 309.435 S16 141.23 94.21 188.25 S17 306.4762039 254.3059 358.6465 S18

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93.2 67.25 119.15 S19 196.6417923 155.0205 238.2631 S20 126.385 95.52 157.25 S21 192.0047722 163.5821 220.4275 S22

134.47 95.69 173.25 S23 139.66 99.2 180.12 S24 253.5241928 207.4458 299.6026 S26 283.8744049 230.3621 337.3867 S28 51.72099113 45.16092 58.28106 S30 74.56467724 10.91044 138.2189 S32 95.99420547 67.41608 124.5723 S34

1755.905 1666.1369 1845.8605 S36 132.7355 100.001 165.47 S38 138.83 102.88 174.78 S40 198.343689 155.5374 241.15 S42 207.5722427 170.2857 244.8588 S44 113.105 78.25 147.96 S46 205.64 161.32 249.96 S48

Tab 1: The load at each feeders on 16 Aug 2018.

2.2. Distribution Substation S/S7928

Distribution substation the Input voltage is 33 KV and the output voltage is 13.8 KV. The total capacity available from connect the two stations s/s8904 and s/s7928 with each other is 90MVA, but we will Allocation just 60MVA to s/s7928 and keep 30MVA for Emergency case such as forced or programmed interruptions on the transmission lines.

2.3. The substation components:

 Three Power Transformer 20MVA - 33/13.8KV - Dyn11 - ONAN / ONAF.

 Two Power Transformer 300KVA - 13.8/0.23KV - Dyn11.

 Five Bus Bar (two section HV, three section MV).

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 Four Bus Section.

 Six Breakers (two for each transformer).

 Nine Breakers 33KV

 Fifteen Breaker 13.8KV

 Two Ring Main Unit Three Way Outdoor (RMU).

 Thirty Earthing Switch.

 Three Natural Earthing Resistance (NER).

 Nine Voltage Transformer (VT).

 Thirty Current Transformer (CT).

2.4. The new substation location:

The new substation is located in the south of the city of Hail as shown in Fig 2.

Terms of Site Selection:

 The site shall be on four streets, one of which shall be a certified commercial.

 The surface area shall not be less than (1600) m2 and the length of any side shall not be less than 30m.

 The site shall be surrounded by a cement wall or steel net not less than (2.5) m and comply with safety.

 Precautions required ensuring that non-specialists enter the site.

 All connections, appliances and electrical equipment shall be ground.

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Figure 1 The Location on Google Maps

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2.5. Single diagram of the new substation: We will work to connect the 7928 station with a 33KV from the GHARNADA s/s8904 station by the Bus A – M9 and Bus C – M26 with capacity 45MVA for each feeders the total of them 90 MVA. A s/s7928 will be designed by three transformers 33KV - 13.8KV with a power capacity of 60MVA for each transformer as in Fig 3. This station connects power to consumers using 10 over headlines feeders.

Fig 2: single line diagram of new substation S/S 7928

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2.6. Load Distribution plan

The entire station load is 5419.7 A (129MVA) distributed over three transformers each transformer has capacity 60 MVA. The transformerareaches loads to 36.67MVA. These loads make up 61% of the transformer's capacity, making it safe. The transformer B reaches loads to 50.90MVA. These loads make up 85% of the transformer's capacity, making it hazardous mode. The transformer c reaches load to 41.97 MVA. These loads make up 70% of the transformer's capacity. Making it in an unsafe mode, as shown in table.

SEC C SEC B SEC A

253.5241928 191.872467 127.015

283.8744049 139.885 55.53964615

51.72099113 207.2920303 238.8790512

74.56467724 128.3957787 161.3816757

95.99420547 193.2811279 213.0114517

132.7355 170.951561 50.21131229

138.83 263.4923401 192.7967758

198.343689 306.4762039 141.23

207.5722427 196.6417923 93.2

113.105 192.0047722 126.385

205.64 139.66 134.47

1755.905 1534.12 2129.953 Total ( A )

Tab 2 : load of S/S 8907 before applying optimal solution.

We calculated the amount of loads on the station based on the load data from the Saudi Electricity Company, which shows us the total load station 5419.7A as shown in (1).

S (VA) = √3 × I (A) × VL-L (V)

S (VA) = √3 × 5419.7 × 13800= 129MVA

P (MW) = 129MVA× 0.85=109.65MW

Q (MVAR) =√129MVA2 − 109.65MW2=67.95MVAR (1)

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Until the station reaches the safety range, the load should be reduced from 5,419.7 to 4,183.69 so that the transformer A load is 36.66 MVA. These loads constitute 61% of the transformer's capacity as it was before. As the transformer B drops from 50.90MVA to 32.2 MVA, these loads make up 54% of the transformer's capacity . The transformer C also reduces its load from 41.97 MVA to 31.5MVA. These loads make up 52% of the transformer capacity as shown in table

SEC C SEC B SEC A

200.5241928 191.872467 127.015

200.8744049 17 55.53964615

55 200 238.8790512

74.56467724 128.3957787 161.3816757

95.99420547 17 213.0114517

132.7355 170.951561 50.21131229

138.83 200 192.7967758

14 17 141.23

207.5722427 196.6417923 93.2

113.105 192.0047722 126.385

85 17 134.47

1318.2 1534.12 1347.866 Total ( A )

Tab 3 : load of S/S 8907 after applying optimal solution.

After we have reduced the loads on the station, the new load will be as follows so that it is safe and stable as shown in (2)

S (VA) = √3 × I (A) × VL-L (V)

S (VA) = √3 × 4183.69 × 13800=100MVA

P (MW) = 100MVA× 0.85=85MW

Q (MVAR) =√100MVA2 − 85MW2=52.67MVAR (2)

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2.7. The new substation load

Transfer of the overloads from S/S 8907 to the new feeders in S/S 7928 by adding switches to the network. Therefore, the plan will be going to load the S/S 7928 by 40MVA of the total load of the S/S 8907.

Thus, it is clear that the total amount of loads that we can transfer from s/s8907 to s/s7928 is 1673A (40MVA) distributed to 10 feeders capacity of each feeder 167.3A.The total load on the station after five years will be 1464A (35MVA). The total load on the station after ten years will be 1673A (40MVA).

SEC C SEC B SEC A

186 170 170

205 163 163

0 172 0

13 0 13

404 505 346 Total ( A ) Tab 4: loads transferred from the s / s8907 station. When take 29MVA From S-S8907as shown in (3) S (VA) = √3 × 1234× 13800 = 29 MVA

P (MW) = S (MVA) × PF

P (MW) = 29MVA× 0.85=24.65MW

Q (MVAR) = √S2 − P2

Q (MVAR) =√29MVA2 − 24.65MW2 =15.27MVAR (3)

SEC C SEC B SEC A

191 170 170

200 163 163

100 172 109

13 0 13

504 505 455 Total ( A ) Tab 5 : loads after five years.

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New Substation after five years as shown in (4)

S (VA) = √3 × 1464× 13800 = 35 MVA

P (MW) = S (MVA) × PF

P (MW) = 35MVA× 0.85=29.75MW Q (MVAR) = √S2 − P2

Q (MVAR) =√35MVA2 − 29.75MW2 =18.43MVAR (4)

SEC C SEC B SEC A

191 170 170

200 163 183

153 172 191

13 52 13

557 557 557 Total ( A )

Tab 6 : loads after ten years.

New Substation after ten years as shown in (5)

S (VA) = √3 × 1673× 13800 = 40 MVA P (MW) = S (MVA) × PF P (MW) = 40MVA× 0.85= 34 MW Q (MVAR) = √S2 − P2 Q (MVAR) =√40MVA2 − 34MW2 = 21.07MVAR (5)

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Fig 4: Interconnection between S/S 7928 & GHARNADA S/S 8904 by the Bus A – M9and Bus C – M26

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3. Chapter 3: SIMULATION RESULT

3.1. Introduction:

ThePowerWorld Simulator (Simulator) is a power system simulation is package designed from the ground up to be user-friendly and highly interactive. Simulator has the power for serious engineering analysis, but it is also so interactive and graphical that it can used to explain power system operations to non-technical audiences. With Version 20 we’ve continued to make Simulator more powerful and easier to use with the addition of a number of major new features and hundreds of smaller enhancements.

Simulator consists of a number of integrated products. At its core is a comprehensive, robust Power Flow Solution engine capable of efficiently solving systems of up to 250,000 buses. This makes Simulator quite useful as a stand-alone power flow analysis package. Unlike other commercially available power flow packages, however, Simulator allows the user to visualize the system through the use of full-color animated one line diagrams complete with zooming and panning capability. System models can be either modified on the fly or built from scratch using Simulator’s full-featured graphical case editor. Transmission lines can be switched in (or out) of service, new transmission or generation can be added, and new transactions can be established, all with a few mouse clicks. Simulator’s extensive use of graphics and animation greatly increases the user’s understanding of system characteristics, problems, and constraints, as well as how to remedy them.

The base package of Simulator is capable of solving power systems comprised of up to 250,000 buses. The base package also contains all the tools necessary to perform integrated economic dispatch, area transaction economic analysis, power transfer distribution factor (PTDF) computation, short circuit analysis, and contingency analysis. All of the above features and tools are easily accessible through a consistent and colorful visual interface. These features are so well integrated that you will be up and running within minutes of installation. In addition to the features of the base Simulator package, various add-on tools are available, including the new transient stability feature. Please see Introduction to Simulator Add-On Tools for more information.

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We have simulated the station s/s8907 in present time ithas been shown that there is overloads in electrical network, which will lead to frequent faults in the electrical network, which constitutes an economic burden on the company. The entire station load is 129 distributed over three transformers each transformer has capacity 60 MVA. The transformer are aches loads to 36.67MVA. These loads make up 61% of the transformer's capacity, making it safe. The transformer B reaches loads to 50.90MVA. These loads make up 85% of the transformer's capacity, making it hazardous mode. The transformer c reaches load to 41.97 MVA. These loads make up 70% of the transformer's capacity.

Making it in an unsafe mode, as shown in figure.

Fig 5 : S/S 8907 simualtion by using PowerWorld before applying the optimal solution.

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A Load of s/s8907 Before 350 300 250 SEC A 200 SEC B 150 100 SEC C 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Feeders NO

Fig 6 : Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s 8907 before applying the optimal solution.

After simulating the station in its present time, we have simulated the station after load reduction so that the load of the station is completely reduced from 129MVA to 100MVA, so that the transformer A load is 36.66 MVA. These loads constitute 61% of the transformer's capacity as it was before. As the transformer B drops from 50.90MVA to

32.2 MVA, these loads make up 54% of the transformer's capacity to be safe. The transformer C also reduces its load from 41.97 MVA to 31.5MVA. These loads make up

52% of the transformer's capacity to be safe. After we have reduced the station load now, it has become safe and this is our goal.

| P a g e 21

Fig 7 : Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s8907 after applying the optimal solution by using powerworld software.

A Load of s/s8907 After 350 300 250 SEC A 200 SEC B 150

SEC C 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Feeders NO

Fig 8: Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in s/s8907 after applying the optimal solution.

3.2. Simulation result of S/S 7928 by using powerworld " new substation "

We simulate the station after transfer 29MVA from s/s 8907 so that the total load of the terminal is 29MVA. The load of the transformer A is 8MVA , the load is 41% of the transformer capacity.The load of transformer B is 12MVA, the load is 60% of the transformer capacity .The load of transformer C is 10MVA , the load is 48% of the transformer capacity, as shown in fig.

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Fig 9 : S/S 7928 simualtion by using PowerWorld after transferred from the S/S 8907.

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A 250 Load of S/S7928

200

150

SEC A SEC B 100 SEC C 50

0 1 2 3 4 Feeders NO

Fig 10 : Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after transfer load from S/S 8907.

After five years we simulate the station so that the total load of the terminal is 35MVA.

The load of the transformer A is 11MVA , the load is 54% of the transformer capacity.The load of transformer B is 12MVA, the load is 60% of the transformer capacity .The load of transformer C is 12MVA , the load is 60% of the transformer capacity, as shown in fig.

| P a g e 24

Fig 11 : S/S 7928 simualtion by using PowerWorld after five years.

A Load of S/S7928 after five years 250

200

150 SEC A 100 SEC B SEC C 50

0 1 2 3 4 Feeders NO

Fig 12 : Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after five years.

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After ten years we simulate the station so that the total load of the terminal is 35MVA. The load of the transformer A is 13MVA , the load is 66% of the transformer capacity.The load of transformer B is 13MVA, the load is 67% of the transformer capacity .The load of transformer C is 14MVA , the load is 67% of the transformer capacity, as shown in fig

Fig 13 : S/S 7928 simualtion by using PowerWorld after ten years.

A Load of S/S7928 after ten years 250

200

SEC A 150

SEC B 100 SEC C 50

0 1 2 3 4 Feedrs NO Fig 14 : Load at each feeders of section A, B and C in S/S 7928 after ten years.

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4. Chapter 4: Conclusion

4.1. Conclusion:

This project presents an optimal solution of overloading problem in south of Hail.

Overloading is checked for restrictions in the converter, overload transmission lines, loss of distribution capacity, and notes that the s / s8907 overloading effects in the distribution network. The goal here is to be able to operate within the safety range and thus be able to cope with the energy demand in the region as the load grows. By applying the solutions to the proposed system, the overload problem was handle well and the simulation result was obtained by using the PowerWorld software. After simulating the project, we obtained satisfactory results that were included in the plan.

Finally, the goal was to find the optimal load reduction solution in the south of Hail under the consideration of the economic and technical aspects.

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College of Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

Senior Project EE-411

Second semester 2018/2019 (182)

Senior Project Final Report: Sun Tracking Solar Panel (Dual Axis)

Advisor: Dr. Anouar Farah

Student’s name ID 1 Bander Yousif 201309157 2 Fahad Abdulmhsen Al-rsid 201408453 3 Mukhlef Alshammeri 201514313

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Abstract

Solar energy is becoming a promising renewable energy technology. Conventional fixed solar panel with a certain angle limits there area of sun exposure due to rotation of Earth. The Dual-Axis solar tracking system solves this problem. In this work, a dual axis solar tracker is designed and implemented to track the sun in both azimuth and altitude axes by using an Arduino Uno controller. The implemented system consists mainly of the Arduino Uno, DC motors, light sensors. The results show that the designed low cost sun tracker increases the output power generation efficiency as compared with the fixed panel systems.

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Table Contents:

List of Figures: ...... 5 1. Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 6 1.1. Sustainable energy ...... 7 1.2. Solar energy ...... 7 1.3. Solar panels ...... 9 1.4. Sun rays ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 1.5. Solar tracking system ...... 16 1.6. Motivatiom...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Chapter 2: Functional model ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1. Solar angles: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.2. Factors for Finding Solar Energy ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3. Open Circuit Voltage:: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3. Chapter 3: Output Power calculation ...... 24 3.1. Cumulative Energy Calculation……………………………………………………………………………………24 3.2. Output power of fixed Panel: ...... 25 3.3. Ouput Power of single-Axis: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.4. Output power of Dual-Axis : ...... 26 4. Chapter 4: Design Specifications ...... 27 4.1. Introduction: ...... 27 4.2. Programming languages ...... 27 4.3. Photresistors: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.4. Arduino: ...... 34 5. Chapter 5: Implementation ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.1. Project objectives: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2. Project conponents: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.3. Circuit design: ...... 40 5.4. Procedure: ...... 40 5.5. Advantages and comparaison: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.5. Software program: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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5.5. Implementation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………45

Conclusion ...... 48 References ...... 49

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List of Figures:

Figure 1...... 7 Figure 2 ...... 8 Figure 3...... 9 Figure 4...... 10 Figure 5 ...... 11 Figure 6 ...... 12 Figure 7...... 14 Figure 8...... 15 Figure 9...... 16 Figure 10...... 18 Figure 11 ...... 19 Figure 12...... 25 Figure 13 ...... 25 Figure 14...... 26 Figure 15...... 29 Figure 16...... 31 Figure 17...... 33 Figure 18...... 33 Figure 19...... 33 Figure 20...... 35 Figure 21 ...... 35 Figure 22 ...... 36 Figure 23...... 37 Figure 24 ...... 38 Figure 25...... 40

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Chapter 1: Introduction

In this section, we will present a general overview about solar energy as a source of renewable energy being more and more used for domestic and industrial applications. The most relevant applications of solar energy are electricity generation, sea water desalination and energy concentrator. To capture the maximum of solar radiation the solar panel should be placed such as it would be as perpendicular as possible to the solar beam direction. Tracking as accurately as possible the sun trajectory is the main aim of our project in order to extract the maximum of power. An intelligent automatic solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Such programmable computer based solar tracking device includes principles of solar tracking, solar tracking systems, as well as microcontroller, microprocessor and/or PC based solar tracking control to orientate solar reflectors, solar lenses, photovoltaic panels or other optical configurations towards the sun. In harnessing power from the sun through a solar tracker or practical solar tracking system, renewable energy control automation systems require automatic solar tracking soft-ware and solar position algorithms to accomplish dynamic motion control with control automation architecture, circuit boards and hardware. On-axis sun tracking system such as the altitude-azimuth dual axis or multi-axis solar tracker systems use a sun tracking algorithm or ray tracing sensors or software to ensure the sun’s passage through the sky is traced with high precision in automated solar tracker applications. A high precision sun position calculator or sun position algorithm uses a software program routine to align the solar tracker to the sun and is an important component in the design and construction of an automatic solar tracking system.

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Figure 1. Sun positions

1.1 Sustainable energy:

Sustainable energy is a form of energy that meet our today’s demand of energy without putting them in danger of getting expired or depleted and can be used over and over again. Sustainable energy should be widely encouraged as it do not cause any harm to the environment and is available widely free of cost. All renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and ocean energy are sustainable as they are stable and available in plenty.

1.2 Solar energy:

The solar energy is the most important form of sustainable energy, and the form with the brightest future. Because the sun is a very abundant source of power. Even so, only a fraction of the entire energy is harnessed and that too not efficiently. The main cause of this is the high cost of installation of solar cells. Also solar cells are mostly kept fixed, so they do not obtain the optimum amount of sunlight throughout the day. This project aims at the development of

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a simple process to track the sun and attain maximum efficiency using Microcontrollers and light sensors.

This project presents a solution to increase the efficiency and maximize the potential of the solar panel. The need for renewable energy rises as our planet suffers from all the pollution caused by our current power generation methods and fuels. We need to polish and maximize the efficiency of renewable energy. We will program the controller to detect the output of the light sensors and compare them to each other, to figure out the position of the sun and commands couple of motors that rotate the panel to have perpendicular profile with the light.

Figure 2. components of solar system

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1.3 Solar Panels:

Photovoltaic solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. The most common application of solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water heating systems.

Figure 3. Solar Panel

Photovoltaic modules use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer- based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells.

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Figure 4. Photovoltaic panel irradiance

The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells must be connected electrically in series, one to another.

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and it is its output interface. Externally, most of photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors type to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Also, USB power interface can be used. Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes). The conducting wires that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

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Figure 5. Solar panel circuit

In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel. Though the premiere solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices they were used as an instrument to measure light. The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. In 1881, Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight." However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to coal-fired power plants. In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941. In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell.

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Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems.

As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures.

Figure 6. Solar module

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Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules.

1.4 Sun rays:

Sunlight, solar radiation, or sunlight is a sum of electromagnetic waves, one can see a part of it called visible light, and the rest is unseen by the naked eye. The visible rays of the sun's spectrum are made up of rays from red to violet, rainbow colors. Red waves have a wavelength of 700 nm and short-wavelength violet waves and a wavelength of 400 nm. Two parts of the spectrum of the sun are not visible to the naked eye: as in the figure the part has a wave longer than 700 nm (up to about 2700 nm) This is the infrared range, the other part has wavelengths less than 400 nm (left in the spectrum graph) , Which is called ultraviolet range.

Solar radiation carries energy and its energy varies according to its wavelength. The greater the wave of light, the lower its energy. This means that ultraviolet radiation is relatively high, and therefore harmful to the human skin if exposed to it long.

The sun shines on the ground after passing through the earth's atmosphere. The Earth's atmosphere absorbs some of them and does not reach us. The figure shows the parts of the spectrum that reach the surface of the earth (brown in shape).

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Different gases in the atmosphere, such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, etc., have different capacities to absorb sunlight. Direct sunlight may be efficiently illuminated by 93 lumens radiant per watt of flow, which includes infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet radiation. The average power of the falling solar area per square meter is from the Earth's surface

Figure 7. Solar radiation spectrum

Effect of the sun angle on the climate:

The amount of thermal energy you receive anywhere on earth. And by changing the seasons of the first year in the world. This is the main reason in winter and the change in length of the day is another factor.

Studying the angle of the sun:

When the sun shines on the ground at a small angle (the sun is close to the horizon), the amount of energy carried by these rays spread over a large area,

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and therefore are weak compared to the rays that fall at a greater angle and focus on a less space.

Figure 8 describes a beam of the sun with a width of one mile (1.6 km) falling on the ground vertically, and another beam falling at a angle of 30° on the surface of the earth, and by trigonometry we deduce that the corner pocket 30° is half, while the pocket of the angle of 90° is 1, The sun's rays, which fall at a 30° angle, carry the same amount of photovoltaic energy but on a double surface, so that the amount of light falling per square mile is only half the amount of sunlight.

Figure 8. Sun angle

Figure 9 shows the fall of sunlight on the Earth in the South and North Pole where the axis of the Earth is tilted from the north away from the Sun, and then

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the winter is in the northern hemisphere and the summer is in the southern hemisphere.

Figure 9. Density of incident rays

Technical note:

The sun's heat reaches the earth from the radiation method and is absorbed by different organisms, which have different ways of radiation. This energy is sent back but in a form of thermal energy at different rates.

1.5 Dual axis tracking:

Someone would ask, why are we implementing dual axis tracking instead of single axis? We have few answers to that question. First, from an efficiency point, The maximum possible power that can be collected is when dual axis tracking is done. It is used to pin point the location of the sun since it’s the brightest light in the sky. Second, from a learning point of view, dual axis tracking is a lot more complex that just single axis tracking. So we are trying to

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challenge ourselves and proof to us and everyone that we are capable of something great. Also. The idea of using two axis is natural because the sun moves in an orbital curve. This results when projected in to the earth to a combined movement following two axes.

1.6 .Motivation

In Saudi Arabia’s 2030 Vision, the country is moving towards more renewable energy sources. Which is one of the greatest moves the country has ever taken. So, in line with the 2030 vision, we came up with this project idea.

Traditional energy sources have a great negative impact on our atmosphere, earth and us humans. There are many solar energy projects around the country that produce hundreds of Mega-Watts. For example: Finished Projects: 1. Solar Towers at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) = 2 MW. 2. Solar Farm at King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center (KAPSARC) (STAGE ONE) = 3.5 MW. 3. Solar Farm at King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center (KAPSARC) (STAGE TWO) = 1.8 MW. 4. Saudi Aramco North Park Office Car Park Solar Farm = 10.5 MW.

Planning-stage Projects: 1. Sakaka Photovoltaic IPP Plant = 300 MW. 2. Solar Farm in Al-Aflaj = 50 MW.

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3. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) Initiative – Al-Khafji Water Desalination Plant = 150 MW

Chapter 2: Functional model

2.1. Solar angles: 2.1.1 Solar Altitude: Solar altitude refers to the angle of the sun relative to the Earth's horizon. Solar altitude is measured in degrees. The value of the solar altitude varies based on the time of day, the time of year and the latitude on Earth. Solar altitude is defined as (α) in figure below,

Figure 10: Solar Altitude (α)

Solar Altitude can be calculated through the following equation

2.1.2. Zenith Angle:

The solar zenith angle is the angle between the zenith and the center of the sun's disc. The solar elevation angle is the altitude of the Sun, the angle

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between the horizon and the center of the Sun's disc. Since these two angles are complementary, the cosine of either one of them equals the sine of the other. Zenith Angle is shown in Figure17 where, 휃푧 is known as Zenith Angle. The equation of Zenith angle is given below,

2.1.3. Declination Angle

The declination angle (δ) varies seasonally due to the tilt of the earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the earth around the sun. If the earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination would always be 0°. However, the earth is tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle varies plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring and fall equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0°.

Here, n = number of a particular day.

2.1.4. Latitude Angle

Latitude is defined with respect to an equatorial reference plane. This plane passes through the center O of the sphere, and also contains the great circle representing the equator. The latitude of a point P on the surface is defined as the angle that a straight line, passing through both P and O, subtends with respect to the equatorial plane. If P is above the reference plane, the latitude is positive (or northerly); if P is below the reference plane, the latitude is negative (or southerly). Latitude angles can range up to +90 degrees (or 90 degrees north), and down to -90 degrees (or 90 degrees south). Latitudes of +90 and -90 degrees correspond to the north and south geographic poles on the earth.

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Figure 11: Latitude Angle (흋)

2.1.5. Hour Angle

Observing the sun from earth, the solar hour angle is an expression of time which is expressed in angular measurement, usually degrees from solar noon. At solar noon, the hour angle is 0.000 degree; with the time before solar noon expressed as negative degrees and the local time after solar noon expressed as positive degrees. For example, at 10:30 AM local apparent time the hour angle is - 22.5°. The Equation expressing hour angle is :

Here, t = Particular time of a day 푡푆푅 = Sunrise time of a particular day 푡푆푆 = Sunset time of a particular day

2.2. Factors for Finding Solar Energy

2.2.1.Solar Irradiance

Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering. It is measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight. This Solar Irradiance hits the surface of the earth in two forms, beam (Gb) and diffuse (Gd). The beam component comes directly as

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irradiance from the sun, while the diffuse component reaches the earth indirectly and is scattered or reflected from the atmosphere or cloud cover. The total irradiance on a surface is G = Gb + Gd (beam and diffuse)

For Dual Axis:

For this project, we have collected practical data of solar irradiance for dual axis sun tracker throughout the year. That data contains the solar irradiance value of a particular place from sunset to sunrise which is an hourly basis average data and it is denoted by I0 . We have calculated incidental solar radiation by the method of finding slope from this hour basis average data.

For Single Axis:

Solar irradiance value for single axis sun tracker is denoted by I1. The equation of calculating solar irradiance for single axis is

Here, δ = Declination Angle

For Fixed Panel:

Solar irradiance value for fixed panel is denoted by I2 . The equation of calculating solar irradiance for fixed panel is

Here, 휃 = Hour Angle δ = Declination Angle

2.3. Output Power

Cells are normally grouped into modules which are encapsulated with various materials to protect the cells and the electrical connectors from the environment. The manufacturers supply PV cells in modules, consisting of NPM which is parallel branches, each with NSM solar cells in series. The PV module’s current IM under arbitrary operating conditions can thus be described as:

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The expression of the PV module’s current I M is an implicit function, being depended on:

The short circuit current of the module, ISCM = NPM. ISCC

The open circuit voltage of the module, VOCM = NSM .VOCC The equivalent serial resistance of the module

The thermal voltage in the semiconductor of a single solar cell,

The steps of calculating PV module current are as following: 1) Manufacturer’s catalogues provide information about the PV module for standard conditions:

 Maximum power, 푃푚푎푥,0푀  Short circuit current, 퐼푆퐶,0푀  Open circuit voltage, 푉푂퐶,0푀  Number of cells in series, 푁푆푀  Number of cells in parallel, 푁푃푀

2) The next step is to compute the cell’s data for standard conditions: 푃푚푎푥,0퐶 , 푉c푂퐶, 퐼푆퐶,0퐶 , 푅푠퐶

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3) The next step is to determine the characteristic parameters of the cell under the operating conditions (VM, Ta, Ga). Thus, the short circuit current of a solar cell is computed based on its linear dependency on the irradiation Ga.

The working temperature of the cells TC depends exclusively on the irradiation Ga and on the ambient temperature Ta, According to the empirical linear relation:

Where the constant C2 is computed as:

When 푇C푟푒푓 is not known, it is reasonable to approximate 퐶2= 0.03 퐶푚2 /W. The open circuit voltage of the cell depends exclusively on the temperature of the solar cell

Where the constant C3 is usually considered to be: 퐶3= -2.3 mV/C

4) The final stage is to determine the module current for operating condition.

2.3. Open-circuit voltage

The open-circuit voltage (VOC) is the maximum voltage available from a solar cell, and this occurs at zero current. The open-circuit voltage corresponds to

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the amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated current

Here, Dark Saturation Current, 퐼0 = 10−10.88A Ideality Factor, m = 1

Chapter 3 : Output Power Calculation:

Introduction

The power output of photovoltaic solar panels is approximately proportional to the sun’s intensity. At a given intensity, a solar panel's output current and operating voltage are determined by the characteristics of the load. If that load is a battery, the battery's internal resistance will dictate the module's operating voltage.

3.1. Cumulative Energy Calculation

Cumulative Incident energy is total of all intensity values calculated over a given time period. We can calculate total energy generation for particular time period such as for a day, for a month or even for a year. For a particular day we can use numerical integration of intensity for a given time period like total number of hours available from dawn to dusk. In terms of months we multiply the value with the total number of days available for that particular month and for year we add up all the values for 12 months.

3.2. Output Power of Fixed Panel

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In this part, we will observe the output energy (W/m2) of fixed axis solar photovoltaic panel for different months. Based on dual axis incidental irradiation value that we have collected, we have calculated the incidental irradiation values of fixed axis PV panel as per Equation: 1.8.2. In Equation: 1.9.4 and Equation: 1.9.5 we will be using the value obtained from Equation: 2.6. After that, putting the value obtained from Equation: 1.9.4 and 1.9.5 in Equation: 1.9.6, we are attempting to sort out the monthly average output power of fixed axis PV Panel system.

Figure 12: Plots of monthly average PV panel output power for a particular day for the months of January, March, June, September, calculated for fixed panel system. 3.2. Output Power of Single-Axis: In this part we will see the output energy (W/m2) of single axis solar photovoltaic panel for different months. Here, we are going to use Equation: 1.8.1 in order to trace the incidental irradiation value and will follow the same procedure as we did to calculate the output power of fixed axis PV panel.

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Figure 13: Plots of monthly average PV panel output power for a particular day for the months of January, March, June, September, calculated for single axis panel system

3.3. Output Power of Dual-Axis In this part we will see the output energy (W/m2) of dual axis solar photovoltaic panel for different months. Here, we are going to calculate the output power from the data that was collected. Sequentially, we are going to follow the same procedure to determine the output power value of dual axis PV Panel as used in case of fixed axis and single axis PV panel.

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Figure 14: Plots of monthly average PV panel output power for a particular day for the months of January, March, June, September, calculated for dual axis panel system.

Monthly average output power value of dual axis PV Panel graph illustrates that, the highest and the lowest value of this axis PV Panel is slightly higher than that of single axis PV Panel.

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Chapter 4: Design Specifications

4.1. Introduction

In this chapter we will explain the software and hardware requirements to implement the dual-Axis sun tracker.

4.2. Programming Languages:

A programming language is a formal language, which comprises a set of instructions that produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used in computer programming to implement algorithms. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, and more are being created every year. Many programming languages are written in an imperative form (i.e., as a sequence of operations to perform) while other languages use the declarative form (i.e. the desired result is specified, not how to achieve it). The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard) while other languages (such as Perl) have a dominant implementation that is treated as a reference. Some languages have both, with the basic language defined by a standard and extensions taken from the dominant implementation being common. A computer programming language is a language used to write computer programs, which involves a computer performing some kind of computation or algorithm and possibly control external devices such as printers, disk drives, robots, and so on. For example, PostScript programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally

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accepted that a complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly idealized, of a machine or processor for that language. In most practical contexts, a programming language involves a computer; consequently, programming languages are usually defined and studied this way. Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines. ".

Very early computers, such as Colossus, were programmed without the help of a stored program, by modifying their circuitry or setting banks of physical controls. Slightly later, programs could be written in machine language, where the programmer writes each instruction in a numeric form the hardware can execute directly. For example, the instruction to add the value in two memory location might consist of 3 numbers: an "opcode" that selects the "add" operation, and two memory locations. The programs, in decimal or binary form, were read in from punched cards, paper tape, magnetic tape or toggled in on switches on the front panel of the computer. Machine languages were later termed first-generation programming languages (1GL).

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field. Software is commonly built with 5 programming languages or more. Programming languages differ from most other forms of

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human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using pseudocode, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.

Figure 15. Language preferences

C++ Language:

C++ is a general-purpose object-oriented programming (OOP) language, developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, and is an extension of the C language. It is therefore possible to code C++ in a "C style" or "object-oriented style." In

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certain scenarios, it can be coded in either way and is thus an effective example of a hybrid language. C++ is considered to be an intermediate-level language, as it encapsulates both high- and low-level language features. Initially, the language was called "C with classes" as it had all the properties of the C language with an additional concept of "classes." However, it was renamed C++ in 1983. C++ is one of the most popular languages primarily utilized with system/application software, drivers, client-server applications and embedded firmware. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation. It is almost always implemented as a compiled language, and many vendors provide C++ compilers, including the Free Software Foundation,

Microsoft, Intel, and IBM, so it is available on many platforms. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2017 as ISO/IEC 14882:2017 (informally known as C++17). The C++ programming language was initially standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, which was then amended by the C++03, C++11 and C++14 standards. The current C++17 standard supersedes these with new features and an enlarged standard library. Before the initial standardization in 1998, C++ was developed by Danish computer scientist Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs since 1979 as an extension of the C language; he wanted an efficient and flexible language similar to C that

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also provided high-level features for program organization. C++20 is the next planned standard, keeping with the current trend of a new version every three years.. The first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. The C++ language has two main components: a direct mapping of hardware features provided primarily by the C subset, and zero-overhead abstractions based on those mappings. Stroustrup describes C++ as "a lightweight abstraction programming language [designed] for building and using efficient and elegant abstractions"; and "offering both hardware access and abstraction is the basis of C++. Doing it efficiently is what distinguishes it from other languages

Figure 16. C++ uses

4.3. Photoresistors:

A photoresistor has many different names. It can be called Photoresistor, Light-Dependent Resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell. is a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. Another

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definition is that an LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that changes with the light intensity that falls upon it. This allows them to be used in light sensing circuits. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching circuits. A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device.

If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

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Figure17: A picture of a photoresistor

Figure18: The symbol of a photoresistor.

Figure19: Three photoresistors with scale in mm.

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Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc. Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light is only on during hours of darkness. They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent or neon lamp, or light- emitting diode to control gain reduction. A common usage of this application can be found in many guitar amplifiers that incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control the level of signal running through the amp circuit. The use of CdS and CdSe photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium. Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used for the mid- infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

4.4. Arduino

Arduino first and foremost is an open-source computer hardware and software company. The Arduino Community refers to the project and user community that designs and utilizes microcontroller-based development boards. These development boards are known as Arduino Modules, which are open-source prototyping platforms. The simplified microcontroller board comes in a variety of development board packages.

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Figure 20: (left to right) Lilypad, Sparkfun Pro Micro, Arduino Mega

The most common programming approach is to use the Arduino IDE, which utilizes the C programming language. This gives you access to an enormous Arduino Library that is constantly growing thanks to open-source community.

Figure 21: Arduino Uno dev. board (Fritzing part graphic)

Arduino IDE: Initial Setup

Download Arduino Integrated Design Environment (IDE). This is the Arduino IDE once it’s been opened. It opens into a blank sketch where you can start programming immediately. First, we should configure the board and port settings to allow us to upload code. Connect your Arduino board to the PC via the USB cable.

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Figure 22: Arduino IDE Default Window

IDE: Board Setup

You have to tell the Arduino IDE what board you are uploading to. Select the Tools pulldown menu and go to Board. This list is populated by default with the currently available Arduino Boards that are developed by Arduino. If you are using an Uno or an Uno-Compatible Clone (ex. Funduino, SainSmart, IEIK, etc.), select Arduino Uno. If you are using another board/clone, select that board.

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Figure 23: Arduino IDE: Board Setup Procedure

IDE: COM Port Setup

If you downloaded the Arduino IDE before plugging in your Arduino board, when you plugged in the board, the USB drivers should have installed automatically. The most recent Arduino IDE should recognize connected boards and label them with which COM port they are using. Select the Tools pulldown menu and then Port. Here it should list all open COM ports, and if there is a recognized Arduino Board, it will also give it’s name. Select the Arduino board that you have connected to the PC. If the setup was successful, in the bottom right of the Arduino IDE, you should see the board type and COM number of the board you plan to program. Note: the Arduino Uno occupies the next available COM port; it will not always be COM3.

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Figure 24: Arduino IDE: COM Port Setup

At this point, your board should be set up for programming, and you can begin writing and uploading code.

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Chapter 5: Implementation

5.1. Project Objectives:

The project was carried out to achieve the following goals:

1. To design a device that will maximize the efficiency of solar power. 2. To prove that tracking indeed increase the efficiency greatly. 3. To use sensors for sensing the sun light. 4. To program the circuit to compare the sensors’ output. 5. To program a controller to command the motor to rotate towards the sun. 6. To use modern programming languages. 7. To create an automated system that operate on its own.

5.2. Project Components:

To complete this project we used the following tools and parts:

1. Arduino Uno + USB Cable 2. 2x MG995 Servo motors 3. 4x 100KΩ Resistors (1/4W) 4. 4x Photoresistors (LDR) 12mm 5. 30cm male-male Wires. 6. Solderer. 7. Wood pieces in different sizes.

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5.3. Circuit design:

In this project, we used the circuit diagram in (Figure 15) in the next page. The circuit design of solar tracker is simple but setting up the system must be done carefully. Four LDRs and Four 100KΩ resistors are connected in a voltage divider fashion and the output is given to 4 Analog input pins of Arduino. The PWM inputs of two servos are given from digital pins 9 and 10 of Arduino.

Figure 25: Circuit diagram

5.4. Procedure:

Here is the procedure that we followed to assemble the device:

 Step 1: Upload the program to the Arduino Uno using the USB cable and a computer.  Step 2: Fix the solar panel to a base surface.  Step 3: Install four Light Dependent Resistors on every corner of the panel.  Step 4: connect the LDRs and resistors in the same fashion as in Figure 1.

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 Step 5: Install the whole thing on a wooden base that’s specially made in such a way that allows us to connect two servo motors to the wooden base and rotate them vertically and horizontally.  Step 6: Connect Vcc and GND to LDRs circuit.  Step 7: Verify that there are no loose wires that could interfere with the movement of the device.  Step 8: Neatly group the wires and put everything in an aesthetically pleasing manner, and apply finishing touches.

5.5. Advantages and Comparison:

5.5.1 Single Axis or Dual Axis?

Our tracker is a dual axis tracker, meaning it tracks in both X axis and Y axis. To put it into even more simple terms, it goes left, right, up, and down. This means once you have your tracker set up you will never need to change or adjust anything, since anywhere the sun moves our tracker will follow. This also impresses people everywhere because we can have it track a flashlight around. This method gives the best results for power generation. If we want to make things a bit more simple we can make a single axis tracker, one that does just X axis or Y axis. To put it in simple terms again, it'll do just left to right or just up and down. However, dual axis tracking comes with the price of higher complexity and lower reliability. It takes more down time to install, fix and maintain.

Typically people will make an X axis (left to right) tracker and then just set their panel at 45 degrees for Y axis. This still gives really high amounts of power generation while at the same time eliminating half the moving parts. This approach is frequently found being used in "dumb" trackers that are not computer controlled.

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5.5.2 Active Tracking or Scheduled Tracking?

Our tracker is an active tracker which is controlled by computer program (via an Arduino). This means that we use sensors to find the brightest source of light at all times. If you were to take a flashlight and shine it at the sensors the tracker would follow it around. While this is the most interactive and exciting kind of tracking you can build, it's also overkill for larger setups.

The sun is highly predictable. If you can easily look up the time of every sunrise and sunset for the next 100 years as well as use some simple math to figure out the angle of the sun relative to your location at any time of the year. With this in mind many people end up using a scheduled tracker. This system uses a computer program that changes the angle of the panel based on the date, time, and physical location. While not as fancy or exciting as an active tracker, it is in fact far more efficient provided everything is set up properly. You can be sure that your panel is at the.. mathematically most efficient spot possible even under heavy cloud coverage

5.6. Software Program:

The program that we uploaded into the Arduino Uno and that controlled the entire device is in the following page:

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5.7. Implementation :

This is the result of all our work and efforts for the whole semester.

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Conclusion

Working on this device have been very exciting and educational for all of us. We started with gathering all the information, making decisions about how we are going to tackle this project, and trying to predict the problems that might face us. So that we will be ready when we face them. We are all extremely happy that we set our minds on a project, worked hard on it, put all of our knowledge in it, and finally to see it working perfectly as intended in front of our eyes. It is always a joy when you think of an idea, and after a short amount of time, you see it working exactly like it was in your head. This project can still be improved a lot. It’s just that we didn’t have as much time as we would have liked. Because of all the exams and personal life circumstances. There is still a possibility to add the solar panel with a chargeable battery, a DC load of some kind. Or you can add a DC\AC Inverter and connect it to an AC load. Also, you can make it a self-sustainable system if you connect the panel to a battery. And power the circuit in micro-controller using that battery.

The biggest problem we faced was the mechanical part of the project. Since none of us is an expert in mechanical engineering. But we finally decided on a design that is working great.

Dr. Anouar has been very helpful. Guiding us and giving great advice and ideas. We have meetings with him every time we need help or there is an important decision to be made. Whenever we need help, he was always there to aid us.

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References:

[1] Renewable energy resources, John Twidell & Tony Weir, Taylor & Francis Edition, second edition (2010)

[2] Solar Tracking - Gerro Prinsloo, Robert Dobson – 2015 Book Edition

[3] Wikipedia – Solar Tracker

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_tracker

[4] Electronics Hub – Arduino Solar Tracker

https://www.electronicshub.org/arduino-solar-tracker/

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Education

University of Hail

Electrical Engineering Department

Traffic Board Powered by Solar PV

(Final Report)

Abdullah Muflih S. Alghaythi

ID: 201406926

Adel Khalid Mohammed Alshaya

ID: 201406017

, and

Ali Khalaf Ali Alkhalaf

ID: 201402469

Advisor

Dr. Abdullah Fahad Albaker

A Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Degree

in Electrical Engineering.

College of Engineering, University of Hail

Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

(May 2019)

ABSTRACT

Electronic Traffic Signs are distinguished as an essential modern technique to provide sufficient instructions for managing traffic. This project aims to design and implement an electronic traffic sign that is totally powered by a renewable energy resource (i.e., Solar PV). The proposed senior project design is simulated via Matlab Simulink and further physically implemented on a practical system comprises solar PV panel, battery, inverter, and traffic board. The resulting system would significantly reduce the Electronic Traffic Sign energy cost and would facilitate its use, since it would be sustained and self-contained through the utilization of Solar PV.

Table of contents

List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………….iii

List of tables ……………………………………………………………………………iv

Chapter 1: Introduction & Background …………………………………………………1

Chapter 2: Requirements and specifications …………………………………………...2

Chapter 3: System components..………………...……………………………………....4

3.1 Configuration of the PV Electronic traffic sign System……………………………4

3.1.1 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System……………………………………………..4

3.1.2 Sizing of the PV System………………………………………………………..5

3.1.3 Sizing of Battery………………………………………………………………..6

3.1.4 Battery charger ………………………………………...……………………...7

3.1.5 DC-DC converter………………………………………………………………8

3.1.6 DC-AC inverter ……………………………………………………………….8

3.2 Software Simulation Construction ……………………………..…………………..8

3.2.1 Simulation Results ………………………………………………….………...10

Chapter 4: Hardware Construction ……………………………………..……………...11

4.1 Electronic Traffic Sign ……………………………………..…………………….11

4.1.1 Programing Electronic Traffic Sign………………………………………….12

4.2 DC-AC Converter (Inverter) …………………………………………...………..14

4.3 Battery…………………………………………………………………………….15

4.4 Charge controller………………………………………………………………….17

4.5 Solar PV…………………………………………………………………………...19

4.6 Connectors……………………...…………………………………………………20

Chapter 5: overall system………………………...………………………….…………23

Chapter 6: Conclusion………………………………………………………………….25

References ……………………………………………………….………………...….26

List of Figures

Figure 1: flowchart of the Photovoltaic system.

Figure 2: Block diagram of the PV electronic traffic sign system.

Figure 3: Simulink simulation of the solar PV model.

Figure 4: The above figure shows voltage, current and the current State of Charge, respectively.

Figure 5: Shows the DC signal coming out of the MPPT.

Figure 6: Shows the Electronic traffic sign after unboxing.

Figure 7: Shows the installation of Ledshow software.

Figure 8: Shows programing the load.

Figure 9: flowchart of the power through the load.

Figure 10: shows the step down DC-DC Buck converter.

Figure 11: the inverter that we are using in our system.

Figure 12: shows the 65 Ampere Battery that we are using for the project.

Figure 13: 퐼-푉 Curves for a PV Module at different operating conditions.

Figure 14: shows the charge controller that we are using in our system.

Figure 15: 100W solar panel that feeds our system.

Figure 16: Exploded view of a female MC4 connector.

Figure 17: Exploded view of a male MC4 connector.

Figure 18: male and female of the MC4 that connect the solar with the charge controller.

Figure 19: electrical connector.

Figure 20: the standalone system.

Figure 21&22 :doing the last touches for the system.

iii

List of Tables

Table 1: Project requirements/specifications

Table 2: Charger Circuit requirements

Table 3: Boost Converter Requirement

Chapter 1: Introduction & Background

Electronic Traffic Signs provide significant information for cars' drivers and pedestrians. Electronic traffic signs are used within parking guidance and information systems to guide drivers to available car parking spaces, besides many other applications. They may also ask vehicles to take alternative routes, limit travel speed, warn of duration and location of the incidents, or just inform of the traffic conditions.

The contents of this project will provide a complete system that will prove to solve all the issues with the current electronic traffic sign status and also provide cities with a major upgrade per cost. The system will provide a self-sufficient electronic traffic sign system that will allow cities to take ETS off the power grid. The system itself will contain four major components, a solar panel, battery, charging circuit, and a LED electronic traffic sign. The solar panel will charge the battery during daytime. And power up the load at the same time. As night falls the battery will power the load.

Figure 1: flowchart of the Photovoltaic system.

Chapter 2: Requirements and specifications

For this project, several requirements must be taken into account, as shown in Table 1. The size and weight requirements are more for safety and cost, as the whole system is to be mounted on an iron pole, and having a heavy system would be difficult and even dangerous to mount.

Table 1: Project requirements/specifications

Requirement Justification System will not require any external The system is to be self-sustaining and power sources aside from the PV powered only by sunlight electronics

System must not be excessively heavy or Special considerations must be made. large

System must be kept affordable if it is to System will cost at most 2000 SR be used widely in cities.

System will be able to operate for two System must take into account rainy days, days without sunlight or days that sunlight is not present

Table 2: Charger Circuit requirements

Requirement Justification Charger Circuit has a PV at the input Charger Circuit will accept a wide range which will vary the amount of voltage and of voltage at the input current input depending on exposure to solar radiation Charger Circuit must maintain a battery Charger Circuit will regulate CV/CC with a sufficient state of charge

Table 3: Boost Converter Requirements

Requirement Justification Circuit will have an efficiency of at least Unnecessary losses will simply waste 80% energy that could be powering the EMS Output voltage of the circuit should Circuit will have a line regulation of at remain fairly constant to ensure EMS least 2% brightness is constant regardless of battery voltage Output voltage should remain constant Circuit will have a load regulation of at regardless of the number of the load least 2% powered on

Chapter 3: system components

3.1 Configuration of the PV Electronic traffic sign System.

The suggested stand-alone PV electronic traffic sign system comprises of two main systems that are the PV system and the ETS system. The block diagram of the suggested stand-alone PV ETS system is shown in Fig. 1. The main components of the suggested system are the PV array, the batteries, the MPPT, and battery charging controllers, ETS control unit (Motherboard) and DC load (20 W). Where, the function of the PV array is to convert the sunlight directly into DC electrical power, and that of the battery is to store the excess power from the PV array. The MPPT controller is very important to operate PV to harvest the maximum solar energy. The ETS control system is used to control the electronic message sign.

Figure 2: Block diagram of the PV electronic traffic sign system.

3.1.1 Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System.

The stand-alone photovoltaic systems are normally used in remote or isolated places where the electric supply from the power-grid is unavailable or not available at a reasonable cost. PV system offers a reliable, low maintenance with zero fuel costs and does not require an attendant to be present during operation. PV stand-alone system can supply power from milliwatts to several kilowatts. They do not have a connection to an electricity grid. Therefore, since most moving message displays are connected to local

4 power supplies; thus a stand-alone PV system is used to power these panel in this work [1].

No single component in a photovoltaic system is more affected by the size and usage of the load than storage batteries. If a charge controller is not included in the system, oversized loads or excessive use can drain the batteries charge to the point where they are damaged and must be replaced. If a controller does not stop overcharging, the batteries can be damaged during times of low or no load usage or long periods of full sun. Therefore, a solar battery charger must be used to protect the battery. Simple solar battery charger comes in many flavors [1].

The plainest flavor is the simple on-off type shunt charger. It has the advantage of simplicity, extremely small power dissipation, low cost, high reliability, but in spite of these advantages one has to accept that the voltage on the battery is always going slightly up and down, that the battery is switched between full charging current and no charging current, and that disconnection of the battery will result in high voltage output pulses from the charger. Depending on the application, one has to choose the most appropriate type of charger. In most solar installations, a linear solar charger have been used, which has the advantages of smooth voltage regulation and under voltage load dumping, at the cost of higher cost, larger size and high power dissipation. More appropriate than a linear regulator [1].

3.1.2 Sizing of the PV System.

PV modules produce electricity only when sunlight shines on them. When sizing a standalone PV system, the energy output of the PV panels and the storage capacity of the batteries should be high enough to operate devices at night and on cloudy days when little sunlight is available. To determine the amount of energy needed, multiply an electrical devices power in watts by the number of hours a day the device will be used Since the electrical supply reliability is not of paramount importance in the moving message display thus, a relatively simple sizing procedure can be adopted to size the stand– alone PV system of the display panel. The sizing procedure then recommends the size of the photovoltaic generator and battery capacity that will be suitable for the load application. Our constant electrical load energy demand on a typical day (EL) can be calculated as follow:

 Voltage = 5 V;  Maximum Current = 1.5 A;  Operate time = 24 h.

Since, the output voltage of the voltage regulator is 5 V and the maximum required current is 1.5A. Thus, the power demanded is 7.5 W, therefore, for 24 h display operation.

Load energy ( EL ) = 7.5 * 24 = 180 Wh

The sizing of PV module is calculated based on:

푃퐿(푇푁+퐾2푇퐷) 푃푝푣 = 퐾1퐾2푇퐷

7.5(14+0.75∗10) 푃 = = 23.3 푊 푃푉 0.85+0.75+10 푃

Where:

 PL is the load power;  TN&TD are the night and daylight periods;  K1 is the direct energy transfer path efficiency;  K2 is the stored energy transfer path efficiency [1].

3.1.3 Sizing of Battery.

Ideally, a battery bank should be sized to be able to store power for one day of autonomy during cloudy weather. If the battery bank is smaller than one day capacity, it is going to cycle deeply on a regular basis and the battery will therefore have a shorter life. As the battery size is determined from the following equation.

푁 퐸 푊퐻 = 퐶 퐿 퐷푂퐷푛퐵푛푠푦푠 where,

Depth of discharge (DOD) max. = 0.75;

푛퐵 Battery efficiency =0.85;

푛푠푦푠 System efficiency =0.8;

푁퐶 Number of cloudy days = 1.0 day;

1.0∗180 푊퐻 = = 353.0 푊퐻; 0.75∗0.85∗0.80 AH= 353.0/12≈30 AH.

Although, the sizing result of the battery bank is 30 Ah, we used in this work the available 12V FP deep cycle lead acid battery type that has a storage capacity of 100 Ah. It is to be noted here that, the required load voltage is 5 volt but the battery voltage is 12V. Therefore, a step down metal voltage regulator (L7805ct) is used to yield a fixed level of 5V [1].

3.1.4 Battery charger.

The charger controller in the stand-alone PV system is to maintain the battery at its highest possible state of charge and protect it from overcharging by the PV array and from over-discharging by the loads [2]. There are two modes of operation for the battery:

- Charge Mode

The battery voltage and state of charge (SOC) during charging mode can be described using the following equations [3]:

푉푐ℎ = [2 + 0.148 ∗ 푆푂퐶(푡)] ∗ 푛푠

0.1309 0.758+ 푅 = [1.06∗푆푂퐶(푡)]∗푛푠 푐ℎ 푆푂퐶(푚)

- Discharge Mode

During discharging, the battery voltage and state of charge (SOC) relationships are given by [3]:

푉푑푐ℎ = [1.926 + 0.124 ∗ 푆푂퐶(푡)] ∗ 푛푠

0.1309 0.19 + [푆푂퐶(푡) − 0.14] ∗ 푛 푅 = 푠 푑푐ℎ 푆푂퐶(푚)

Where, SOC (t) is the current state of charge, ns is the number of 2V battery cells in series and SOC (m) is the maximum battery capacity (Wh).

3.1.5 DC-DC converter.

The DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current from one voltage level to another where the conversion ratio 푉푙표푎푑/ 푉𝑖푛 varies with the duty ratio D of the switch [4]. The converter is designed to operate in the continuous mode. Moreover, the DC-DC converter is used for maximum power point tracking.

3.1.6 DC-AC inverter.

A power inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source (Solar PV).

3.2 Software Simulation Construction.

One of the most common ways to illustrate a system is by construct it on software. We are going to use Matlab simulation for that matter.

Figure 3: Simulink simulation of the solar PV model.

The above figure shows the full Simulink model where:

- Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is : a technique used commonly with wind turbines and solar (PV) systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions.

Although solar power is mainly covered, the principle applies generally to sources with variable power.

PV solar systems exist in many different configurations with regard to their relationship to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other electrical loads. Regardless of the ultimate destination of the solar power, though, the central problem addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of power transfer from the solar cell depends on both the amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels and the electrical characteristics of the load. As the amount of sunlight varies, the load characteristic that gives the highest power transfer efficiency changes, so that the efficiency of the system is optimized when the load characteristic changes to keep the power transfer at highest efficiency. This load characteristic is called the maximum power point (MPP) and MPPT is the process of finding this point and keeping the load characteristic there. Electrical circuits can be designed to present arbitrary loads to the photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage, current, or frequency to suit other devices or systems, and MPPT solves the problem of choosing the best load to be presented to the cells in order to get the most usable power out.

- Full Bridge Converter is : The converter is modeled with IGBT/diode pairs controlled by firing pulses produced by a PWM generator. This model provides the most accurate simulation results. And work as Switching device.

3.2.1 Simulation Results.

Figure 4: The above figure shows voltage, current and the current State of Charge, respectively.

Figure 5: Shows the DC signal coming out of the MPPT.

Chapter 4: Hardware Construction

For the few next pages we will show you the components of our system and information about each piece and at the end you will see the whole system.

4.1 Electronic Traffic sign.

An electronic traffic sign is defined as a sign or portion thereof that displays electronic, non-pictorial, text information in which each alphanumeric character, graphic or symbol is defined by a small number of matrix elements using different combinations of light- emitting diodes (LEDs), fiber optics, lightbulbs or other illumination devices within the display area. Electronic traffic signs are used within parking guidance and information systems to guide drivers to available car parking spaces, besides many other applications.

Figure 6: Shows the Electronic traffic sign after unboxing.

4.1.1 Programing Electronic Message Sign.

In order to program the load we have first to install the software program.

Figure 7: Shows the installation of Ledshow software.

The next figure shows programing the electronic traffic sign

Figure 8: Shows programing the load.

Our load – Electronic Traffic Sign – works on power of 20W , a current of 4 Ampere and a voltage of 5 DC voltage , but it take 220 AC voltage . So, when it receives the 220 AC voltage it rectifies it to 12 Voltage DC and then steps it down to 5 voltage.

220 AC Rectifier Buck voltage converter

Figure 9: flowchart of the power through the load

AC-DC converter (Rectifier):

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.

The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury- arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon- controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.

Depending on the type of alternating current supply and the arrangement of the rectifier circuit, the output voltage may require additional smoothing to produce a uniform steady voltage. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC voltage (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter, which may be a capacitor, choke, or set of capacitors, chokes and resistors, possibly followed by a voltage regulator to produce a steady voltage.

DC-DC buck converter:

The step down DC-DC converter, commonly known as a buck converter is shown in Fig. 9 [5]. A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current from one voltage level to another where the conversion ratio 푉푙표푎푑/

푉𝑖푛 varies with the duty ratio D of the switch. The buck converter is designed to operate in the continuous mode. Moreover, the DC-DC converter is used for maximum power point tracking.

Figure 10: shows the step down DC-DC Buck converter.

4.2 DC-AC Converter (Inverter).

Inverters or DC-AC converters are used in grid connected systems to convert the DC electricity originating from the PV modules into AC electricity that can be fed into the electricity grid. [6]

They come in all shapes and sizes, from low power functions such as powering a car radio to that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters can come in many different varieties, differing in price, power, efficiency and purpose. The purp ose of a DC/AC power inverter is typically to take DC power supplied by a battery, suc h as a 12 volt car battery, and transform it into a 220 volt AC power source operating at 60 Hz, emulating the power available at an ordinary household electrical outlet.

Stand-Alone Inverters- These inverters are meant to operate isolated from the electrical distribution network and require batteries for proper operation. The batteries

14 provide a constant voltage source at the DC input of the inverter. Inverters can be classified briefly as:

 Square Wave Inverters  Modified Sine Wave Inverters  Sine wave inverters (quasi-sine wave).

The inverter that we took is modified wave inverters which convert 100W DC to 1000W AC voltage.

Figure 11: the inverter that we are using in our system.

4.3 Battery.

These are most commonly used to store energy in stand-alone applications for use at times when no irradiance is available (e.g. night, rainy day). Batteries are also used for a diverse number of applications including stand-by power and utility interactive schemes. PV batteries require tolerance to deep discharges and irregular charging patterns. Some applications may require the batteries to remain at a random state of

15 charge for a prolonged time. The most common technology used in PV systems is the lead-acid battery. These batteries are available in two major categories:

 Flooded (Vented)- This is the regular battery technology most people are used to. It tends to be the cheapest option when only initial costs are of interest. In this battery, overcharge results in the conversion of water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. The gases are released into the atmosphere; hence the batteries require that the water is replaced adding a maintenance cost to the system.  Valve Regulated- The chemical characteristics of these batteries allow for maintenance free operation because the oxygen is allowed to recombine with the hydrogen within the battery. The recombination has a maximum rate which depends on the charging current. If excess pressure builds up, it is vented through valves to the atmosphere, proper charge control can limit this effect. These batteries tend to allow deeper discharge cycles resulting in smaller battery banks and are expected to have longer life times. There are two main technologies available: Absorbed glass mat (AGM) and Gel. Another advantage of these sealed batteries is that most are spill proof.

The battery that we took is Valve Regulated which saves up to 65 Ampere. The reason we choose this one cause it can be charged and it will work all night long to take in account rainy or cloudy days you should take 100 Ampere to work for two days.

Figure 12: shows the 65 Ampere Battery that we are using for the project.

4.4 Charge controller.

Charge controller is part of the electrical equipment costs. It controls the current flow from the PV array to the battery in order to ensure proper charging. These controllers disconnect the PV array from the battery whenever produced energy exceeds battery storage capacity or the load whenever charge levels are dangerously low or reach a certain threshold. It is common for charge controllers to monitor battery voltage, temperature, or a combination of both to determine depth of discharge. The controllers extend battery life and are a safety requirement of the National Electrical Code (NEC) for residential and commercial installations. It is important to select a proper charge controller and controller settings for the battery type selected for the system. Some controllers can be adjusted to accommodate different battery types; some are built for specific battery technologies exclusively. Today, commercially available controllers can achieve efficiencies as high as 95%. Most charge controllers currently available rely on solid state technology to control current flowing into the battery bank; still some electromechanical relay versions available. Electromechanical relays can only perform classic on/off control (therefore little flexibility is possible), this control strategy can still be rough on the battery. Solid state controllers are more varied or flexible in terms of control strategies. Some of the possibilities are:

 On-off  Constant Voltage  PWM, constant voltage and with current regulation  MPPT

Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) -Nominal voltage and current conditions will not be available from the PV array at all times due to constant changes in solar irradiance. Figure 11 displays the I-V curves for a PV module at different operating characteristics. The MPPT guarantees optimum power is always obtained from the PV modules at any given operating condition. Different algorithms have been developed to achieve MPPT control, some achieving more than 98% of the PV array output capacity. The most popular is the Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm, this algorithm increases

17 or decreases voltage in small steps and monitors the power output until maximum power point is found. A summary of available literature is available at [7].

Figure 13: 퐼-푉 Curves for a PV Module at different operating conditions.

Figure 14: shows the charge controller that we are using in our system.

4.5 Solar PV.

Photovoltaic (PV) Modules: The basic building block of a photovoltaic module is the photovoltaic cell; these convert solar energy into electricity. The power output will depend on the amount of energy incident on the surface of the cell and the operating temperature of the photovoltaic cell. The power output of a single cell can supply small loads like calculators or watches, but in order to be useful for high energy demand projects these cells must be arranged in series and parallel connections. A photovoltaic module is an array of photovoltaic cells pre-arranged in a single mounting mold. The type of module is therefore determined by the cells that compose the module itself. There are three dominating cell technologies:

 Monocrystalline: As the name implies, these are cells that are grown from a single crystal. The production methods are difficult and expensive. These tend to be more efficient (more power in less area) and more expensive.  Multicrystalline: The production process allows multiple crystalline structures to develop within the cell. It is easier to implement in a production line. It is relatively cheaper than mono-crystalline at the expense of lower efficiency.  Thin-film: Uses less silicon to develop the cell (hence the name thin film) allowing for cheaper production costs (silicon is in high demand). It tends to be less expensive but has also lower efficiency.

Figure 15: 100W solar panel that feeds our system.

4.6 Connectors

- MC4

MC4 connectors are single-contact electrical connectors commonly used for connecting solar panels. The MC in MC4 stands for the manufacturer Multi-Contact and the 4 for the 4mm diameter contact pin. MC4s allow strings of panels to be easily constructed by pushing the connectors from adjacent panels together by hand, but require a tool to disconnect them to ensure they do not accidentally disconnect when the cables are pulled. The MC4 and compatible products are universal in the solar market today, equipping almost all solar panels produced since about 2011.Originally rated for 600 V, newer versions are rated at 1500 V, which allows longer strings to be created.

Figure 16: Exploded view of a female MC4 connector.

Figure 17: Exploded view of a male MC4 connector.

Figure 18: male and female of the MC4 that connect the solar with the charge controller.

The MC4 system consists of a plug and socket design. Oddly, the plugs and sockets are placed inside plastic shells that appear to be the opposite gender - the plug is inside a cylindrical shell that looks like a female connector but is referred to as male, and the socket is inside a square probe that looks male but is electrically female. The female connector has two plastic fingers that have to be pressed toward the central probe slightly to insert into holes in the front of the male connector. When the two are pushed together, the fingers slide down the holes until they reach a notch cut into the side of the male connector, where they pop outward to lock the two together.

For a proper seal, MC4s require the usage of a cable with the correct diameter. Normally double-insulated (insulation plus black sheath) and UV resistant (most cables deteriorate if used outdoors without protection from sunlight). Connection is made by use of a special crimping tool, alternatively by soldering.

The MC4 connector is UL rated at 20 A and 600 V maximum, depending on the conductor size used

- Electrical connector

An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device used to join electrical terminations and create an electrical circuit. Electrical connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks (female-ended). The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices. An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.

Hundreds of types of electrical connectors are manufactured for power, signal and control applications. Connectors may join two lengths of flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal.

In computing, an electrical connector can also be known as a physical interface (compare physical layer in OSI model of networking). Cable glands, known as cable connectors in the US, connect wires to devices mechanically rather than electrically and are distinct from quick-disconnects performing the latter.

Figure 19: electrical connector.

Chapter 5: overall system

In overall the system that we built has the following equipment:

1- 100 W solar PV 2- Charge controller 3- 1000 W inverter 4- 65 Ampere Battery 5- Electronic traffic sign (20W,5V,4A) 6- Electrical connector 7- MC4 connector 8- 4MM cable

All these parts had been chosen to make sure that the system will work well at day light and at night. After connecting the parts together we had to design a standalone system so you can you use it and move it easily.

Figure 20: the standalone system.

Figure 21&22 :doing the last touches for the system.

Chapter 6: Conclusion

Electronic Traffic Signs are distinguished as an essential modern technique to provide sufficient instructions for managing traffic. We designed this project and implement an electronic traffic sign that is totally powered by a renewable energy resource (i.e., Solar PV). We simulated the proposed senior design project via Matlab Simulink and physically implemented on a practical system comprises solar PV panel, battery, inverter, and traffic board. The resulting system significantly reduced the Electronic Traffic Sign energy cost and facilitated its use, since it is sustained and self- contained through the utilization of Solar PV.

References

[1] S. M. Sadek, N. M. Ahamed, M. B. Zahran, and Abd El-Shafy A. Nafeh, (2009). Microcontroller-Based Moving Message Display Powered by Photovoltaic Energy. Ain Shams Journal of Electrical Engineering, 2, 15-25.

[2] Anca D. Hansen, Poul Sorenson, Lars H. Hansen, and Henrik Bindner, 2000,“Models of stand-alone PV System,” Riso Ntional Laboratory, Roskilde.

[3] Abd El-Fattah A. Omran1, Faten H. Fahmy1, Abd El-Shafy A. Nafeh1, Hosam K. M. Yousef2, (2016). Sizing, Modeling and Control of Photovoltaic Traffic Light System. Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE), 11, 25-36.

[4] T. Esram and P. L. Chapman, “Comparison of photovoltaic array maximum power point tracking techniques,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, VOL. 22, NO. 2, JUNE 2007.

[5] Dariusz czarkowski elements of power electronics 1998 NewYork oxford university.

[6] Klaus Jäger , Olindo Isabella , Arno H.M. Smets , René A.C.M.M. van Swaaij and Miro Zeman, (2014). Introduction to PV systems. Solar Energy Fundamentals , Technology, and Systems Book. 219-223.

[7] T. Esram, P. L. Chapman, “Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques”, IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 2007.

University of Hail College Of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department EE-411 (182)

Final Senior Project Report Project Title: Minimization of Losses in Transformer Supervisor: Dr. Khalid Al-Qunun

Students Name and ID NO. Name ID

1 Hammam Fawzi Salem 201407721

2 Majid Mohammed A Alibrahim 201400264

3 Faisal Abdullah Al-Obaykah 201403778

Abstract:

As electric power distribution systems continue to grow in size and complexity. Reducing losses can result in substantive savings for utility. Other benefits from loss reduction include released system capacity, and possible deferral of capital expenditures for system improvements and expansion. Reducing power losses is to base on design techniques. Doing the minimization is to sell transformers with excellent value and the treatment of high power losses after manufacturing. Also to improve the work of transformers and reduce the risk

After 28-weeks period of training, we were assigned as a quality engineer, transformer testing engineer and supervision of transformer assembly area. We have worked as a part of AL-Ojaimi team, Saudi electricity company team and we gained experience of transformer manufacturing. We have decided to study for the High Loss in transformers with reference of International Electrotechnical Commission standard IEC 60076. This study is a theoretical experimental study to reduction of losses (no load losses or core losses & load losses or copper losses) in transformers which is very important project to Improve transformer efficiency and performance

II | S D P R e p o r t

Table of Contents

A. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1. POWER SYSTEM ...... 1 1.1 Generation: ...... 1 1.2 TRANSMISSION AND SUBTRANSMISSION: ...... 2 1.3 DISTRIBUTION: ...... 3 1.4 LOADS: ...... 4 2. TRANSFORMERS: ...... 5 2.1. Define of the Distribution Transformer: ...... 5 2.2. Types of Distribution Transformers: ...... 6 B. PROJECT OBJECTIVE: ...... 8 D. PROBLEM FORMULATION ...... 8 1. TRANSFORMER EQUATION: ...... 8 2. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER: ...... 9 3. LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER ...... 10 3.1Types of Losses in Transformer ...... 11 3.2 MEASUREMENT OF POWER LOSSES ...... 15 C. RESULTS ...... 27 CASE 1 ...... 27 CASE 2:...... 30 CASE 3:...... 32 CASE 4:...... 33 CASE 5:...... 35 CASE 6:...... 40 E. DISCUSSION: ...... 41 F. RECOMMENDATIONS: ...... 41 G. CONCLUSION ...... 42 D. REFERENCES: ...... 42

III | S D P R e p o r t

List of Tables

TABLE 1: THE FORMULA FOR CORRECTING NO LOAD LOSSES TO THE RATED ...... 17 TABLE 2: ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR NO-LOAD TEST ...... 17 TABLE 3: EXAMPLE TO CALCULATE TRANSFORMER TURN RATIO ...... 21 TABLE 4: ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR LOAD LOSS TEST...... 25 TABLE 5: TOTAL UNITS TESTED IN LAST 4 MONTHS IN OUR TRAINING ...... 30

List of Figures

FIGURE 1: GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, AND DISTRIBUTION ...... 5 FIGURE 2: LDT ...... 6 FIGURE 3: MDT ...... 6 FIGURE 4: PLT ...... 6 FIGURE 5: STT ...... 7 FIGURE 6: DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER ...... 7 FIGURE 7: CIRCUIT OF POWER TRANSFORMER ...... 9 FIGURE 8: EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF POWER TRANSFORMER ...... 10 FIGURE 9: A HYSTERESIS LOOP SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INDUCED MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (B) AND THE MAGNETIZING FORCE (H). IT IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE B-H LOOP...... 12 FIGURE 10: EDDY CURRENTS IN LAMINATED CORES (RIGHT) ARE SMALLER THAN THOSE IN SOLID CORES (LEFT) ...... 14 FIGURE 11: EXAMPLE FOR CONNECTION NO LOAD LOSSES ...... 18 FIGURE 12: CONNECTION NO LOAD LOSSES ...... 18 FIGURE 13: TRANSFORMER UNDER WINDING RESISTANCE TEST ...... 20 FIGURE 14: CONNECTION LOAD LOSSES ...... 26 FIGURE 15: CONNECTION LOAD LOSSES ...... 26 FIGURE 16: THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER DETAIL ...... 27 FIGURE 17: RESULT OF POWER AND CURRENT ...... 29 FIGURE 18: HISTOGRAM FOR TESTING ...... 31 FIGURE 19: TWO CONDUCTORS IN PARALLEL ...... 32 FIGURE 20: RESULT OF TESTING TTR ...... 33 FIGURE 21: SHORT CIRCUIT ...... 34 FIGURE 22: TRANSFORMER TURN RATIO ...... 34 FIGURE 23: TORQUE WRENCH ...... 35 FIGURE 24: TRANSFORMER TEST REPORT ...... 36 FIGURE 25: RESULT OF TESTING TTR ...... 36 FIGURE 26: TRANSFORMER TEST REPORT ...... 37 FIGURE 27: POWER LOSSES OF TRANSFORMER ...... 37 FIGURE 28: TRANSFORMER TEST REPORT ...... 38 FIGURE 29: RESULT OF TESTING TTR ...... 38 FIGURE 30: TRANSFORMER TEST REPORT ...... 39 FIGURE 31: POWER LOSSES OF TRANSFORMER ...... 39 FIGURE 32: TRANSFORMER TEST REPORT ...... 40

IV | S D P R e p o r t

A. Introduction

1. Power System

The power system is a network of electrical components to supply, transfer, and use electric power. A power system can be branching out into four major parts:  Generation  Transmission and Subtransmission  Distribution  Loads

1.1 Generation:

One of the components of power systems is three phase ac generator that known as synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous generators have two synchronously rotating fields: One field is to produce by the rotor at synchronous speed and excited by the dc current. The other field is produced in the stator windings by three-phase armature currents. The dc current for the rotor windings is provided by excitation systems. Also In the older units, the exciters are dc generators mounted on same shaft, providing excitation with slip rings. Today’s systems use the ac generators with rotating rectifiers, it is known as brushless - excitation systems. Also the generator excitation system maintains generator voltage and controls reactive power flow. Because that they lack the commutator, the ac generator can generate the high power at high voltage, typically 30 kV. In power plant, the size of generators are from 50 MW to 1500 MW. The source of the mechanical power, is known as prime mover, may be hydraulic turbines at waterfalls, steam turbines whose energy comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally internal combustion engines burning oil. Steam turbines operate at high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm. The generators which they are coupled are cylindrical rotor, two-pole for 3600 rpm or four-pole for 1800 rpm operation. Hydraulic turbines, particularly operating with a low press, operate 1 | S D P R e p o r t

at low speed. Their generators are often a salient type rotor with many poles. In a power station generators are operated in parallel, in the power grid to provide the total power that needed. They are connected at a common point called bus. Today's the total installed electric capacity is about 760,000 MW. Assuming the United States to be 270 million Installed capacity per capita = 760 x 109 /270 x 106 = 2815 W

To realize the significance of this figure, that consider the average power of one person to be approximately 50 W. Therefore, the power of 2815 W is equivalent to 2815 W / 50 W = 56 (power slave)

1.2 TRANSMISSION AND SUBTRANSMISSION:

The purpose of a transmission network is to transfer electric energy from generator at various locations to the distribution system that supplies the load. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities that permits not only economic dispatch of power within regions in normal conditions, but also the transferring of power between regions in emergencies. Standard transmission voltages are started in the United States by American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines operating at more than 60 kV are standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV line-to-line. Transmission voltages above 230 kV are usually referred to as extra-high voltage (EHV). High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations that called high- voltage substations, receiving substations. The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of service; they are refer to switching stations. At the primary substations, the voltage is stepping down to a value that more suitable for the next part of journey. Very large industrial customers may be served from the transmission system. 2 | S D P R e p o r t

The portion of the transmission that connects high voltage substations through step down transformers to distribution substations are called subtransmission network. Also, there is no clear delineation between the transmission and the subtransmission voltage levels. Typically, the subtransmission voltage level ranges from 69 to 138 kV. Some large industrial customers may be served of the sub transmission system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are often installed in substations for maintaining the transmission line voltage.

1.3 DISTRIBUTION:

The distribution is the part which link the distribution substations to the consumers’ service-entrance. The primary distribution lines are in the range of 4 to 34.5 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical motion. Also, some small industrial customers are served by the primary feeders. The secondary distribution network decreasing the voltage for utilization by commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cables, not exceeding a few hundred feet in length then it is deliver power to the individual consumers. The secondary distribution serves are transfer to the most of the customers at levels of 240/120 V, single-phase, three-wire; 208Y/120 V, three-phase, four wire or 480Y/277 V, three-phase, four- wire. The power for typical home is derived from a transformer that decrease the primary feeder voltage to 240/120 V by a three-wire line. Distribution systems are overhead and underground. The growth of underground distribution has been much rapid and as much as 70 percent of new residential construction is provide underground.

3 | S D P R e p o r t

1.4 LOADS:

Loads of power systems are found into industrial, commercial, residential. Therefore, very large industrial loads maybe served from transmission system. Large industrial loads are received directly from the subtransmission network, and small industrial loads are received from the primary distribution network. The industrial loads are in composite loads, and induction motors form a high proportion of these load, and these composite loads are functions of voltage and frequency and form a major part of the system load. Commercial and residential loads consist a big of lighting, heating, and cooling. These loads are independent of frequency and consume negligibly of small reactive power. The real power of loads are expressed in the terms of kW or mw. The magnitude of load varies throughout the day, and power have to be available to consumers on demand. The daily-load curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by various classes. The greater value of load during a 24-hr period is called the peak. Smaller peaking generators may be commissioned to meet the peak load that occurs only a few hours. In order to assess the usefulness of the generating plant the load factor is found. The load factor is the ratio of average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that period. Load factors may be given for a day or a month or a year. The yearly is the most useful since a year represents a full cycle of time. The daily load factor is

Daily L.F. = average load /peak load Multiplying the numerator and denominator by a time period of 24 hr, we have Daily L.F. =(average load x24hr /peak load x24hr) = total energy during 24 hr/peak load x 24 Annual L.F. = total annual energy / peak load x8460 hr

4 | S D P R e p o r t

Figure 1: generation, transmission, and distribution

2. Transformers:

Transmission of power is generally found in two parts. First is transmission over long distances at high voltages, which is confirming by power transformers. The second parts distribution of the power from substations to the various users; this is confirming by distribution transformers in various hierarchies.

2.1. Define of the Distribution Transformer: • A distribution transformer is a transformer that have the final voltage transformation in the electric power distribution system, it is stepping down the voltage used in the distribution lines to the level that used by the customer.

• The invention of a practical efficient transformer produce AC power distribution feasible; a system by distribution transformers was demonstrated in 1882.

5 | S D P R e p o r t

2.2. Types of Distribution Transformers:

1- Three-Phase Distribution Transformers:-

-Large Distribution Transformers.

Figure 2: LDT

-Ground Mounted Transformers.

Figure 3: MDT

-Pole Mounted Transformers.

Figure 4: PLT

6 | S D P R e p o r t

-Substation Type Transformers.

Figure 5: STT

2-Single-Phase Distribution Transformer:-

Figure 6: Distribution Transformer

7 | S D P R e p o r t

B. Project Objective:

❖ The treatment of high power losses after manufacturing.

❖ Increasing of transformers efficiency.

❖ To sell transformers with excellent value

❖ Improve the work of transformers

❖ Avoid losing money.

❖ To transfer the quantities you want with the same value

❖ To reduce the risk

❖ To improve the quality of transformers

❖ For high security and work well done

D. Problem Formulation

1. Transformer Equation: The ideal transformer as a circuit element if the secondary coil is connected to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is inherited from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is completely effective. All the arriving energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, (in Ideal transformer) the input electric power must equal the output power:

Giving the ideal transformer equation:

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Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a sensible approximation. If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turn’s ratio. For example, if an impedance Zs is connected across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

Figure 7: Circuit of power transformer

2. Equivalent circuit of A Transformer:

The equivalent circuit model of a single-phase transformer in Figure 6. The equivalent circuit consists of an ideal transformer of ratio N1:N2 together with elements which represent the important shortage of the real transformer .An ideal transformer would have windings with zero resistance and a lossless, infinite permeability core. The voltage E1 across the primary of the ideal transformer represents the rms voltage induced in the primary winding by the mutual flux Φ. This the part of the Core flux which links both primary and secondary coils.

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Figure 8: Equivalent Circuit of power transformer

3. Losses in Transformer

An ideal transformer is the one which is 100% efficient. This means that the power supplied at the input terminal should be precisely equal to the power supplied at the output terminal, since efficiency can only be 100% if the output power is equal to the input power with zero energy losses. But in truth, nothing in this universe is ever ideal. Similarly, since the output power of a transformer is never precisely equal to the input power, due a number of electrical losses inside the core and windings of the transformer, so we never get to see a 100% efficient transformer.

In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and output power. An electrical transformer is a constant device, hence mechanical losses are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses. Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that transformers do not have mechanical losses.

As we say, the transformer is a constant device, i.e. we do not get to see any movements in its parts, so no mechanical losses work out in the transformer and

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only electrical losses are observed. And we will see the types of losses in transformer.

3.1Types of Losses in Transformer

(i) Core loss or Iron loss

• Hysteresis losses: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and degree of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:

Where

 KȠ is a proportionality stationary which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of the core used in the transformer.

 f is the supply frequency

 Bmax is the maximum or peak value of the flux density

The iron or core losses can be reduced by using silicon steel material for the structure of the core of the transformer.

How to reduce hysteresis losses in a transformer? This loss is due to magnetic properties of iron section or core. When the magnetic field power or the current is increased the flux density increase, after a point when we further increase current the flux density gets filled. When we decrease the current from saturation to zero side the flux density starts to decrease. But when the current value reaches zero the flux density should also be zero but it is 11 | S D P R e p o r t

not zero. For zero current there is still some flux density present in the material, this is known as superfluity magnetic flux. Hence the amount of power is never recovered back. The power which gets enclose in the core of the material is lost in the form of heat.

Figure 9: A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop

The link between the magnetizing force, H, and the flux density, B, is shown on a hysteresis curve, or loop. The area of the hysteresis loop shows the energy wanted to complete a full cycle of magnetizing and de-magnetizing, and the area of the loop represents the energy lost during this process.

• Eddy current losses: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some section of this flux also gets related with other conducting parts such as steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts, give rise to small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat. The equation of the eddy current loss is given as

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Where,

 Ke – co-efficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material like volume and resistivity of core material, thickness of laminations

 Bm – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2

 T – thickness of lamination in meters

 F – frequency of reversal of magnetic field in Hz

 V – volume of magnetic material in m3

How to reduce eddy current losses in a transformer?

Eddy current loss takes place when a coil is covered around a core and alternating ac supply is applied to it. As the supply to the coil is alternating, the flux created in the coil is also alternating. By faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the change in flux through the core causes emf Induction inside the core. Due to induction of emf eddy current starts to flow in the core. Due to this eddy current loss the energy is wasted in the form of heat energy. Eddy current losses can be reduced by laminations in the core. Thin sheet steels must be used which are insulated from each other. Due to insulated sheets the amount of current which flows get reduced and hence the eddy current losses.

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Figure 10: Eddy currents in laminated cores (right) are smaller than those in solid cores (left)

So eddy currents can only flux in narrow loops within the thickness of each single lamination. Since the current in an eddy current loop is proportional to the region of the loop, this stop most of the current from flowing, reducing eddy currents to a very small level. Since power dissipated is proportional to the square of the current, breaking a large core into narrow laminations reduces the power losses drastically. From this, it can be seen that the thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy current losses.

Conclusion:

Hysteresis Losses can be reduced by particular core material which reached to zero or near zero flux density after elimination of current. Eddy current Losses can be reduced by making core by thin sheets by reducing the area of each Eddy current branch.

(ii) Copper losses: Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and 14 | S D P R e p o r t

current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer convert with the load. Therefore, the total copper losses will be

These losses varied according to the load and known hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses vary as the square of the load current.

(iii) Stray Losses The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the existence of leakage field. The percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be careless.

(iv) Dielectric Losses Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets decadent or the solid insulation get spoil, or its quality decreases, and because of this, the efficiency of transformer is affected.

3.2 Measurement of Power losses

No load losses test:

No load losses divided into 3 types of losses: a. Hysteresis Losses.

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b. Eddy current Losses. c. Dielectric losses. Purpose: No load loss is the amount of active power consumed by the transformer when energized at rated voltage and rated frequency. To measure no load losses, one winding of the transformer (usually the secondary) is energized at rated voltage and the other winding is left open. A watt meter measures the losses and two voltmeters, one average responding, and the other RMS responding, are used to measure the voltage applied to the energizing winding and Amp meter to measured transformer no load current. Procedure: The no load test procedure is as follows: 1. Connect test equipment to secondary of transformer being tested. 2. Guard high voltage terminals of transformer. They will be energized. 3. Apply rated secondary voltage to transformer and record the RMS and AVG voltmeter readings. The test voltage shall be measured between line terminal, if a delta-connected winding is energized, and between phases to neutrals if an YN or ZN connected winding is energized. The test voltage wave shape is satisfactory if the readings RMS and AVG are equal within 3 %. If the difference between voltmeter readings more than 3 % the validity of test is subjected to agreement. A large difference may be acceptable at higher than rated voltage unless this measurement subjected to guarantee. 4. The RMS value of no load current is measured at the same time as the losses. Transformer no load current “Io” has two components. 1) - Im magnetizing current or reactive current this current only used to produce flux in core. 2) - Iw this is called active current and the main cause of no load losses. 5. Record losses indicated by watt meter. 6. Correct losses to a sine-wave basis 7. Correct losses to rated frequency 8. The No load losses shall not be corrected for any effect of temperature. The formula for correcting No load losses to sine wave basis as per IEC 60076-1 is given below. 16 | S D P R e p o r t

Po = Pm (1 + d)

where Po = Corrected No load loss to sine wave basis Pm = Calculated NLL after applying correction factors The formula for correcting No load losses to the rated Frequency is given below.

Table 1: The formula for correcting No load losses to the rated

Acceptance criteria:

Table 2: Acceptance criteria for no-load test

Voltage Regulation%: The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output

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voltage from no-load to full-load. The voltage regulation determines the ability of transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.

Figure 11: Example for Connection no load losses

Figure 12: Connection no load losses

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Winding Resistance Measurement:

Purpose This test is being carried out on all transformers during in process and final testing. The winding resistance shall be measured on both side (HV & LV). To find out any loose or bad connection in both sides including (joints, brazing, crimping, tap changer contacts). And it helps to separate I^² R losses and stray losses during load losses measurement. Procedure 1. Before winding resistance measurement, the transformer shall be under liquid without excitation for at least 3 h. 2. Before measurement of winding resistance, make sure that average-oil temperature (mean of top and bottom oil temperature) and winding temperature shall be deemed to be same. 3. Measurement of winding resistance shall be taken, after 24 h of oil filling (factory procedure) and before excitation of transformer, to make sure that average-oil temperature and the winding temperatures are same. 4. The measurement of cold resistance to determine the temperature rise test, special efforts shall be made to determine the average winding temperature accurately. Thus, the difference in temperature between the top-oil and bottom-oil shall not exceed 5 k. to obtain this result more rapidly, the liquid may be circulated by a pump. 5. During in process testing, the winding resistance shall be measure between line to line for HV and line to neutral for LV side, If HV side has a 5 step tap changer than measure resistance on taps 1, 3, 5 twice (clock wise & anti clock wise) to ensure that all connections, joints, tap changer terminals are perfect. 6. During final testing, the resistance shall be measured between line to line terminals for both side and for HV side resistance taken on taps (1, 3, 5). 7. Average per-phase resistance are taken in account to calculate I^² R values. 8. Winding Temperature must be recorded during measurement. Testing Room Ambient Temperature cannot be considered as winding temperature, it can be differed than winding temperature. 9. Selection of DC current should not be exceeded more than (1 to 10) % of rated current. (Use WR machine accuracy chart). 10. All cables used for winding resistance measurement should be joint less.

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11. As transformer guaranteed rise are 45/50 therefore the corrected resistance reference temperature is 75 °C as described in clause 4. To get average per-phase resistance of both sides. HV side: (Avg of line to line) × 1.5 LV side: (Avg of line to line) / 2 Resistance conversion from Amb temp to 75°C For cooper winding: R75 = Ra × (235 + 75)/ (235 + Ta) (For Aluminum 235 replaced by 225) Where: R75 = Resistance at 75 °C Ra = Resistance measured at ambient temp Ta = ambient temp Acceptance Criteria • HV side: ± 8% resistance variation allow with other phases • LV side: ± 12% resistance variation allow with other phases • Difference between clock wise and antilock wise measurement should be less than 1 % on particular taps.

Figure 13: Transformer under Winding Resistance test

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Turns Ratio Measurement: Purpose This test is being carried out on all transformers during in process and final testing. The purpose of this test to ensure that turn ratio of the windings, tapping positions and winding connections are correct. Procedure Transformer turn ratio, voltage ratio, current ratio always same as mention below. Normally voltage method uses to find out transformer ratio. And in voltage measurement method, voltage on both sides shall be measured simultaneously. Transformer Ratio = (Vp ÷ Vs) = (Np ÷ Ns) = (Is ÷ Ip) Where: Vp = Primary Voltage Vs = Secondary Voltage Np = Number of turns in primary Ns = Number Of turns in secondary IP = Primary current Is = Secondary current Below is given an example to calculate transformer turn ratio with voltage method. And calculate % ± error with respect to ideal value.

Table 3: example to calculate transformer turn ratio

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Acceptance Criteria 1. ±0.5 % on specified ratio. 2. ±1/10 of the actual percentage impedance on the principle tapping.

Load loss Test:

Load losses divided into three main types: a. Copper losses. b. Stray losses. c. Leakage flux losses.

Load loss is the amount of active power consumed by the transformer when it is carrying its full rated load. It includes the I² R loss in the windings due to load current, and the stray losses due to stray flux in the windings, core clamps, tank walls etc... To measure load losses, one winding of the transformer is short-circuit (usually the secondary) and rated current is injected in the other winding. A watt meter measures the losses and temperature shall be recorded at the same time. The load loss measured during the test must be adjusted from the temperature at which the losses were measured to 75°C (because transformer guaranteed temperature rises are 45/50). Procedure: The load losses test procedure is as follows: 1. The test shall be performed on principle tapping, if transformer tapping range is within ±5% and the rated power not above 2500kva. And guaranteed values are also referred to principle tapping. 2. If the tapping range exceeds ±5% or the rated power is above 2500kva, the guaranteed losses shall be stated on the principle tapping position, unless otherwise stated in agreement. 3. Short circuit the secondary of the transformer. 4. Connect test set to the primary of the transformer. 5. Apply full rated load current to the primary or at least 50% of the rated as per IEC

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then it will be calculated to 100%. 6. Record load loss as measured on the watt meter. 7. As mentioned earlier, load loss consists of two components: I²R winding losses and stray losses. In order to convert the load loss which was measured during the test, to 75°C, we must first separate it into its two components, so each can be independently adjusted. Stray losses can be determined by subtracting the I²R winding losses from the total load loss, as measured during the test. I²R winding losses are calculated using the resistance of the transformer windings and the current at which the load loss test was performed. A high accuracy digital instrument should be used to measure the resistance of both the primary and secondary windings. The load loss test current should be the rated full load current of the transformer. If resistance measurements are made at a different temperature than the temperature at which the load loss measurement was made, then it is necessary to correct the resistance measurements using the following formula:

Where: Rs = Resistance at desired temperature Rm = Measured resistance Ts = Desired reference temperature (the temp. during the test) Tm = Temperature at which resistance was measured Material constant (235 for copper, 225 for aluminum) 8. Once the I²R winding loss has been calculated, the stray loss is determined by subtracting it from the measured load loss as follows: Ps = Pm – Pr where: Ps = Stray loss Pm = Measured load loss Pr = Resistance loss I²R 9. Now the resistance losses and the stray losses have been isolated, they can each be corrected to 75°C

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using the following formulas:

Resistance Loss (I²R):

Stray Loss:

where: Pr = Resistance loss at temperature 75°C Ps = Stray loss at temperature 75°C Pc = Resistance loss (I²R) calculated at (the temp. during the test) Tm = Temperature at which losses were measured Psc = Stray loss calculated at (the temp. during the test) 10. Load loss at 75°C can now be calculated by adding the adjusted resistance losses to the adjusted stray losses: Load Loss = Pr + Ps

The complete procedure for measuring and calculating load losses is as follows: 1. Measure and record temperature of transformer winding. 2. Measure and record resistance of the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. 3. Measure and record the load loss and the temperature during measurement. 4. Calculate the resistance loss for the primary and secondary windings (I²R). 5. Calculate the total resistance loss by adding the primary loss to the secondary loss. 6. Correct the resistance measurements to the temperature of the load loss test. 7. Calculate the stray losses by subtracting the calculated resistance loss from the

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measured load loss (wattmeter losses). 8. Correct the I²R and stray losses to 75°C. 9. Calculate the load loss, at 75°C, by adding the corrected I²R and stray losses.

Percentage Impedance: Another transformer parameter that should be computed is the impedance of the transformer. The impedance is determined by dividing the voltage required to circulate rated current of the transformer under a short-circuit condition by the primary voltage of the transformer, multiplied by 100. The impedance is stated as a percentage of the rated primary voltage. The calculation is as follows:

Efficiency: Efficiencies are calculated at four load points: 100% load, 75% load, 50% load, and 25% load. Efficiency is calculated as follows:

Where: Lpu = load per unit (the % load multiplier: either 1.0, 0.75, 0.5, or 0.25)

Acceptance criteria:

Table 4: Acceptance criteria for load loss test

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Figure 14: Connection load losses

Figure 15: Connection load losses

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C. Results

Case 1 Calculation of power losses in a Transformer: Example:

Figure 16: Three phase transformer detail

Calculation of power load losses: Step 1:

HV rated current =KVA / V1*√ퟑ LV rated current =KVA / V2*√ퟑ HV rated current = 1500K/13800*1.732 = 62.76 Amps LV rated current = 1500k/400*1.732 = 2165.13 Amps

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Step 2:

퐈ퟐ R Losses HV = (퐈ퟐ * R *1.5) 퐈ퟐ R Losses LV = (퐈ퟐ * R *0.5*3) I2 R Losses HV = (62.76) ^2 * 0.6014 * 1.5 = 3553 Watts I2 R Losses LV = (2165.13) ^2 * 0.000644 * 0.5 * 3 = 4528.4 Watts Step 3:

ퟐ ퟐ ퟐ Total 퐈 R Losses at amb temp = (퐈 R)푯푽 + (퐈 R)푳푽 ퟐ ퟐ ퟐ Total stray 퐈 R Losses amb temp = LL - {(퐈 R)푯푽 + (퐈 R) 푳푽 } Total I2 R Losses at amb temp = 3553 + 4528.4 = 8081.4 Watts Total stray I2 R Losses amb temp = 10900 – 8081.4 = 2818.6 Watts Step 4:

퐈ퟐ R Losses @ 75 ℃ = (total 퐈ퟐ R Losses at amb temp * 310) / (235 + amb temp) Stray 퐈ퟐ R Losses @ 75 ℃ =Total stray Losses at amb temp*(235 +amb temp) / 310

I2 R Losses @ 75 ℃ = (8081.4 * 310) / (235 + 32.2) = 9375.8 Watts

Stray I2 R Losses @ 75 ℃ = 2818.6 * (235 + 32.2)/310 = 2429.5 Watts

Note: Material constant (235 for copper, 225 for aluminum) & Temperature constant (310 for copper, 300 for aluminum)

Step 5: LL @ 75 ℃ = 퐈ퟐ R Losses @ 75 ℃ + Stray 퐈ퟐ R Losses @ 75 ℃ . LL @ 75 ℃ = 9375.8 + 2429.5 = 11805.3 Watts

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From the program:

Figure 17: Result of power and current

Measured Values 1180.3 Guaranteed Values 10900

Calculation No-load losses:

Pm =VI cos θ Po = Pm (1 + d)

Vrms - Vavg d = Where: Vrms

Po = Corrected No load loss to sine wave basis

Pm = Calculated NLL after applying correction facto

Total losses = No load loss + Load loss

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Case 2:

We decided to study the transformers production rate passed and failed in this section. Tables below filled by the monthly target of testing transformers. This process consider for these last four months in our training in MATCO.

Testing

Section Transformer N. of T. Nov Total Number 68 Percent Test Pass 65 95.59% Fail 3 4.41% Section Transformer Oct Total Number 51 Percent Test Pass 51 100.00% Fail 0 0.00% Section Transformer Sep Total Number 69 Percent Test Pass 69 100.00% Fail 0 0.00% Section Transformer Aug Total Number 87 Percent

Test Pass 82 94.25%

Fail 5 5.75%

Table 5: Total units tested in last 4 months in our training

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Figure 18: Histogram for testing

We can see that our histogram indicates the process in Sep and Oct better than Aug and Nov because 3 transformers failed in Nov and 5 in Aug. However, transformers didn’t meet the design specifications. Reference to the data and percentage of failure in Nov equal 4.41% and 5.75% in Aug and this percentage is very high. Largely the root causes were the manpower. We will work on transformers that failed in August and explain the reasons and how to solve them and avoid repeating the same mistakes in the future.

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Case 3:

Transformer design and active part number: 1006-1320 Transformer rating: 1000 KVA, 13.8/0.400 KV Date of Testing: 20/Aug./2018 Type of Failure: No Load Loss (NLL).

Reason of Failure: In testing analysis found this transformer failed in NLL at U phase. During dismantling the defective coil, there were some issues:  Overlap in many layers and not uniformed winding in HV.  Unsymmetrical winding started from lead 7 as shown in figure-.

Corrective Action: Removed HV wire and rewind new HV wire properly.

Evidence: as shown below:

Figure 19: Two conductors in parallel

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Case 4:

Transformer design: 4662 Transformer rating: 1500 KVA, 13.8/0.400 KV Date of Testing: 16/aug/2018 Type of Failure: No Load Loss (NLL). Reason of Failure: TR failed in NLL (U- Phase) during in routine test, on 29/12/2018. Investigation: During the routine test found this TR failed in NLL at U phase. QC request to dismantle the coil to find out the reason of failure. Coil has dismantled and found out there is short circuit occurred between LV turns (14& 13) may be caused by small practical in the foil (not clear evidence). Corrective Action: Clean the effective spot by sand paper on layer 13 and 14 and add double DDP on the last two layers.

Figure 20: Result of testing TTR 33 | S D P R e p o r t

Figure 21: Short circuit

Figure 22: Transformer turn ratio

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Case 5: Transformer design: 5187 Transformer rating: 1000KVA-13.8/.400-.230-.133kv Date of Testing: 09/aug/2018 Type of Failure: High load losses

Reason of Failure: TR failed in Load losses (High load losses) during in routine test, on dated 20/01/2019. Investigation: Active part # 37, 42 we open in repair area and found loose connection in LV risers. Corrective Action: Re- tight all LV riser jumpers by torque wrench.

Figure 23: torque wrench

35 | S D P R e p o r t

A/P #37 Before tight all LV riser jumpers

Figure 24: Transformer test report

Figure 25: Result of testing TTR 36 | S D P R e p o r t

After tight all LV riser jumpers

Figure 26: Transformer test report

Figure 27: Power losses of transformer

37 | S D P R e p o r t

A/P #42 Before tight all LV riser jumpers

Figure 28: Transformer test report

Figure 29: Result of testing TTR

38 | S D P R e p o r t

After tight all LV riser jumpers

Figure 30: Transformer test report

Figure 31: Power losses of transformer

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Case 6: Transformer design: 5127 Transformer rating: 1000KVA-13.8/.400kv. Date of Testing: 15/Nov/2018

PASS

Procedure: After confirming the quality section in the assembly section, use the torque knob instead of using manual tensile and continuous monitoring to separate the coil. We have achieved positive results.

This is one Example

Figure 32: Transformer test report

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E. Discussion:

In case 1, we explain how to calculate power losses of transformer with apply one example of calculating the losses. According to IEC 60076-1 international standard. In case 2, during the COOP training in MATCO factory we worked in testing department as a testing engineer from November to August and we tested a lot of transformers and there were some failed transformers that failed because of the power losses so, we decided to do a search about minimize the power losses in these transformers to avoid it in the future. In case 3, during the coils factor was working, the worker has two spools to make HV winding, one of the spools is finished and he brings one new spool, instead of pulling the spool in parallel ,he pull it in by single from a new spool, after that he continue pulling in parallel with another spool. That resulting of a huge different in no load losses. In case 4, there was short circuit between layer 13 and 14. We expect that happened because of the isolation material was poor. In case 5, it was failed in load losses(high load losses) because LV loose connection and it's winding resistance also high, so after re tight all LV connection it's winding resistance reduce and also load losses reduce. In case 6, after we avoid the problems in previous cases, we have successful results of testing power losses in transformer, and this was one of the good examples.

F. Recommendations:

We recommend the quality department to focus in the work of the workers to reduce the human mistake, because these small problems is cost them a lot of money. We recommend to provide a testing machine single coil, because a lot of the mistakes are coming from assembly coil. We have to check all material before to start assembly. Also we recommend to check all the materials before start assembly the

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transformer. We recommend to use torque wrench instead of the manual tight. We notice that the design department don’t have a quality man to check the design before start production line and that will reduce the filed transformers.

G. Conclusion The senior design project was very helpful for us and it improves our skills dramatically and provide us with a very good experience in power losses of transformer, also it was a great opportunity to do a lot of researches about transformer and its contents. Also we gained a new skills about how the search to solve a problem. The power losses have a relation with all the content of the transformer that leading us to have experience about how to reduce power losses that definitely will increase the efficiency of transformer. Finally, it help us to work together and be a team worker.

D. References:

Power analysis system by hadi saadat Power transformers quality assurance IEC 60076-1 international standard

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University of Hail College of Engineering Electrical Engineering EE 411: Senior Project (Semester 182, 2018/2019)

Solar Powered Backpack

By Turki Khaled Altamimi ID: 201411973 Saad Ali Alsaif ID: 201412074 Thamer Motlaq Alanzi ID: 201300670 Omar Abdulwahab Albadran ID: 201000387

Advisor Dr. Mansoor Alturki

(April 2019) Abstract The main objective of this project is to design a solar powered backpack that has the ability to convert the sunlight into reusable electric energy. This project aims to provide an on the go power source that can charge portable devices. For example, many people walk with different electronic devices such as cell phone, which may run in low batteries at least once when they need to use them; therefore, this backpack will allow people to charge their devices “on the go". The attached solar panel allows to charge portable devices as well as to charge the attached batteries in the bag, which allows to store the energy and use when the lack of sunlight.

Acknowledgements First and foremost all our thanks and praise is due to ALLAH, without whom this work would not have been undertaken, Second deep appreciation and thanks must go to our supervisor, Dr. Mansoor Turki Alturki, for his continuous support, valuable suggestion, and endless encouragement. Without him, this work would not have been possible to achieve, we shall always be grateful to him and his efforts, valuable assistance. Our sincere appreciation goes to the teachers of Electrical Engineering department for their support, encouragement, and guidance during performing this project. Last, but not least, our deep thanks must go to our families for providing us with all the benefits of love, and patience. Thanks also go to all friends for their encouragement.

Table of content

Content Page Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Advantage of renewable energy 1 1.3 Solar energy 2 1.3.1 Introduction 2 1.3.2 Solar energy technology 2 1.3.3 Efficiency of solar cell 3 1.4 Solar powered Backpack 3 1.5 Main of project 4 1.6 Project Requirements 4 1.7 Project Objectives 4 1.8 Project Plan 5 Chapter 2: The Component of Project 6 2.1 TP4056 Lithium Battery Charge Controller 6 2.1.1 Introduction 6 2.1.2 A Brief Note on TP4056 Lithium Battery Charge Controller 6 2.1.3 Pin Diagram of TP4056 Lithium Ion Battery Charger IC 6 2.1.4 Circuit Diagram of TP4056 Lithium Ion Battery Charger 7 2.1.5 TP4056 Li-Ion Battery Charger Module 8 2.2 Solar panel 8 2.2.1 Information about Solar panel 9 2.3 Storage system 10 2.3.1 Specific information about Li-lithium battery 10 2.4 DC-DC booster 11 2.4.1 Overview 11 2.4.2 Circuit Diagram of DC-DC booster 11 Chapter 3: Practical Application 13 3.1 Introduction 13 3.2 Steps to execute the project 13 3.3 The final design of the project 17 3.4 Selection of the solar backpack in the market 18 3.5 Cases 18 Chapter 4: Conclusion and future work 20 4.1 Conclusion 20 References 21

III

List of Figure

Figure 1 : TP4056 Pin Diagram...... 6

Figure 2 : Circuit diagram...... 7

Figure 3 : TP 4056...... 8

Figure 4 : Solar panel...... 9

Figure 5 : DC-DC booster...... 11

Figure 6 : DC-DC circuit diagram...... 12

Chapter 3 : Practical application Figure 7 : Measure output voltage...... 13

Figure 8 : Connect solar in the board...... 14

Figure 9 : Connect TP4056...... 14

Figure 10 : Add battery...... 15

Figure 11 : Connect DC_DC booster...... 15

Figure 12 : Output Dc voltage...... 16

Figure 13 : Test by phone...... 16

Figure 14 : The final shape...... 17

List of Table

Chapter 1: Introduction Table 1: Cost of renewable energy...... 2

Table 2: Project plan...... 3

Chapter 2: The Component of Project Table 3: TP4056 pin feature...... 7

Table 4: Specification solar panel...... 9

Table 5: Properties li-lithium battery...... 10

Chapter 3: Practical Application Table 6: Cost and weight of the materials...... 18

Table 7: Calculate the result...... 19

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction

Renewable energy is energy taken from Natural Resources like water, wind, and sun. It called renewable because it can be easily replenished. It doesn't produce Residues such as carbon dioxide (Co2) and Harmful gases. There are many forms of renewable energy. First, wind power uses air flow to produce mechanical energy. Second, hydropower is power derived from the energy of falling water. It can use for the useful thing. Third, solar energy is energy take from the sun's heat. It produces electrical energy using photovoltaic cells and we will talk about in the following page because this energy depends on our project [1]. 1.2 Advantage of renewable energy

There are many advantages of using renewable energy resources over non-renewable sources such as, its availability in most of the countries in the world, its environmental benefits that reduce the greenhouse gas emission, and the economic cost of renewable energy. Currently, the renewable energy costs are generally higher than that of fossil-based and nuclear energy. In addition to this, unlike well- established conventional designs, the advancement in different renewable energy technologies still requires substantial investments. The economists often use so-called leveled energy costs (or leveled cost of electricity, LCOE) when comparing different technologies. The LEC represents the total cost to build and operate a new power plant over its life divided to equal annual payments and amortized over expected annual electricity generation. It reflects all the costs including initial capital, return on investment, continuous operation, fuel, and maintenance, as well as the time required to build a plant and its expected lifetime. It also takes into account carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) [1].

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Table 1: cost of renewable energy Cost (LCOE) Power Plant Type $/kW-hr Coal with CCS $0.12-0.13 CC Natural Gas $0.05 CC with CCS $0.075 Nuclear $0.093 Wind onshore $0.059 Wind offshore $0.139 Solar PV $0.063 Solar Thermal $0.165 Geothermal $0.045 Biomass $0.095 Hydro $0.062

1.3 Solar Energy

1.3.1 Introduction: Solar energy is free, environmentally clean, and therefore is recognized as one of the most promising alternative energy recourses options. In the near future, the large- scale introduction of solar energy systems, directly converting solar radiation into heat [2]. Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or electrical energy. Solar energy is the cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source available. Solar technologies can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including generating electricity, providing light or a comfortable interior environment, and heating water for domestic, commercial, or industrial use [3].

1.3.2 Solar energy technology photovoltaic (PV) cell: It is an energy harvesting technology, that converts solar energy into useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are several different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to interact with incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.

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There are many advantages to PV cell such as, it provides clean green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels, there are no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly, so this technology used in our project [4].

1.3.3 Efficiency of solar cell Conversion efficiency of solar cell is defined as the ratio of output power to incident optical power. For maximum power input: 푃푚 %푛 = × 100 푃푖푛 푉푚.퐼푚 %푛 = × 100 퐼.퐴

Where, Pm is the maximum power(watt),

Pin- input power(Watt), Vm- maximum voltage(Volt), Im-maximum current(Amp), I- solar intensity(watt/m2), A- area(m2)

1.4 Solar powered Backpack

The main purpose of this project is to design a solar backpack. A Solar backpack is a backpack equipped with thin film solar cells and batteries. The solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, which is stored in the batteries and can be used to power portable electronic appliances like mobile phones and mp3 players. The solar backpack has many advantages such as: 1. Solar backpacks are light-weight. 2. It easier to carry, solar backpacks carry a green energy source for the environment. 3. Flexible solar panels also are light and portable, as well as waterproof.

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1.5 Main of project

There are many goals of the project for example, it benefits Students and workers, With your solar panel backpack, you can keep the phone charged throughout the day so you can have your electronics always. Also, it benefits Emergency relief staff, field workers, emergency staff, and international aid workers all rely on solar backpacks to keep their important devices and lights charged when on a mission. Not only are they great for emergency staff, but anyone who works outdoors and needs to stay connected but doesn't have access to electricity.

1.6 Project Requirements

The main requirements of this project include the following: 1. A battery for storing energy. 2. A backpack 3. Solar panel 4. TP4056 5. DC-DC booster 1343N3 6. Board 7. Diode 8. Wires for connection

1.7 Project Objectives

The main objectives of the project include the following: 1. To design a solar powered backpack. 2. To help the people in far areas to charge their mobiles. 3. Generating the electricity from the solar power.

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1.8 Project Plan:

Table 2: project plan

Task Weeks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Submit the proposal

Searching for knowledge and about the

project

Searching about Project requirements

Getting information about solar energy

Getting information about storage system

Making a draft for mid-point report

Learning about TP4056

Designing a solar backpack

Getting the result of project

Final report and preparation

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Chapter 2: The Component of Project

2.1 TP4056 Lithium Battery Charge Controller

2.1.1 Introduction Almost all the electronic devices run on battery power nowadays. For example, many daily use devices like Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, Cameras, etc. that run on battery. This chapter will start with some general information about the used the charging controller TP4056 Li-Ion Battery Charger and the used battery (Lithium-Ion Battery) [5].

2.1.2 A Brief Note on TP4056 Lithium Battery Charge Controller: The TP4056 is a low-cost Lithium Ion battery charger controller IC. It supports a constant current – constant voltage charging mechanism for s single cell Li-Ion Battery. It is available in 8-pin SOP package and requires very minimum external components in order to build a Lithium Ion battery charger circuit.

2.1.3 Pin Diagram of TP4056 Lithium Ion Battery Charger ICs:

The following figure (Figure 1) shows the pin diagram of the TP4056 Li-Ion Battery Charger IC. It is an 8-pin IC and the pins are TEMP, PROG, GND, VCC, BAT, and CE.

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Figure 1: TP4056 Pin Diagram [5]

The following table (Table 3) defined every pin and their features:

Table 3: TP4056 pin feature Pin Pin name Function number

1 TEMP Temperature Sense

2 PROG Constant Charge Current Setting

3 GND Ground

4 Vcc supply

5 CE Battery connection pin

6 CHRG Standby Pin

7 STDBY Charging pin

8 BAT Chip enable

2.1.4 Circuit Diagram of TP4056 Lithium Ion Battery Charger: The following figure (Figure 2) shows the circuit diagram of the TP4056 Lithium Ion Battery Charger.

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Figure 2: TP4056 circuit diagram

In this Project, we need some of components as follows:

 TP4056 IC  LEDs x 2  1KΩ Resistor x 2  0.4Ω Resistor  10µF Capacitor x 2  1.2KΩ Resistor (RPROG)

2.1.5 TP4056 Li-Ion Battery Charger Module

The following figure shows (Figure 3) the module used in this project. It is a tiny module with all the components mentioned in the above circuit diagram. In this module, there is a Micro USB connector at the input side of the board. This input source can be used to charge the battery from an output USB source.

Figure 3: TP 4056

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2.2 Solar Panel

Solar panels are those devices which are used to absorb the sun's rays and convert them into electricity or heat. It is actually a collection of solar (or photovoltaic) cells, that can be used to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. These cells are arranged in a grid-like pattern on the surface of solar panels. Most solar panels are made up using crystalline silicon solar cells.

Figure 4: Solar panel

2.2.1 Information about solar panel

The following table provides in detail the used solar panel information, the panel produces 5W, the open circuit voltage is 12 V, and the short circuit current is 0.6 A.

Table 4: Specifications solar panel Power 5 W VMP 9 V IMP 0.55 A Voc 12 V Isc 0.6 A

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Max system voltage 1000 V STC 1000 W/m²AM 1.5 25C°

The capacity of the panel can be calculated as follow:

Capacity = Voltage X amp

If the voltage reading 9 V and ampere 0.55 amp then capacity equal 4.95 W

2.3 Storage system:

Most of the people use devices such as cell phone, a laptop computer or a power tool. The lithium battery has been one of the greatest achievements in portable power in the last decade; with use of lithium batteries, we are able to use and charge portable electronic devices features like GPS, email alerts etc.

2.3.1 Specific information about Li-lithium battery:

Table 5: Properties li-lithium battery Model INR18650 Dimension (D) 18.2mm*(L)65.02mm Capacity 2500mAh Voltage 3.7V Charging voltage 4.2V ± 0.5V Discharging cut-off voltage 2.5V Continuous discharge rate 20A Pulse discharge rate 35A Weight 45g Cycle life More than 500 times

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2.3.2 Observe how the charge and discharge rates are scaled:

Charging and discharging rates of a battery are governed by the C-rates. The capacity of a battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at 1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C should provide 500mA for two hours, and at 2C it delivers 2A for 30 minutes. Losses at fast discharges reduce the discharge time and these losses also affect charge times.

A C-rate of 1C is also known as a one-hour discharge; 0.5C or C/2 is a two-hour discharge and 0.2C or C/5 is a 5-hour discharge. Some high-performance batteries can be charged and discharged above 1C with moderate stress. Table 1 illustrates the typical times at various C-rates.

2.4 DC-DC booster

Power for the boost converter can come from any suitable DC sources, such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter. Since it "steps up" the source voltage and power ( P=VI ) must be conserved ,the output current is lower than the source current

2.4.1 Overview:

This regulator (as shown in Figure 5) will boost 0.9V-5V to regulated 5V. It has a USB connector to charge phones or iPod from a lower voltage battery.

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Figure 5: DC-DC booster

2.4.2 Circuit Diagram of DC-DC booster:

The following figure (Figure 6) shows the circuit diagram of one such implementation. The module comprises of two capacitors (C1-C2), one resistor (R1), one inductor (L1), one rectifier diode (D2), one LED (D1), and an IC (U1). All of these components are in SMD form, except the USB ‘A’. Observed values of the components are:

 C1: 100nF (Input Filter)  C2: 100uF/16V (Output Filter)  L1: 470 (47uH Inductor)  D2: SS14 (Diode)  D1: Red LED (Input Power Indicator)  R1: 102 (1K Resistor- LED Current Limiter)

Figure 6: DC-DC circuit diagram

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Chapter 3: Practical Application 3.1 Introduction

This section will explain the steps required in this project. Before we start, we have to measure the output voltage of the solar panel. Then we connect the TP4056 between battery and solar panel.

Steps to execute the project

Step1:

In this step, we measured the open circuit output voltage of the solar panel that equal 10.62 V as shown in Figure 7. This solar panel takes from 5 to 6 hours to fully charge the used battery under the sun light (which produced 5W).

Figure 7: Measure output voltage

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Step 2:

In the second step, the solar panel should be connected to the board as shown in the following figure (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Connect solar in the board

Step 3: In this step, we connect the diode between solar panel and charging controller. Here, we connect the positive terminal of solar cell to a node of diode and we connect the negative terminal of the diode to IN+ (input positive) of TP4056. The diode is used here to avoid any reverse current.

Figure 9: Connect TP4056

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Step 4:

The lithium battery (2500mAh) is then connected as shown in Figure 10, where the positive terminal of the battery is connected to BAT + of TP4056, and similarly the negative terminal of the battery will be connected to BAT- of the TP4056.

Figure 10: Add battery

Step 5: Then, we connect the booster as shown in Figure 11, the red led means the booster is working and the battery is charging.

Figure 11: Connect DC DC booster

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The output voltage should be 5 V as shown in Figure 12. The output voltage of this circuit can charge any portable electronic device as shown in Figure 13. In the designed solar powered backpack, the USB output voltage is 5V and the USB output maximum current is 1A.

Figure 12: Output DC voltage

Figure 13: Test by phone

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3.2 The final design of the designed solar powered backpack:

Figure 14 shows the final design of the solar powered backpack. It takes 5 to 6 hours to charge the attached battery that can charge 2 phones. This test have been don for a week with sunny days.

Figure 14: The final shape

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3.4 Selection of the solar backpack in the market:

Table 6 gives some information about the weight and price of each component used in our project.

The total weight of the designed project is 1.75 KG and total cost of this project is 443 SR, which meets the pre-defined design specifications with realistic constraints.

Table 6: Cost and weight of the materials The Contents Weight (KG) Price (SR) Backpack 0.5 100 Solar panel 0.60 120 Battery 0.45 90 Charge control TP4056 0.05 22 Booster DC-DC 0.05 18 Wires (10 pieces ) --- 15 Board 0.1 20 Diode - 8 Voltammeter - 50

3.5 Case Studies

In this section, different cases are given to analyze the impact of using different batteries to the overall charging time. To calculate the time required to charge a battery, the following simple equation can be used [5]:

푚퐴ℎ 푇 = 푚퐴

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Where T- charge time , mAh- capacity of battery , mA- output current .

Two different cases are considered here:

Case one:

If we take the same solar panel with an output voltage of 12 V and charging current 500mA and we use a bigger battery with a total capacity of 5000 mAh. Then, the total time needed to charge this battery with the same used solar panel is given in table 7 with different percentages in energy losses (due to deferent weather conditions).

Case two:

If we take a smaller solar panel with an output voltage of 6 V and charge current 250 mA and we take same battery (2600mAh). Then, solar panel need to charge the same battery (used in our project) as shown the table 7:

table 7: Calculations [6] Time To Full Charge Cases No loss (h) 10% loss (h) 20% loss (h) 30 % loss (h) 40% loss (h)

Case one 10 11 12 13 14

Case two 10.4 11.4 12.48 13.52 14.559

These two cases show the impact of changing the used batteries or the solar panel to the overall charging time. As can be seen in both cases, the overall charging time for larger batteries or smaller solar panels can have similar charging time with an average difference of 4%. This time difference will

- 19 - increase will according to the increases in the used batteries. However, larger solar panels with larger output voltage can reduce the overall charging time.

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Chapter 4 : conclusion and future work

4.1 Conclusion

Solar-powered backpacks are a great innovation in the fields of solar technology and backpacks. Backpacks are no longer just a place to store gadgets, clothing and other valuable belongings. Now, people can also use their backpack as an on go outlet (charging station) when traveling, hiking, trekking, biking or doing other activities. These backpacks aren’t just limited to outdoor adventures as they are stylish enough to worn for everyday use. This project provides a potential solution to the very real problem of needing to charge portable electronic devices, such as phones, iPods, iPads, etc.

In the future, we can make the solar panels weatherproof so the backpack can be used in any season instead of having to detach the solar panels when it is raining. In addition, the design can be altered to charge laptops instead of only USB devices by having an outlet with a step-up voltage converter. Another useful improvement can be to add a detector to know when the battery is fully charged. Another useful improvement can be to add a GPS tracker to avoid loss of the bag.

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References [1] [Online] http://www.renewable-energysources.com/

[2] Krautmann J, Zhu J. Photovoltaic solar energy systems: Market trends in the United States. [3] Chu Y. Review and Comparison of Different Solar Energy Technologies. [4] REN 21. Renewables 2017: Global Status Report. Paris, France: 2017. [5] [Online] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy [6] [Online] https://www.electronicshub.org/tp4056-lithium-ion-battery- charger/ [7] [Online] http://www.csgnetwork.com/batterychgcalc.html

[8] Jonas Taverne ( 2017 ) Solar Powered Charging Backpack, School of Engineering, Robert Gordon University, Scotland, United Kingdom.

[9] Nada Kh. M. A. Alrikabi ( 2014 ) Renewable Energy Types, Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, Vol. 2, No. 1

[10] [Online] https://www.elprocus.com/batteries-types-working/

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University of Hail College of Engineering Electrical Engineering Department Second Semester 2018-2019 (182)

Final Report for RFID Based Automatic Access Control System

Faculty Advisor: Dr. Muhammad Tajammal Chughtai

Submitted by

Name ID Number Ibrahim Mohammed AlFouzan 201402124 Abdulaziz Mahmoud Alobied 201400459 Fouad Saleh Alharbi 201313544

Abstract:

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a technology which is being used in a variety of security systems at public places. The idea is implemented to develop an authorized parking system. (RFID) technology is a very useful technology in the monitor and tracks car parking system. At present, the principal parking system of the university uses manual entry gate with a security guard in order to provide access to the premises. Therefore, the university needs to rent a security guard to monitor the parking. In addition, the security guards need to monitor all movement of vehicle or person that enter or leave the parking. In order to address this problem, we propose access to a parking system using RFID technology that can monitor the vehicles that enters or leaves the restricted area by scanning the RFID tag. The potential benefit attached to this type of system being improved security for both security guards and users. Besides that, this parking system can facilitate access control for users and improve traffic flow during peak periods.

List of Contents Page

1.0 Introduction: ...... 6 1.1 Microcontrollers: ...... 6 1.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID): ...... 6 2.0 MATERIALS ...... 8 2.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS ...... 8 2.1.1 ARDUINO Board with ATmega 328 microcontroller: ...... 8 2.1.2 RC522 RFID Reader: ...... 8 2.1.3 RFID Tags: ...... 9 2.1.4 IR Sensor: ...... 11 2.1.5 Servo Motor: ...... 13 2.1.6 LCD: ...... 16 2.1.7 Jumper Wires: ...... 17 2.1.8 Breadboard: ...... 19 2.2 Principle of Work: ...... 28 2.3 Software Requirements: ...... 20 Reference: ...... 34

List of Figures egaP

Figure 1: Arduino ...... 8 Figure 2: RFID reader...... 9 Figure 3: RFID tags ...... 10 Figure 4: IR sensor ...... 12 Figure 5: Servo Motor ...... 15 Figure 6: LCD ...... 16 Figure 7: Jumper Wires ...... 18 Figure 8: Breadboard ...... 19

List of Tables Page

Table 1: HARDWARE DISCRIPTION ...... 19

1.0 Introduction

The aim of this project is to develop RFID based automatic access to the parking system. This will increase the efficiency of existing manual parking systems and reduce operational and cost by reducing personnel requirement, cost of operation, depend up processing and check out etc. This would help in tackling the increasing demand for parking facilities by decreasing capital requirement per car slot. It will also provide a platform for monitoring parking demand at different times of the day.

1.1 Microcontrollers A microcontroller is a computer designed to perform particular tasks which appear to be small or minor but are so important in a system. A microcontroller comprises of the processor or the CPU which performs the task for which it is designed. It has the input and the output ports to which external devices can be connected. It also has its memory i.e. RAM and ROM which means that data can be stored in it or processed value can be stored. One of the major use of microcontrollers is in embedded applications. Thus, it is very useful in any systems in a way that:-

1. Reading the information and the RFID card code from the RFID card of the person.

2. Sending this data on the LCD screen of the operating person.

3. Sensing and receiving the signals from the IR receiver.

4. Sending the signal to the motor to open the gate as the data is verified.

1.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) It is a new identification technology that uses radio frequencies for identifying an object or a person. It's one major advantage is that it is wireless, and no one can read the information stored in it except for the device meant for reading it. Thus, the information is confidential. It is generally done using an RFID tag which is a small card with an electromagnetic chip embedded into it with an antenna. All the information is stored in that chip. Generally, an RFID serial card number is used as the identification number. Each user has its unique ID which stored in that chip. An

RFID system comprises of the RFID tag and the reader or the sensor. Both the card and the reader have their built in antenna for sending and receiving the signal. There is a specific range for which the tag works in conjunction with the reader. As soon as the tag reaches the range of the reader, it gets induced and sends the information to the processing and recognizing unit, which in this case is an Arduino.

2.0 MATERIALS

2.1 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 2.1.1 ARDUINO Board with ATmega 328 microcontroller: The ARDUINO is an electronic multipurpose board based on ATmega 328 microcontroller. It has 6 Analog input pins and 14 digital IO pins, out of these 14 pins 6 can be used as outputs as well. It contains a lot of components along with the microcontroller such as16 MHz quartz crystal, a reset button, a USB connection, an ICSP header, a power jack and a lot of electronic components. It already has all the essential components embedded in it which are needed for proper working of the microcontroller. It can be directly connected to a 2-volt DC power source.

Figure 1: Arduino

2.1.2 RC522 RFID Reader The RFID reader is an active device which is powered through the Arduino board. It has an inbuilt small antenna, which emits radio waves continuously when it is in active mode, and the RFID tag responds to the radio waves by sending its data to the reader In this project the use of RFID reader is to detect the tag on the vehicle arriving at the entrance and providing the tag's ID to the microcontroller.

Figure 2: RFID reader RC522 RFID reader has specifications such as:-

1. Operating Distance: 3cm

2. Operating Voltage: 3.3volts

3. Operating Frequency: 13.56 MHz

4. Current Consumption: 13-26 mA

In this project, it is used as a stationary reader which is always looking for the RFID tags in its range. If any vehicle with RFID tag comes in its range, it receives its data and transfers its unique ID to the ATmega 328 for further processing. The RC522 RFID reader is basically microcontroller-based transceiver, it gives power to the tag with the help of EM radio frequency or also known as RF field. As soon as the RF field passes the RFID tag's antenna, alternating current voltage is generated and this AC voltage is rectified and supplied to the power pin of the RFID tag. On getting powered up from the reader, the tag is able to get commands from RC522 RFID transceiver. The hardcoded data of tag now can be read by the RFID reader and information is sent to the microcontroller for processing.

2.1.3 RFID Tags A Radio Frequency Identification tag/card usually known as RFID tags are electronic gadgets that can be attached to a product, person, animal or many more for their

9 identification or tracking using radio waves. Every tag has its own identity or tag number, these tags are of different types, some can be read from a long distance and some can even be read from a distance place up to which a normal human cannot see. Most of these RFID tags are made of two parts, one is an antenna for transmitting and receiving of signals, and other is integrated circuitry for processing and storage of information, it can also be used for specific functions.

There is a technology called chipless RFID, which helps to identify the tags without the integrated circuit in it, this making of tags without integrated circuitry helps in lowering the cost of RFID tags than the traditional ones. These days there is a significant uplift in RFID usage, helping to improve the efficiency of product tracking and managing. In other words, RFID tags are automated identification object or transponders.

There are basically two types of RFID tags:

1. Passive tags, with no power supply

2. Active tags, with power supply.

Figure 3: RFID tags The RFID tags used in this project are passive type this helps in saving power and has no problem of providing power supply to the tags all the time to make them work. Passive tags work with the help of small amount of current induced in tag's antenna

10 from RF signal of the reader, this current generates enough power for circuitry in the tag to start up and give a response to the reader.

2.1.4 IR Sensor Light emitting diodes (LED) and photodiodes (PD) are easy to be deployed as transducers. These are available in the form of pair in one package as well. Other type of photodiodes include pin photodiode, (pinPD) tunnel photodiode (TPD) and avalanche photodiode (APD). Apart from other parameters which help for their selection these also have been reported as temperature dependent devices. This factor has been reported in various articles and solutions have been suggested by a number of researchers. The avalanche photodiodes (APD) are a good solution to the situations where very week signal is expected. A number of optical sensors including PDs and APDs in [1]. Over the years, researchers have developed various techniques in modeling and manufacture of APDs. [2] has suggested a new technique towards etching of epitaxial layer in an APD. Also, [3] developed a technique for temperature tracking using temperature sensors for Si photodiode. [4] reported a study in which they studied and reported dependence of APDs temporal stability on a range of temperature variations. [5] also presented a study on Photodiodes dependence on temperature variations. Diverse approaches have been adapted by researchers in the field of optoelectronics to come up with a range of promising solutions in relation to photodiodes. Embedded version of photodiodes in technical textiles has been reported by [6]. The avalanche photodiodes (APDs) have been notorious by their sensitivity towards the changes in the case or ambient temperature with the change in temperature, their operating point keeps shifting i.e. with the increase in the temperature their operating point shifts away from the original breakdown point, which results in less sensitivity and reduced amplitude of the signal output. On the other hand, a drop in the temperature will shift the breakdown point to a lesser value, which may result in the increased sensitivity and enhanced multiplication noise, which may eventually result into a permanent damage to the APD [7]. A study on APD in relation to its performance in extreme variation of temperature environment such outer space was conducted by [8]. The remedy to these problems is thought to be in the form of temperature compensated bias system, which is capable of keeping track of any changes in the ambient temperature and hence providing a higher safety to the APD. A self calibrating photo detector at room temperature while operating it

11 in dual mode has been reported by [9]. Further they presented an improved design for the system. A discussion on a variety of parameters related to PIN photodiodes from the point of view of its manufacturing and physics involved in a review by [10]. [11] developed a 3D structure version of InP/InGaP APD and claimed low noise factor figures. For the project under consideration a ready made IR transmission and receiver package has been used.

IR Infrared Obstacle Avoidance Sensor Module has a pair of infrared transmitting and receiving transducers. When the transmitted light waves are reflected back, the reflected IR waves will be received by the receiver head. The onboard comparator circuitry does the processing and the green indicator LED goes on.

Figure 4: IR TxRx module

The module features a 3-wire interface with VCC, GND and an OUTPUT pin on its tail. It works fine with 3V to 5V levels. Upon hindrance/reflectance, the output pin gives out a digital signal (a low-level signal). The onboard preset helps to fine tune the range of operation, effective distance range is 4cm to 8cm.

2.1.5 Servo Motor Choosing a right servo motor is one of the taks which may lead to the success of a project. Following are the 5 steps which should be taken into care while choosing a servo motor:-

i. Load. Correctly sizing a servo motor begins with knowing the load. ii. Speed. Another important factor is the speed or velocity. iii. Torque. Once the load and speed are known, calculate the required torque values.

Correctly sizing motors in a motion control application is more difficult than sizing an AC induction motor because not only must acceleration, deceleration and running torque be taken into account, but also the ability of the servo motor to tightly control the load’s speed, position or torque. This means the peak torque measurements must be calculated, usually during acceleration or deceleration, along with the running/normal torque. Also, the inertia of the system (the load’s resistance to change in speed) must be calculated to ensure that the motor/drive system will be able to control the load.

A motor’s continuous torque is its ability to produce the rated torque and speed without overheating. Intermittent torque indicates how much torque a motor can produce in a short period of time based on current limits of the drive and motor. The intermittent (or peak) torque of a motor can be much higher than its rated torque, and servo systems are usually designed to operate within that peak torque range when accelerating or decelerating the load.

Load Correctly sizing a servo motor begins with knowing the load. This is also spoken of in terms of inertia. Generally speaking, the important figure is the inertia ratio, which is the ratio of the load inertia to the motor inertia, or Inertia Ratio = JL / JM where JL is the moment of inertia of the load and JM is the moment of inertia of the motor.

The motor’s moment of inertia can be found from the manufacturer data sheets. However, the moment of inertia of the load is a bit more complex. Basically, each component that is moved by the motor contributes to the total load inertia. This includes not only the load itself but any other mechanical components of the transmission system such as couplings, lead screws, rails, and so forth.

Speed Another important factor is the speed or velocity. This involves knowing how far and how fast the load must travel. Knowing the inertia ratio can help with this as well as knowing the motion profile of the system. Figuring out what the motion profile is and knowing the system inertia helps determine the required speed, acceleration and torque.

Torque Once the load and speed are known, calculate the required torque values. This can be determined from the motor’s torque-speed curve. Calculations need to be made to determine the required continuous torque, peak torque, and maximum motor speed. The required amount of continuous torque must fall inside the continuous operating region of the system torque-speed curve. The required amount of peak torque must also fall within the servo system’s intermittent operating region of the system torque- speed curve.

Torque is calculated by considering the load being attached to the motor. Simply saying it is just a simple calculation e.g. if a motor has a torque value of 10 kg.cm it would mean that the motor is capable to lift a mass of 10kg when attached at a distance o 1 cm from the fulcrum. Explanation of torque is very well explained in the figure below:-

It is tiny and lightweight with high output power. This servo can rotate approximately 180 degrees (90 in each direction) and works just like the standard kinds but smaller.

Any servo code can be used for its operation, hardware or library to control these servos. It comes with 3 horns (arms) and hardware.

Figure 5: Servo Motor

Servo motor has some specifications such as:-

1. Operating voltage: 4.8 V (~5V) 2. Operating speed: 0.1 s/60 degree 3. Stall torque: 1.8 kgf·cm 4. Dead bandwidth: 10 µs 5. Temperature range: 0 ºC – 55 ºC

2.1.6 LCD

Figure 6: LCD

This is a 16x2 LCD display screen with I2C interface. It is able to display 16x2 characters on 2 lines, white characters on a blue background.

Usually, Arduino LCD display projects will run out of pin resources easily, especially with Arduino Uno. And it is also very complicated with the wire soldering and connection.

This I2C 16x2 Arduino LCD Screen is using an I2C communication interface. It means it only needs 4 pins for the LCD display: VCC, GND, SDA, SCL. It will save at least 4 digital/analog pins on Arduino. All connector is standard XH2.54 (Breadboard type). You can connect with jumper wire directly. Figure below shows pin connections of LCD to Arduino.

2.1.7 Jumper Wires As always jumper wires have been used in this project to interconnect the different modules to each other like connecting Arduino to the servo motor, connecting Arduino to LCD module interconnecting Arduino, RFID reader and tag module, IR sensor and basic shield with the help of breadboard. Basically, a jumper wire is a small electrical wire having a solid tip at both ends to connect different electronic components to each other.

There are basically 2 types of jump wires:

1. With Crocodile clips

2. With Insulated Terminals, There are further sub-divided into 3 categories:

1. Male to Male

2. Male to Female

3. Female to Female

Figure 7: Jumper Wires

The jumper wires used in this project are male to male, male to female, female to female, all insulated terminals one.

2.1.8 Breadboard

Figure 8: Breadboard The breadboard is a construction platform for prototyping of circuits and systems. The breadboard used in this project is a solderless breadboard to make the entire circuit of the project at initial stages. Summing up the hardware used in this product, below shown is a table of hardware used with their specifications:

Table 1: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

S.no. Hardware Model Specification Function

1. Microcontroller ATmega328 28 pins, 5V, Controlling all the connected 16MHZ modules.

2. RFID Reader RC522 7 pins, 3.3V To read the nearby RFID tag.

3. RFID Tags Passive type (card) ------To provide unique ID to every vehicle.

4. Motor SG90 4.8V, 3 pins To control gate.

5. IR sensor ------3-5 V, 3 pins, Indicator and receiver. indicate 2-8 cm.

6. LCD 2*16 with 12C 5V, 4 pins To show the available module barking, stats and information.

7. Jumper Wires Insulated ------Connectors.

8. Bread Board ------To design circuit.

9. Power Supply Power Bank 7500 mA To supply the circuit.

2.3 Software Requirements

Arduino Compiler - Version: 1.8.8 for Windows

Source: www.arduino.com

Cost: Free

It is an open source software available directly at Arduino's website, for beginners and professionals to carry out projects like this as well as more projects and stuff.

• Language Used: Embedded C

Embedded C is a very similar language to C and C++ with few of its libraries and function name being different it serves as an easy and simple language to make embedded systems work according to the coders need.

This was all about the hardware and software used in this project, all electronic equipment, components and software used are of specific parameters and used for specific functions. Each device has its own importance and value in this project.

These steps were followed by developing code for the whole project in this section, the below mentioned is the codes:

#include // RC522 Module uses SPI protocol #include // Library for Mifare RC522 Devices uint8_t successRead; // Variable integer to keep if we have Successful Read from Reader byte readCard[4]; // Stores scanned ID read from RFID Module // Create MFRC522 instance. #define SS_PIN 10 #define RST_PIN 9 MFRC522 mfrc522(SS_PIN, RST_PIN); uint8_t RFID_card_A[]={1,224,99,46}; uint8_t RFID_card_B[]={64,230,151,163};

20 uint8_t RFID_card_C[]={240,96,144,165}; uint8_t RFID_card_D[]={240,201,142,163};

#include LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd1(0x27,16,2); // LCD1

#define IR_sensor_IN 2 #define IR_sensor_OUT 3 int availabe_parking=4; ////////////// #include Servo servo_out; // create servo object to control a servo Servo servo_in; // create servo object to control a servo

int open_angle= 90; int close_angle= 0;

///////////////////////////////////////// Setup /////////////////////////////////// void setup() {

//Protocol Configuration Serial.begin(9600); // Initialize serial communications with PC Serial.println("Parking System"); SPI.begin(); // MFRC522 Hardware uses SPI protocol mfrc522.PCD_Init(); // Initialize MFRC522 Hardware ////// end of RFID init. lcd1.init(); // initialize the lcd

lcd1.backlight(); lcd1.setCursor(1,0); lcd1.print("Parking System"); pinMode(IR_sensor_IN,INPUT); pinMode(IR_sensor_OUT,INPUT); delay(2000); lcd1.setCursor(0,0); lcd1.print(" "); servo_in.attach(7); servo_out.attach(6); servo_in.write(close_angle); servo_out.write(close_angle);

delay(1000); } void loop () {

lcd1.setCursor(0,0); lcd1.print("available="); lcd1.print(availabe_parking);

delay(20); if(digitalRead(IR_sensor_IN)==LOW) { if(availabe_parking==0) { lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Sorry No Parking"); delay(400);

lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print(" "); } if(availabe_parking>0) { lcd1.setCursor(0,0); lcd1.print("Swipe your Card"); /*******************************read RFID card*/ readCard[0]=0;readCard[1]=0;readCard[2]=0;readCard[3]=0; do { successRead = Read_RFID_tag(); // sets successRead to 1 when we get read from reader otherwise 0 } while (successRead==0 && digitalRead(IR_sensor_IN)==LOW );

////////////////////////end of RFID card reading

//test if the number of rfid is 57-157-83-163 .. test any number you want if( readCard[0]==RFID_card_A[0] && readCard[1]==RFID_card_A[1] && readCard[2]==RFID_card_A[2] && readCard[3]==RFID_card_A[3]) { Serial.println("Card A"); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Card A"); delay(600); open_gate();

lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print(" "); if(availabe_parking!=0)availabe_parking=availabe_parking-1;

} else if( readCard[0]==RFID_card_B[0] && readCard[1]==RFID_card_B[1] && readCard[2]==RFID_card_B[2] && readCard[3]==RFID_card_B[3]) { Serial.println("Card B"); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Card B"); delay(600); open_gate(); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print(" "); if(availabe_parking!=0)availabe_parking=availabe_parking-1; } else if( readCard[0]==RFID_card_C[0] && readCard[1]==RFID_card_C[1] && readCard[2]==RFID_card_C[2] && readCard[3]==RFID_card_C[3]) { Serial.println("Card C"); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Card C"); delay(600); open_gate();

lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print(" "); if(availabe_parking!=0)availabe_parking=availabe_parking-1; } else if( readCard[0]==RFID_card_D[0] && readCard[1]==RFID_card_D[1] && readCard[2]==RFID_card_D[2] && readCard[3]==RFID_card_D[3]) { Serial.println("Card D"); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Card D"); open_gate(); delay(600); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print(" "); if(availabe_parking!=0)availabe_parking=availabe_parking-1; } else { Serial.println("Unknown"); lcd1.setCursor(0,1); lcd1.print("Unknown"); delay(900); lcd1.setCursor(0,1);

lcd1.print(" "); } lcd1.setCursor(0,0); lcd1.print(" ");

} } if(digitalRead(IR_sensor_OUT)==LOW) { delay(20); servo_out.write(open_angle); while(digitalRead(IR_sensor_OUT)==LOW){} delay(20); if(availabe_parking<4)availabe_parking=availabe_parking+1; delay(1200); servo_out.write(close_angle); delay(500);

}

} void open_gate() { servo_in.write(open_angle); while(digitalRead(IR_sensor_IN)==LOW){} delay(1000); servo_in.write(close_angle); } uint8_t Read_RFID_tag() { /**/ if ( ! mfrc522.PICC_IsNewCardPresent()) { //If a new PICC placed to RFID reader continue

if(IR_sensor_IN==HIGH)return 1; /////////////////////////////////////added

return 0; }

if ( ! mfrc522.PICC_ReadCardSerial()) { //Since a PICC placed get Serial and continue if(IR_sensor_IN==HIGH)return 1; /////////////////////////////////////added

return 0; }

// There are Mifare PICCs which have 4 byte or 7 byte UID care if you use 7 byte PICC // I think we should assume every PICC as they have 4 byte UID // Until we support 7 byte PICCs //Serial.println(F("Scanned PICC's UID:")); for ( uint8_t i = 0; i < 4; i++) { //

readCard[i] = mfrc522.uid.uidByte[i]; //Serial.print(readCard[i], HEX); Serial.print(readCard[i]); if(i!=3)Serial.print("-");

} Serial.println(""); mfrc522.PICC_HaltA(); // Stop reading return 1; }

2.2 Operating Principle RFID systems operating in low-frequency range operates on the principle of near field coupling between tag and reader. In the operating principle of RFID, Faraday’s principle of electromagnetic induction is the basis of nearfield coupling [3]. In a near field RFID system, electromagnetic waves are transmitted by reader or interrogator which propagates outwards with a spherical wave front. Tags placed within field collect some energy. Then the exchange of data between tag and reader takes place. The design of the system is broken into modules as follows: RFID Scanning:

 When the circuit is switched ON, a number of available space parking will be displayed on the LCD.  An IR sensor will detect a vehicle at the entrance, the sensor will send a signal to the Arduino and will display a message on the LCD “SWAP YOUR CARD”.  When an RFID card is detected by an RFID reader at the entrance, the unique card code is sent to the Arduino.  If the card code is matched with the saved number library in Arduino or database, the Arduino will allow the car to access the secured area by operating the barriers by the servo motor.  A welcome message along with the in-time details are displayed on the LCD.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

When RFID card is inserted, RF module uses Radio Frequency (RF) transmitter which is single bit transmitter and works on 13.3MHz frequency. With the help of antenna, RF transmitter converts electrical signal into electromagnetic signal. At the receiver side, RF receiver is used to convert Electromagnetic (EM) signal into electrical signal. As the signal is supplied to microcontroller it executes the program and transmit signal for display on LCD.

Full capacity of parking system is set to 4 vehicles, it shown on LCD and also shows the vacancy of the slots. Car sensor used is IR sensor which works on the principle of photoemission. Then its output is given to comparator. Comparator compares sensed output with predefined threshold level. At the exits gate and entry gate there is IR

28 sensor and this sensor sense the car and open the gate. The main function of installing IR sensor and transmitter at the in and out gates of the modular presentation is to check the length of the entering or leaving vehicles. In other words this is a sort of check introduced so that the barriers opens and closes for the full length of the vehicle. A further delay of few seconds is also introduced in software prpogram so that the vehicle in operation is at a safe distance.

Design

Connections

In order to achieve pre-defined capstone various units of such as Servo motors, Infra-red transceiver, LCD display and RFID reader module for the final set up were connected to Arduino main unit. The connections were made by taking advantage of digital and analogue I/O line available on the main unit. These connections are shown below.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

Top view of hardware of RFID based parking security system is shown in figure 13, when RFID reader and passive tag are the main components used and each passive tag has different serial number stored in Arduino inside the tag [4]. The serial number is given by manufacturer. We have stored serial number information in programming; we have used here four passive tags. Corresponding to each serial number, stored flat number allowed to enter the parking area.

When the enter switch is pressed, LCD display “Swipe Your Card.” After placing their card in field of reader then LCD display “Welcome” to park then barrier will open it show in figure 4 and LCD status for the condition one car is park which is shown in figure 3. At the exit gate IR sensor gives signal to controller and LCD display “Number of available parking” which is shown in figure 5. Two cards are invalid. When this card will be shown on door does not open and “access denied” message is displayed in LCD display [5].

Conclusion

This project utilizes the by RFID card and then the cars are park at the particular location. The system will provide excellent security, avoid accident in parking area and get accurate information about parking. This system aims at saving a large number of man-hours caused by problems those are created in parking area, where prevention can save lives and property. We can also reduce the congestion of the traffic in parking area. We can create project using electronic devices, hardware, real time application and software knowledge. The advantage of all types of RFID systems is the non-contact, non-line-of-sight in nature of the technology. Hence, this project can be useful and can be implemented in real time applications for recording the attendance. By integrating both RFID and microcontroller generates a project with wider boundaries and effective solutions. The system can be improved by increasing the range of reader in which the tag can be read. Improvement can be done by using this system in which the tag encrypts its ID and then sends to the RFID reader, which will eliminate the capturing of the tag IDs and hence cloning the tags. It offers a valuable detailed database records and preference to developer and investigators. The RFID based security system could plays important role in providing sensitive environments at low cost. In future this system we can develop by using PIC and Advance technology, by installing camera. user can make it simpler and If RFID card is loss then block the service of that card and give new card immediately then we can improve the range of reader. As we know that the work of thumb registration system and the face recognition module are in progress. We will extend its security for the human beings to safe guard their valuable life from accidents. These ideas will be implemented in future.

Reference:

[1]. Chen, Chin-Ling (2012) A radio frequency identification application for car theft prevention in parking lot management systems.

[2]. Piramuthu, Selwyn (2007) Protocols for RFID tag/reader authentication, 3th edn.

[3]. Purdum, Jack (2012) Beginning C for Arduino, : Apress.

[4]. Ren, Hongwen (2005) Tunable-focus liquid lens controlled using a servo motor, 1st edn.

[5]. Taneja, Kriti (2017) Automatic irrigation system using Arduino UNO, 1st edn.,: IEEE.

[6]. Zappi, Piero (2010) Tracking Motion Direction and Distance With Pyroelectric IR Sensors, sensors journal: IEEE.

[7]. Sukhraj Singh, Neeraj Kumar, Navjot Kaur “DESIGN AND` DEVELOPMENT OF RFID BASED INTELLIGENT SECURITY SYSTEM” International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering & Technology (IJARCET) Volume 3 Issue 1, January 2014 62 ISSN: 2278 – 1323 All Rights Reserved © 2014 IJARCET

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[9]. Wen Yao, Chao-Hsien Chu and Zang Li, “The Use of RFID in Healthcare: Benefits and Barriers”, International Conference on RFIDTechnology and Applications, June 2010,pp. 128-134.

[10]. Keiichi Morishita, et al."Development of Wireless Communication Technology for ETC System”, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.Technical Review Vol.38 No.3 Oct. 2001.

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[12]. Priya Darshini .V1, Prakash.R2, Prasannabalaje.S.M3, SangeethaMoni Multi-Level Security for Automotive–RFID Based Technology with Lab VIEW Implementation International Journal of Advanced Computer Research (ISSN (print): 2249-7277 ISSN (online): 2277- 7970) Volume-3 Number-1 Issue-9 March-2013 36.

[13]. Hazura H., Mardiana B., Fauziyah S., Zahariah M.,Hanim A.R., Siti Normi.Z, “RFID Based Laboratory Management System”, ICCTD.2009, pp.289-291.

[14]. G. Ostojic, S. Stankovski, and M. Lazarevic, “Implementation of RFID technology in parking lot access control system,” in Proc. Annual RFID Eurasia Conference, 2007, pp. 1-5.

[15]. E. Borreguero, C. H. Tan, X. Zhang, L. Pinel, J. S. Ng, “Preliminary results of feasibility of self-calibration of silicon pn photodiodes at room temperature using temperature sensors”, Optica Pura y Aplicada Vol. 51, pp. 22-23, 2018