Primates of the Far Eastern Himalaya

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 1 2 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA This book is dedicated to generations of conservationists who have fought to preserve wildlife and their habitats in the face of ever-increasing pressures.

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 3 Copyright © 2021 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial, No Derivatives 4.0 Published by International License International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Note ISBN 978-92-9115-944-4 (print) This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part 978-92-9115-945-1 (online) and in any form for educational or nonprofit purposes Production team without special permission from the copyright holder, Samuel Thomas (Senior editor) provided acknowledgement of the source is made. Rachana Chettri (Editor) ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any Sudip Kumar Maharjan (Graphic designer) publication that uses this publication as a source. No Kabir Uddin (Geospatial and Remote Sensing specialist) use of this publication may be made for resale or for any Jitendra Raj Bajracharya (Photo editor) other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior Anil Kumar Jha (Editorial assistance) permission in writing from ICIMOD. The views and interpretations in this publication are Cover photo those of the author(s). They are not attributable to Peng Jiansheng () ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion Citation concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city ICIMOD (2021). Primates of the Far Eastern Himalaya. International Centre for Integrated or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation Mountain Development. of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. This publication is available in electronic form at www.icimod.org/himaldoc Primates of the Far Eastern Himalaya

Nawraj Pradhan, Dilip Chetry, Frank Momberg, Lily Shrestha, Naw May Lay Thant, Huang Zhipang, Nakul Chettri, and Yi Shaoliang

Table of contents

PAGE viii PAGE i Foreword Flagship species

PAGES 1–5 PAGE ii Acknowledgments Loris

PAGES 7–37 PAGE iii About ICIMOD

PAGES 39–79 PAGE iv Landscape Initiative for the Far Eastern Langurs Himalaya (HI-LIFE) PAGES 81–98

PAGE v Global status of primates PAGE 99

PAGE vi Conservation to policy actions: About primates Species discovery to protection (China)

PAGE 100 PAGE vii Primates in the myths, folklore, and cultural Status of primates in Far Eastern practices of the region Himalaya PAGE 104 Challenges and opportunities for transboundary collaboration

PAGE 105 About the authors

PAGE 106 Photographers

PAGES 107–108 Notes

PAGES 109–113 References

PAGE 114 Partners Foreword

The Far Eastern Himalaya Landscape, situated at the confluence of three globally important biodiversity hotspots, is a vast area stretching from northwest Yunnan of China, through northern , to northeast . It is home to a number of unique and endemic species, including some that have been discovered in recent years.

Our Landscape Initiative for the Far Eastern Himalaya (HI-LIFE), implemented with national partners in China, India, and Myanmar, aims to promote transboundary collaboration for more effective conservation of biodiversity, including primates, which are key species in the landscape. HI-LIFE works with and supports research institutions, protected area managers, forest departments, conservation organizations, and local communities to enhance conservation outcomes through academic exchange, joint conservation management, experience and information sharing, and co-development of knowledge products. It also works to raise general awareness on the need for biodiversity conservation and for greater and more effective transboundary collaboration in conservation.

In 2018 and 2020, HI-LIFE supported primatologists, protected area staff, and nature photographers to participate in the biannual symposiums of the Asian Primate Society and organized specific technical sessions, training activities, and a photo contest. These activities led to the idea of developing a picture series on the primates of the Far Eastern Himalaya by drawing on the resources and expertise of the network.

This book, which features 16 primate species from the landscape, as well as information on their conservation status, is aimed at general readers and specialists alike. It is hoped that readers will appreciate the diversity and beauty of the primates in the region, be informed of key aspects of their ecology, their place in the ecosystems and in folklore, the threats to their survival, and ongoing conservation efforts.

I hope that these remarkable images will make us pause and reflect on the biological richness of the Far Eastern Himalaya and the need to enhance conservation efforts, especially in transboundary landscapes. The recent discoveries also remind us of how little we know of the biodiversity and the need for more surveys, research, and conservation action. The danger is that we may be losing species even before we may have discovered and described them.

Happy reading!

Pema Gyamtsho Director General, ICIMOD

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA i Acknowledgments

This photobook is a joint effort of the HI-LIFE team and its national partners in China, India, and Myanmar, and made possible by the generous contributions of many photographers, primatologists, and conservation professionals working in the Far Eastern Himalaya landscape.

We sincerely thank the following photographers for allowing us the free use of their wonderful images: Awadhesh Kumar, Wang Bin, Binanda Hatibarua, Bi Zheng, Bidyut Sarania, Chen Yixin, Chirantanu Saika, Diana Amonge, Dilip Chetry, Dong Lei, Dong Shaohua, Gao Ge, Iftiaque Hussain, Peng Jiansheng, Laurie Hedges, Li Jiahong, Liao Shiqing, Huang Zhipang, Min Hein Htike, Ngwe Lwin, Nabajit Das, Nandini Velho, Nu Tao, Phub Dorji, Randall Kyes, Rubjyoti Rabha, Sabit Hassan, Udayan Borthakur, and Yi Zhilin. Their photographs are the heart and soul of this book and their passion for nature and wildlife is truly inspiring. Our thanks are also due to the photographers whose images we accessed from Shutterstock.com – Conservationist, Don Mammoser, Ezaz Ahmed, Fabio Nodari, Teekayu, and Wang Liqiang.

We thank the following researchers for contributing to the text and descriptions: Fan Pengfei, Lwin Ngwe, Aung KoLin, Aung Lin, Min Hein Htike, Liu Rongkun, Randall Kyes, Nabajit Das, Yan Lu, and Yang Yin. We are extremely grateful to them for their review and inputs. We are also grateful to Bandana Shakya, ICIMOD; Min Hein Htike, Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar; Nabajit Das, Primate Research Centre, ; and Diana Amonge, GBNIHE, North East Regional Centre, India, for their support.

We thank the following institutions for their support: Aaranyak, India; Fauna and Flora International, Myanmar; Wildlife Conservation Society, Myanmar; Dali University, China; and the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Switzerland for their coordination and support. We thank Parimal Chandra Bhattacharjee (India) for reviewing our initial drafts. His insightful inputs greatly helped improve the book and strengthen its content.

We are greatly indebted to all our ICIMOD colleagues who helped refine and shape this book, and thank HI-LIFE national partners for their support in programme implementation: Kunming Institute of Botany and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; GB Pant National Institute for Himalayan Environment (North East Regional Centre), India; and Forestry Directorate of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation (MONREC), Myanmar.

ii PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA About ICIMOD

ICIMOD is a regional knowledge development and learning centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalization and climate change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain people. We aim to assist mountain people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the most of new opportunities, while addressing upstream and downstream issues. We support regional transboundary programmes through partnerships with regional partner institutions, facilitate the exchange of experiences, and serve as a regional knowledge hub. We strengthen networking among regional and global centres of excellence. Overall, we are working to develop economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystems to improve the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem services for the nearly two billion people living in the mountains and downstream – now and in the future.

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA iii Landscape Initiative for the Far Eastern Himalaya

The Landscape Initiative for the Far Eastern Himalaya (HI-LIFE) is a regional conservation and development initiative jointly implemented by ICIMOD and partners in China, India, and Myanmar in the Far Eastern Himalaya. The landscape, spread over 71,000 square kilometres, runs from the Nujiang–Gaoligongshan range of China, through northern Myanmar to Changlang district of northeast India. The landscape is at the confluence of three global biodiversity hotspots: the Indo-Burma, the Himalaya, and the Mountains of Southwest China, and is an important area for conservation. Over 50% of the landscape is under various protected area (PA) categories. Some of the major PAs are the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve in China; the Hkakaborazi National Park, Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary in Myanmar; and the Namdapha National Park and Tiger Reserve in India. The newly designated Imumbum National Park of Myanmar is directly adjacent to the landscape.

HI-LIFE aims to ensure the sustainability of landscapes using the principles of landscape ecology, corridor connectivity, and ecosystems restoration, and to find innovative nature-based The Far Eastern Himalaya landscape solutions to manage the complex social and ecological systems The Hindu Kush Himalaya region across borders. It emphasizes the importance of promoting the transboundary landscape approach to generate both ecosystem and livelihood co-outcomes, thus balancing the objectives of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

iv PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Global status of primates

As the closest relatives of Homo sapiens on Earth, non- primates occupy a unique place in the imagination of our own primate species. Primates originated sometime in the Cretaceous period1-4 and over the course of their evolutionary history, they have developed not only an immense species diversity, but also a remarkable diversity in phenotype, behaviour, and adaptability. 5, 6

The global primate population is found mostly in the tropical regions (between 23ºN and 23ºS). It is estimated that ecosystem damage from human-induced factors and impacts from global climate change are most severe in these regions. The recent Intergovernmental Science–Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report indicates an alarming trend of global biodiversity loss, with one million species threatened with extinction worldwide. Many primates face this threat of extinction.

Primates are the third most diverse of , after rodents and bats. They are distributed in 91 countries, with some 512 species found in the tropical to subtropical forests in South America, Central Africa, Madagascar, South Asia, and South East Asia.7 However, the September 2020 tally of the IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Primate Specialist Group lists 502 species, 716 subspecies and 80 genera of primates.8 More specifically, for primates in general, species richness at broad macro-ecological scales has been shown to be positively associated with rainfall.9, 10

Primates are known for their ecological function as they use diverse resources such as fruits, leaves, flowers, invertebrates, and also fungi.11 They play an important role in the complex networks of interactions among plant and species in forest ecosystems.10 Thus, an understanding of the species distribution, as well as the structure of primate communities in different habitat types and conditions is important for developing conservation strategies, not only for primates but also for the broader network of species with which they interact.10

Almost every primate research has indicated that human activities have contributed to the impending extinction crisis, driven by extensive habitat loss, land use change, and hunting around the world and in the Far Eastern Himalaya.7, 10, 12-22 Some studies have also indicated the urgency with which climate change mitigation measures need to be implemented to avert primate extinctions.22

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA v About primates

IUCN Red List (2020) reports 65% of primate species are now threatened with extinction Unique insights into human Human activities are , biology, and behaviour Ecosystem threatening primates engineers: Perform around the world. ecological functions Forest degradation, and services through fragmentation, and seed dispersal and Roughly destruction of forest pollination, and so habitat; hunting contribute to forest and the regeneration trade; agricultural encroachment; biomedical research; and the use of 70% primate body parts in of species have declining traditional medicine are populations major factors.

Provide insights into threats of emerging disease

vi PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Status of primates in the Far Eastern Himalaya

The Far Eastern Himalaya is known to have one of the highest levels of diversity in the world and is a meeting point for three global biodiversity hotspots – the Himalaya, the Indo-Burma, and the Mountains of Southwest China. In terms of species diversity and endemism, the landscape is one of the most biologically important places on earth.23, 24 It has been hailed by botanists as the ‘Epicentre of Evolution’, ‘Centre of Plant Diversity’ and ‘Eastern Asiatic Regional Centre for Endemism’.

Non-human primates are an integral component of the amazing and unique biodiversity of the Far Eastern Himalaya, with as many as 16 species recorded from the landscape. These include: Bengal slow loris, eastern hoolock , western , Skywalker hoolock gibbon, Shortridge’s langur, Gee’s golden langur, Phayre’s leaf , capped langur, Myanmar snub-nosed monkey, black and white snub-nosed monkey, Assamese , northern pig-tailed macaque, stump-tailed macaque, Arunachal macaque, rhesus macaque, and white-cheeked macaque. The golden langur has been on the list of the world’s 25 most endangered primates since 2016.25, 26 Significantly, two of these 16 primates (white-cheeked macaque and Skywalker hoolock gibbon) were discovered and described only in the last decade.27-29 Thirteen are listed in various threatened categories of the IUCN Red List (2020) with one – the Myanmar snub- nosed monkey – listed as Critically Endangered (CR), eight Endangered (EN), and four Vulnerable (VU).

Most primates in the Far Eastern Himalaya – ranging from Bhutan, northeast India, to northern Myanmar and southwest China – have shown a declining trend.13, 15-17, 20, 30, 31 Species such as the capped langur have lost up to a third of their habitat in since the 1980s due to tree felling and encroachment.20

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA vii Flagship species CHINA

Primates can act as flagship species and rallying symbols for conservation efforts. With many primates now threatened with extinction and many species only persisting in small and isolated populations in forest fragments, conservation action is urgently needed at the landscape level. Restoring and connecting primate habitats must be integral to NEPAL all conservation strategies in the region.

Here we present species that are iconic to the landscape and emblematic of the scale and complexity of conservation efforts needed to save them from extinction.

INDIA

Hoolock gibbons

The genus Hoolock is represented by three species: western hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock), (Hoolock leuconedys), and Skywalker hoolock gibbon (Hoolock tianxing).

Populations of the western hoolock gibbon have declined in India and in Bangladesh over the past three decades, and in Myanmar, human activities have fragmented their habitats.13, 18, 32-34 Similar is the case with the eastern hoolock gibbon in parts of India and Myanmar, where commercial and illegal logging, construction of large dams, traditional hunting, and agricultural encroachment have resulted in the destruction and fragmentation of gibbon habitat.15, 35, 36 The recently discovered Skywalker hoolock gibbon, found in China and Myanmar, also faces a similar set of anthropogenic threats.29 N

Western hoolock gibbon Eastern hoolock gibbon (Hoolock hoolock) (Hoolock leuconedys) CHINA

BHUTAN

INDIA Myanmar snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri

Due to its limited geographic distribution, small population size and relatively long life history, Rhinopithecus strykeri is highly vulnerable to environmental changes. Their demographic distribution and relatively low genomic diversity also predispose them BANGLADESH to a high risk of extinction. Such populations are less adaptable to environmental changes. Researchers have estimated a projected population reduction of more than 80% for this highly threatened species.37, 38

The main drivers of change and decline in population are due to development activities across its range. For instance, the presence of logging and construction camps Skywalker hoolock gibbon in Myanmar has increased demand for bush meat and 38 (Hoolock tianxing) wildlife trade. Extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and medicinal plants and forest destruction also have tremendous impacts on habitat.39 Primary forests MYANMAR have been logged and degraded up to some of the highest mountain peaks.38, 40 Climate change is another threat as it could alter habitat suitability and diminish the carrying capacity of currently inhabited areas.

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA ix

LORIS Bengal slow loris

Scientific name: Nycticebus bengalensis Scientific name authorship: Lacépède, 1800 Distribution: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, , and Vietnam Elevation limit: 0–2400 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Solitary

CHINA NEPAL Habitat: Tropical evergreen rainforests and semi-evergreen and PAKISTAN BHUTAN mixed deciduous forests INDIA INDIA Ecology: Nocturnal, arboreal, and gumivorous BANGLADESH Population: Decreasing (more than 50% reduction in population MYANMAR over three generations; very low densities and severely reduced) Threats in landscape: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation due to slash and burn cultivation, expansion of tea plantations, illegal logging, illegal hunting, road accidents, forest fires, and linear infrastructure cutting across habitats

Narrative: The Bengal slow loris is a solitary and nocturnal primate species endemic to Southeast Asia, and is the biggest among all nine slow loris species. They sleep during the day, curled up in tree hollows, crevices, or simply along a branch. Lorises are the only venomous primates. The Bengal slow loris HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION (and all slow loris species) can deliver a toxic bite to defend themselves from predators and to stun their prey when hunting. A bite could result in serious illness and even prove fatal if it causes an allergic reaction.

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE EXTINCT EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD

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2 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Conservationist/Shutterstock.com

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 3 Photo: Nabajit Das

4 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Sabit Hasan

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 5

MACAQUES Assamese macaque

Scientific name: Macaca assamensis Scientific name authorship: M’Clelland, 1840 Distribution: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 200–3100 masl

Groups of 2–50, multimale–multifemale CHINA Social structure: NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA INDIA Habitat: Dense deciduous and semi-evergreen forests – both on flat plains and hills – and agricultural land BANGLADESH MYANMAR Ecology: Diurnal, omnivorous, and arboreal Population: Decreasing (decline in wild populations in certain countries; in Nepal, less than 300 mature individuals) Threats in landscape: Habitat destruction by logging, encroachment, and slash and burn cultivation; monoculture forest plantations; Illegal hunting and trade; human–monkey conflict

Narrative: The Assamese macaque shares a close physical resemblance with the rhesus macaque. Some of the traits of this species include rough and dirty looking hair, quadrupedal locomotion, larger males than females, and mothers carrying infants HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION only ventrally. In the Tukreswari Temple in Goalpara district of Assam, India, they enjoy a special status and the temple priest makes regular offerings to them.

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX NT

8 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Dilip Chetry

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 9 Photo: Udayan Borthakur

10 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 11 Photo: Dilip Chetry

Photo: Udayan Borthakur

12 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Dilip Chetry

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 13 Arunachal macaque

Scientific name: Macaca munzala Scientific name authorship: Madhusudan & Mishra, 2005 Distribution: India

Elevation limit: 2000–3500 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Groups of 2–36, multimale–multifemale

CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN Habitat: Subtropical and temperate forest, human-inhabited BHUTAN landscapes, degraded broadleaf forest, degraded open INDIA INDIA scrub forest, agricultural areas, undisturbed oak forest, and BANGLADESH undisturbed coniferous forest MYANMAR Ecology: Predominantly herbivorous; mostly terrestrial Population: Decreasing (about 600 individuals, with <250 mature individuals; found in no more than 5 locations) Threats in landscape: Hunting for meat and use in traditional medicine; human–monkey conflict

Narrative: Native to in northeast India, Arunachal macaques were first described in 2005. They live exclusively in the high altitudes ranging from 2000–3500 masl. They have a large and broad body with long arms and legs and HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION a relatively short tail. They are terrestrial during the day and arboreal at night. They come into conflict with as they raid crops as well as kitchens and granaries.

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14 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Bidyut Sarania

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 15 Photo: Bidyut Sarania

16 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Camera trap image: Nandini Velho

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 17 Northern pig-tailed macaque

Scientific name: Macaca leonina Scientific name authorship: Blyth, 1863 Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 50–2000 masl

Social structure: Groups of 2–35, multimale–multifemale CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA Habitat: Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, tropical INDIA

wet evergreen forest, tropical moist deciduous forest, coastal BANGLADESH forest, swamp forest, low-elevation pine forest, and montane MYANMAR forest, including degraded forest Ecology: Diurnal, predominantly arboreal, and omnivorous Population: Decreasing (suspected to have declined by over 30% over the last three generations; in China, less than 1700 individuals; population declining rapidly) Threats in landscape: Habitat destruction due to logging and encroachment for agriculture; Illegal hunting; human–monkey conflict

Narrative: The northern pig-tailed macaque is an omnivorous HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION primate species, living both in the high canopy as well as the forest floor across southeastern Asia, with the Brahmaputra River forming the northwestern boundary of the distribution range. It has a deep-parted, dark cap of short hair and a short, naked erect

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT tail, slightly curled at the tip, which gives it the name of “pig tailed EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED VULNERABLE ENDANGERED IN THE WILD monkey”. It is the most common primate pet in the Myanmar NE DD LC NT VU VU EN CR EW EX countryside, often domesticated as a companion for children. They raid vegetable gardens, crop fields, and villages across their range.

18 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 19 20 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Randall Kyes

Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 21 Photo: Teekayu/Shutterstock.com

22 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Camera trap image: FFI Myanmar

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 23 Rhesus macaque

Scientific name: Macaca mulatta Scientific name authorship: Zimmermann, 1780 Distribution: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, AFGHANISTAN CHINA and Vietnam Elevation limit: 0–4000 masl CHINA Social structure: Groups of 2–250; multimale–multifemale NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA INDIA Habitat: A wide range of habitats, from dry deciduous to Himalayan moist temperate forests, mangroves, shrub land, savannah, and BANGLADESH MYANMAR human-dominated areas Ecology: Diurnal, alternatively arboreal and terrestrial, mostly herbivorous Population: Unknown (widely distributed in South, Southeast, and East Asia); in India, the forest population is declining Threats in landscape: Illegal hunting and trade; habitat destruction by logging, encroachment, slash and burn cultivation, and monoculture forest plantations; human–monkey conflict; predation by dogs, and capture as pets

HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION Narrative: The rhesus macaque is a clever, adaptable, resilient, and tough native to South, Central, and Southeast Asia. Humans are the only other primate with a wider geographic range than them. They are well adapted to human presence and are

found in larger groups in human-dominated landscapes than in their NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD natural habitats. They raid houses, crop fields, shops, and temples. NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX There are lots of temple populations of rhesus macaque in India and Nepal.

24 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: DonDPS/Shutterstock.com Mammoser/Shutterstock.com

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 25 Photo: Udayan Borthakur

26 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Randall Kyes

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 27 Stump-tailed macaque

Scientific name: Macaca arctoides Scientific name authorship: Geoffroy, 1831 Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 50–2800 masl

Social structure: Groups of 2–230, multimale–multifemale CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA Habitat: Tropical semi-evergreen forest to tropical wet evergreen INDIA forest and tropical, moist deciduous forest; prefers dense BANGLADESH evergreen forests; also reported from lowland semi-evergreen MYANMAR forests to monsoon and montane forests Ecology: Diurnal and terrestrial, and primarily omnivorous Population: Decreasing (projected decline by at least 30% over three generations or 40 years; populations in South Asia and Myanmar are few and fragmented) Threats in landscape: Habitat destruction due to commercial logging, slash and burn cultivation, monoculture plantations, and encroachment; hunting; human–monkey conflict

Narrative: Stump-tailed macaques are diurnal and omnivorous HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION primates distributed in the tropical and subtropical evergreen forests of Southeast Asia. They have an important ecological role as seed dispersers. The common name of the species comes from its extraordinarily short, stumpy hairless tail. Another notable

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT feature of this macaque is that the newborns are milky or creamy EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED VULNERABLE ENDANGERED IN THE WILD white in colour, unlike their adult counterparts. They have very NE DD LC NT VU VU EN CR EW EX strong selectivity for lodging trees.

28 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Dilip Chetry

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 29 Photo: Dilip Chetry Photo: Udayan Borthakur

30 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Dilip Chetry

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 31 Photo: Randall Kyes

32 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 33 White-cheeked macaque

Scientific name: Macaca leucogenys Scientific name authorship: Li, Zhao & Fan, 2015 Distribution: China and India Discovered: 2015 AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 1395–2700 masl Social structure: Groups of 2–25, multimale–multifemale CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN Habitat: Tropical forests to primary and secondary evergreen BHUTAN INDIA broad-leaved forests and mixed broadleaf–conifer forests INDIA

Ecology: Diurnal, omnivorous, and arboreal BANGLADESH Population: NA MYANMAR Threats in landscape: Hunting for meat and medicine, deforestation for agricultural practices, and increased human development of its habitat

Narrative: White-cheeked macaques are only found in Metok (Motuo) county in southeastern Autonomous Region, China and Anjaw district of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. Li and team first described them in 2015. They differ from the closely related Assamese macaque in having prominent whiskers, thicker neck hair, relatively uniform dorsal hair pattern, hairless HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION short tail, and shape of genitalia.

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34 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 35 Photo: Binanda Hatibarua

36 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 37

LANGURS Black and white snub-nosed monkey

Scientific name: Rhinopithecus bieti Scientific name authorship: Milne-Edwards, 1897

Distribution: China AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 3000–4700 masl

CHINA Social structure: Groups of 2–20, multimale–multifemale NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA Habitat: High-altitude evergreen forest; prefers fir-larch forest and INDIA cypress forest BANGLADESH MYANMAR Ecology: Diurnal, arboreal, terrestrial, and herbivorous Population: Stable (likely declined by at least 50% over the last three generations; total population of 2000 with less than 1000 mature individuals) Threats in landscape: Habitat destruction due to timber and NTFP extraction, economic activities inside the forest, hunting, and trapping

Narrative: Black and white snub-nosed monkey are also referred to as Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys; this is mainly because HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION they are only found in the trans-Himalaya region of the Yunnan province in China, making them the only non-human primate species that lives at high altitudes of 3000–4700 masl and in temperatures below zero degrees centigrade. They are one of the

most protected species in China. They seldom come down to the NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE EXTINCT EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD

ground and usually just jump from one canopy to another, even NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX following the same canopy routes and using the same trees to jump from.

40 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Wang Liqiang/Shutterstock.com

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 41 Photo: Peng Jiansheng Photo: Peng Jiansheng

42 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Peng Jiansheng

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 43 Photo: Fabio Nodari/Shutterstock.com

44 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Peng Jiansheng

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 45 Photo: Peng Jiansheng

46 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Peng Jiansheng

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 47 Photo: Peng Jiansheng

48 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Conservation of The black and white snub-nosed monkey or tourism resorts. Starting from 1998, a long-term (Rhinopithecus bieti), mostly referred to as the ban on logging from natural forests, the main black and white Yunnan golden hair monkey in Chinese articles, is habitat of the species, was imposed. The use of the distributed only in a narrow strip of about 20,000 black and white snub-nosed monkey as the mascot snub-nosed square kilometres along the Yunling Mountain for the Kunming International Horticulture Expo Range between the Mekong River and the Upper in 1999 also greatly promoted public awareness of monkey Yangtze (Jingshajiang) River at the junction of Tibet the species and its conservation. In 2003, a major and Yunnan. Its current population is estimated to chunk of the primate’s habitat was included in the be around 3500 individuals in 24 groups. core zone of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas World Heritage Site. China’s Major threats to black and white snub-nosed national spatial planning efforts designated that monkey include hunting, degradation and the area would be managed mainly for biodiversity fragmentation of habitats, and disturbance from and ecological benefits with restrictions on human activities such as farming, grazing, and development. China’s National Biodiversity Strategy tourism. The existing groups are isolated from and Action Plan and the Yunnan Biodiversity each other due to habitat discontinuity, which has Strategy and Action Plan have designed the affected genetic communication and population distribution area of the species as conservation health. priority areas. As an Endangered (EN) species on the IUCN Red Besides government departments and research List, the black and white snub-nosed monkey institutions, many civil societies, I/NGOs, and has been listed as a first-grade protected species local communities have been actively involved for strict protection in China. Since the mid- in the conservation of the black and white snub- 1980s, at least five nature reserves of national or nosed monkey and its habitat. In 2019, a network provincial levels have been gazetted for protection of partners to conserve the whole range of the of the species and its habitat. These include the species was established to share information and Mangkang Hongla National Nature Reserve resources related to patrolling, monitoring, habitat (1985) in the Tibet Autonomous Region and the conservation and restoration, scientific research, Yunlong Tianchi National Nature Reserve (1983), community co-management and development, the Baimaxueshan National Nature Reserve and public awareness building. 15 July of each (1984), the Lijiang National Forest Park (1988), and year is declared the Black and White Snub- the Yunling Nature Provincial Reserve (1998) in nosed Monkey Day. Yunnan province. Together, these protected areas cover close to 6000 square kilometres, or nearly 30% of the total habitat distribution area of the snub-nosed monkey. Besides, some areas are also protected in the form of scenic spots, forest parks,

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 49 Capped langur

Scientific name: Trachypithecus pileatus Scientific name authorship: Blyth, 1843 Distribution: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, and India

Elevation limit: 10–3000 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Troops of 2–16, uni-male and multimale

CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN Habitat: Subtropical evergreen, broadleaf, deciduous, and BHUTAN INDIA bamboo forests INDIA

Ecology: Diurnal, predominantly arboreal, and folivorous BANGLADESH MYANMAR Population: Decreasing (declined by more than 30% in the last three generations) Threats in landscape: Destruction of forest habitat for fuel wood collection and timber extraction, forest encroachment for slash and burn cultivation and tea plantations, and illegal hunting for meat and trade

Narrative: Capped langurs are found in the forests of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, and northeast India; they have been recently reported from China. These langurs have orange- to buff- coloured bodies and black faces and a tuft of dark hair on the HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION forehead, which resembles a cap. Unlike some other primates, which use their arms to swing from tree to tree, capped langurs use all four limbs to move through high branches. They squeal and have a guttural bark.

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50 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Randall Kyes

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 51 Photo: Udayan Borthakur

52 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Awadhesh Kumar

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 53 Photo: Randall Kyes

54 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Rupjyoti Rabha

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 55 Gee’s golden langur

Scientific name: Trachypithecus geei Scientific name authorship: Khajuria, 1956 Distribution: Bhutan and India

Elevation limit: 50–3000 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Troops of 2 to 35, uni-male and multimale

CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN Habitat: Moist evergreen, dipterocarp, riverine, and moist deciduous BHUTAN INDIA forests and occasionally degraded habitats with secondary growth INDIA

Ecology: Diurnal, arboreal, and folivorous BANGLADESH MYANMAR Population: Decreasing; around 6000 individuals in India and around 2516 individuals in Bhutan Threats in landscape: Rapid habitat loss and degradation due to illegal logging, collection of firewood and non-timber forest products, encroachment, slash and burn cultivation, mining, and construction of roads and utility lines; predation by domestic dogs

Narrative: The golden langur is a beautiful and charismatic species. It was discovered by naturalist EP Gee in 1953 and found to be restricted to a small region of western Assam in India and the adjoining foothills of Bhutan. The langur does not raid crops and HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION is considered a good omen when sighted on a journey. They are creamy to off-white coloured in the non-breeding season and golden orange or deep golden during the breeding season. They are fond of rock salt enriched with minerals, and are seen hanging on rocky cliffs

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE EXTINCT eating salt in Bhutan. In India, apart from leaves, they have been EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD recorded eating arum, Dioscorea species, gum, algae, and snails. NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX

56 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Iftiaque Hussain

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 57 Photo: Phub Dorji

58 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Phub Dorji

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 59 Photo: Chirantanu Saikia

60 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 61 Myanmar snub-nosed monkey

Scientific name: Rhinopithecus strykeri Scientific name authorship: Geissmann, Ngwe Lwin, Saw Soe Aung, Thet Naing Aung, Zin Myo Aung, Tony Htin Hla, Grindley & Momberg, 2011

Distribution: China and Myanmar AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 1720–3300 masl

Social structure: Multilevel with uni-male–multifemale units and CHINA NEPAL all-male units PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA INDIA Habitat: Cool temperate rain forest and mixed temperate forest; BANGLADESH humid, broadleaf evergreen forest at the lower elevations, mixed MYANMAR broadleaf-coniferous forest at mid-altitude, and coniferous and bamboo forests and alpine scrub at the highest elevation Ecology: Predominantly folivorous Population: Decreasing (projected to decline by more than 80% over a three-generation period; 350–450 mature individuals only) Threats in landscape: Deforestation and forest degradation and fragmentation due to logging and road construction; hunting for food and traditional medicine and international wildlife trade; NTFP extraction and dam construction; other intrinsic factors such as limited geographical distribution, small population size, and relatively long life history HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION

Narrative: Also known as black snub-nosed monkey, they were discovered in the field in 2010 from northeastern Kachin state, Myanmar, and later, in the following year, from the Gaoligong Shan

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT mountains of Yunnan. They are geographically isolated from the EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD black and white snub-nosed monkey by the Mekong and Salween NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX rivers. The distinguishing features are its black or blackish ventral parts, all black or blackish limbs, a white chin beard, upturned nostrils with upward facing nose, and relatively long tail.

62 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Wang Bin

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 63 Photo: Frank Momberg

64 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Wang Bin

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 65 Photo: Chen Yixin

66 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Wang Bin

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 67 Photo: Dong Shaohua

68 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA The Myanmar or black snub-nosed monkey well as on bark and lichen. Discovery of the was first discovered in the field in 2010 and The Myanmar snub-nosed monkey lives in described as a species new to science in 2011 Myanmar snub- nosed multilevel societies similar to the other four by Ngwe Lwin, a local scientist who was snub-nosed monkey species. This means leading Fauna & Flora International’s (FFI) monkey, 2010 their band is primarily composed of several gibbon surveys when he encountered a freshly uni-male–multifemale units and one or two hunted animal in a local village in northeastern all-male units. Myanmar. Local hunters told him that the monkey can be easily tracked on rainy days since it sneezes as the water trickles into its upturned nose and reveals its position. Nevertheless, it took the FFI team more than a year of intensive fieldwork to confirm the species in the wild due to the extreme remoteness and ruggedness of the Imawbum Mountain Range. In the following year, Chinese scientists also confirmed its presence in the adjacent forests of Yunnan province. Due to the constant threat of hunting and the steep terrain it proved difficult to habituate and study the animal. Despite many years of fieldwork only two groups in China, the Luoma and Pianma bands, have been semi-habituated to study the ecology and behaviour of the species in the wild. The Myanmar snub-nosed monkey inhabits the mountain forests of the Imawbum and Gaoligong Shan at altitudes between 1720 and 3300 masl. According to the altitudinal gradient, the vegetation ranges from evergreen broadleaf forest to temperate coniferous forest. It feeds on leaves, buds, flowers and seeds, as

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 69 Phayre’s leaf monkey

Scientific name: Trachypithecus phayrei Scientific name authorship: Blyth, 1847 Distribution: Bangladesh, China, India, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 15–1100 masl Social structure: Troops of 2–30 individuals, uni-male–multimale CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA Habitat: Primary and secondary semi-evergreen, mixed INDIA deciduous forest, bamboo-dominated areas, light woodlands, BANGLADESH and land peripheral to tea plantations MYANMAR Ecology: Diurnal, arboreal, and folivorous Population: Decreasing (declined by more than 50% in the last three generations) Threats in landscape: Habitat destruction due to logging, encroachment, slash and burn cultivation, and monoculture forest plantation; hunting and trade in wildlife parts

Narrative: This is an Old World monkey native to southeast Asia – from India to Vietnam. It is also called the spectacled monkey because of the white eye patches that stand out on its black HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION face. Recent species-level phylogeny of the genus has resulted in the elevation of the two known subspecies to species level, the renaming of one of them, the description of a new species (T. popa), and largely refined distributional ranges for all three species.

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70 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Ezaz Ahmed Evan/Shutterstock.com

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 71 Photo: Nu Tao

72 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Li Jiahong

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 73 Photo: Gao Ge

74 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Nu Tao

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 75 Shortridge’s langur

Scientific name: Trachypithecus shortridgei Scientific name authorship: Wroughton, 1915 Distribution: China and Myanmar Elevation limit: 200–2500 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Troops of 2 to 10, uni-male and multimale

CHINA Habitat: Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests NEPAL PAKISTAN Ecology: Diurnal, arboreal, and folivorous BHUTAN INDIA Population: Decreasing (declined by at least 50% in the last three INDIA

generations) BANGLADESH Threats in landscape: Forest habitat loss and destruction due MYANMAR to illegal logging, deforestation for agriculture and timber, and extraction of non-timber forest products; hunting and trapping for food and trade

Narrative: Shortridge’s langur is a colobine primate species that is distributed east of the Chindwin River in northern Myanmar and southwestern China in the Nu and Dulong valleys. In Myanmar, they are usually found in bamboo forests and large shrubs and are rarely captured on camera traps as they hardly come down to the ground. This is also an adaptation strategy and alertness HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION developed over the years as they are hunted for food and use in traditional medicine.

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76 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: WCS, Myanmar

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 77 Camera trap image: Min Hein Htike

Photo: WCS, Myanmar

78 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Ngwe Lwin

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 79

GIBBONS

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 81 Eastern hoolock gibbon

Scientific name: Hoolock leuconedys Scientific name authorship: Groves, 1967 Distribution: China, India, and Myanmar

Elevation limit: 120–2700 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Paired couple or small family; ranges from 2–5 individuals CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA Habitat: Primary evergreen, scrub, and semi-deciduous hill forest INDIA and mountainous broadleaf and pine-dominated forests BANGLADESH Ecology: Forest canopy dwellers, predominantly frugivorous, MYANMAR monogamous, and territorial Population: Decreasing (expected to decline by more than 30% over the next three generations); close to half of the population decreased in Sadiya, Assam, India in 9–10 years Threats in landscape: Habitat loss, fragmentation, mining, and degradation due to commercial logging, shifting cultivation, rotational agriculture, tea plantation expansion, timber extraction, and road construction; illegal capture for trade; and hunting, both for meat and for use in traditional medicine

HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION Narrative: Hoolock leuconedys live in small family groups consisting of 2–4 members (adult male, adult female, juveniles, and infants). Sub-adults are usually driven out to form their own family. They, however, remain in close proximity to their family until they find

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE ENDANGERED EXTINCT a new partner. Their territorial range has diminished greatly due EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED VULNERABLE ENDANGERED IN THE WILD to deforestation and the loss of canopy contiguity, resulting in the NE DD LC NT VU VU EN CR EW EX overlapping of home ranges. Gibbons usually only disperse over short distances. They call and sing to defend territory or to invite a partner.

82 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 83 Photo: Diana Amonge

84 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Randall Kyes

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 85 Photo: Sabit Hasan

86 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Randall Kyes

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 87 Western hoolock gibbon

Scientific name: Hoolock hoolock Scientific name authorship: Harlan, 1834 Distribution: Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar

Elevation limit: 50–2500 masl AFGHANISTAN CHINA Social structure: Paired couple or small family, ranges from 2–5 individuals CHINA NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN

Habitat: Tropical evergreen rainforest, tropical evergreen and INDIA BANGLADESH semi-evergreen forests, tropical mixed deciduous and subtropical

broadleaf hill forests, and bamboo forests and hillocks MYANMAR Ecology: Forest canopy dwellers, frugivorous, monogamous, and territorial Population: Decreasing (suspected to decline at least 50% over the next three generations; in India, the population is estimated to be around ±7000 individuals) Threats in landscape: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation due to slash and burn cultivation, tea plantation expansion, extraction of NTFPs, and agricultural encroachment; hunting, both for meat and for use in traditional medicine

HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION Narrative: The western hoolock gibbon live in family groups within defined territories. Local communities have been known to “read” gibbon calls and songs at times to forecast weather conditions. In India, the extirpation of western hoolock gibbons

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE EXTINCT has been documented in 10 localities between 2002 and 2005. EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD

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88 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 89 Photo: Laurie Hedges

90 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Udayan Borthakur

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 91 Skywalker hoolock gibbon

Scientific name: Hoolock tianxing Scientific name authorship: Fan, He, Chen, Ortiz, Zhang, Zhao, Lio, Zhang, Kimock, Wang, Groves, Turvey, Roos, Helgen & Jiang, 2017 Distribution: China and Myanmar AFGHANISTAN CHINA Elevation limit: 900–2700 masl Social structure: Paired couple or small family, ranges from CHINA 2–5 individuals NEPAL PAKISTAN BHUTAN INDIA INDIA Habitat: Primary evergreen, scrub, and semi-deciduous hill forests BANGLADESH as well as mountainous broadleaf forest MYANMAR Ecology: Predominantly frugivorous, forest canopy dwellers, monogamous, and territorial Population: Decreasing (expected to decline 50% or more over the next three generations; China: less than 200 individuals in nine subpopulations; Myanmar: numbers unknown) Threats in landscape: Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss due to encroachment of forest for settlement, agriculture, and livestock grazing; illegal hunting for food, medicine, and trade; intrinsic factors: fragmented, isolated, and small population size

HKH REGION DISTRIBUTION Narrative: The Skywalker hoolock gibbon was described as a new species in 2017. It is distributed in eastern Myanmar and southwestern China. Prior to 2017, this species was known as the eastern hoolock gibbon. They are isolated from the eastern hoolock

NOT DATA LEAST NEAR CRITICALLY EXTINCT VULNERABLE EXTINCT gibbon by the Irrawaddy-N’Mai Hka River and are found east of EVALUATED DEFICIENT CONCERN THREATENED ENDANGERED ENDANGERED IN THE WILD it. Unlike Hoolock leuconedys, they have thinner eyebrow streaks NE DD LC NT VU EN CR EW EX separated by a large gap and completely black or brown beards.

92 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Bi Zheng

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 93 Photo: Liao Shiqing

94 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Yi Zhilin

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 95 Photo: Nu Tao

96 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Photo: Liao Shiqing

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 97 Photo: Dong Lei

98 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Conservation to The Skywalker hoolock gibbon (Hoolock tianxing) was bordering Myanmar. On the Myanmar side, the newly scientifically described as a new species in 2017 by a established Imawbum National Park falls within the policy actions: research team led by Fan Pengfei from Sun Yat-sen distribution range of the species. University of China and experts from the Zoological In China, a few specific studies have been carried Species discovery Society of London. The team discovered that the out on the geographical distribution, population, and hoolock gibbons living in the forests to the east of the social behaviour and food preferences of the species. to protection Irrawaddy-N’Mai Hka River, which used to be assigned Government departments, science institutes, and to Hoolock leuconedys (eastern hoolock gibbon), were (China) civil societies are also working together to conduct actually a new species. Their finding was based on a monitoring, awareness building, law enforcement, comprehensive study of the genetic characteristics patrolling and social mobilization and are facilitating of wild gibbons and museum specimens and an genetic exchanges of isolated groups. The government assessment of coat colour patterns and tooth has implemented special projects to protect wildlife of morphology. The new species was named after Luke extremely small populations. Skywalker of the Star Wars movie franchise as Fan is an avid fan of the saga. However, many populations are outside the existing protected areas. Due to lack of effective cross- Based on survey results since 2017, there are only an border collaboration and coordination, the groups estimated 200 or less Skywalker hoolock gibbons in migrating between the China–Myanmar borders China, distributed in scattered pockets of montane cannot be effectively protected. As the species is a humid or monsoon evergreen forests or tropical newly described one, its distribution, population, rainforests from 1500–2500 masl along a very and habitat conditions on the Myanmar side are narrow strip in the Gaoligongshan Mountain Range, yet to be assessed. Close cross-border collaboration roughly between the Salween River in China and between China and Myanmar is needed for a better the Irrawaddy-N’Mai Hka River in Myanmar. Low understanding of the populations, habitats, and habitat quality, human disturbance inside gibbon threats and for effective conservation. habitat, small population size, and insufficient genetic exchange among isolated groups are the main threats Researchers chose to name the the “Skywalker” to their survival. hoolock gibbon (Hoolock tianxing) in order to reflect its preferred home high in the forest canopy, as well as On the Chinese side, the Skywalker hoolock what they describe as “the historical Chinese view of gibbons are under first-grade national protection. them as almost mystical beings.” They are the major conservation targets of two official protected areas: the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve and the Tongbiguan Nature Reserve, both

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 99 Primates in the myths, Primates occupy an important place in the In the creation myth of the Garos of cultural and religious life of indigenous , it is believed that of the folklore, and cultural people in the Far Eastern Himalaya, that the Supreme Being Tatara-Rabuga including their creation stories. The created, the first was the hoolock. The practices of the region ancient lyrics of the in China Garos believe that his mission on earth refer to gibbons as the creator of the was to utter loud cries and prevent Mane universe of their ancestors. One lyric (the Earth) from sleeping and neglecting called Muguaji says: her work of productiveness. After the hoolock, the hanuman langur and the “In the very ancient times, lands were washed common brown monkey were created, with floods and water in the rivers rose sky high. followed by other beasts.42 The Old Gibbon created the universe. He created the earth and people. He created five grains Gibbons are also part of popular culture to feed the created. He is the origin of all life. in Assam. In her article on the hoolock From His creation, people started to toil, build gibbons of Borajan, a remnant tropical semi- their homes, live their life and start productive evergreen forest in Tinusukia, Kashmira activities.” 41 Kakati notes how nursery children have long been reciting this rhyme: “Holou uthil tokou Another long lyric called Genesis goes: gosot, koril khodou modou ...” (the hoolock “The Old Gibbon is the creator of the universe; climbs the Livistonia jenkinsiana palm, 43 the Wild Mouse is the inventor of things; creates a big hullabaloo...). they have created everything and they have In his work on Karbi folklore, Robindra invented everything. People danced hand in Teron writes about the myth of Tisso hand. Gradually they forgot the language of Jonding, a much-feared ape-like creature. the gibbons; they forgot the language of the Tisso is believed to be polymorphic and mouse. From them the language of people highly elusive and never appears before came into being and different dialects and human eyes though it can be heard and can languages appeared. The people He created speak fluently in the local language. The will also die. The inventor will die. While the beast is often talked of having a well-built crows were picking pine cones, the parents were body covered with thick brown hair, with eating the fruits from the trees, the Old Gibbon, eyes like a dog and walking on two legs, the Creator, died under the pine tree and the giving it the overall appearance of an ape. Inventor became old and died under the old alder tree.” 41

100 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Primates, myths, and conservation (ritualized prayer ceremony) to prevent The distribution of gibbons in India is misfortune. The person has to observe a five- limited to the seven northeastern states. day “genna” (ritual isolation and purification), Coincidentally the region also exhibits during which time he is forbidden from amazing ethnic diversity with more than 250 entering the house or consuming food tribes and sub-tribes. The close associations prepared by an Idu woman. of people with forests for generations have Miju Mishmis also consider the killing of generated some unique and interesting myths a hoolock gibbon a crime. If a man kills regarding wildlife, including the hoolock a hoolock gibbon, he has to arrange a gibbon. Some of these tribal myths are “ngaitamat” (a purification ritual) at his home. helping in the conservation of hoolock gibbon A “kambring” (priest) performs the rituals of in particular and biodiversity in general. the “ngaitamat”. The priest traditionally wears The Mishmis are one of the major tribes of a black dress and colours his eyebrows white, Arunachal Pradesh. Among them, there are emulating the appearance of the hoolock three groups: the Idu Mishmi, the Digaru gibbon. Because of this resemblance, the Miju Mishmi, and the Miju Mishmi. Each of these Mishmi people respect the hoolock gibbon. groups has its own customs and rituals. The Digaru Mishmis too have their own Mishmis adhere strongly by traditional belief creation myths built around the hoolock systems that prohibit the hunting of gibbons gibbon. According to their mythology, and, as such, have played an important role in Jabmalu the mother goddess of the Digarus the conservation of Hoolock gibbon in their gave birth to the hulu bandar (hoolock areas. gibbon) and the tiger. The Digaru Mishmis also consider hoolock gibbons inauspicious. The Idu Mishmi community in their local dialect refer to the gibbon as Ammeh-pah. The Tangsas of Arunachal Pradesh believe The Idu Mishmis believe that Awelimili, the that the hoolock gibbon is one of the most mythological Idu goddess gave birth to twins unholy among wild animals and usually never – Asojao (ancestor of humans) and Enjao hunt them. For a Tangsa hunter, it is a bad (ancestor of macaques, langurs, and ). omen to even sight a hoolock gibbon while Idus believe that hunting, killing, and eating going out hunting. This belief is so strong that the flesh of the Hoolock gibbon, or even a hunter will suspend his hunting mission touching it, is an evil. If an Idu man happens if he encounters a gibbon. Also, the Tangsa to kill a hoolock gibbon, even by mistake, he people worship the effigies of hoolock gibbon has to perform a traditional “bamuni pooja” during the time of childbirth believing that

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 101 a curse will befall the gibbon if, by chance, have traits and leadership qualities similar the unborn baby dies during delivery. It is to humans since they usually follow their generally a taboo to take the hoolock’s name leader while traveling in search of food in Tangsa villages. and resources. These communities relate the significance of the qualities of their In western Myanmar, in Chin state, people tribe leaders with those of the snub-nosed believe gibbons to be holy, mainly relating monkey. They also cope with the loss of a this to their behavioural patterns as they live in family groups, and unlike other primate leader by comparing themselves to primates species like macaques and langurs, are who undergo similar loss. Local hunters hardly seen walking on ground surfaces. have observed unique behavioural traits Killing gibbons is a taboo in Chin state. It and dynamics in snub-nosed monkey. For is believed that a person who kills a gibbon instance, when one group member is killed brings bad luck and misfortune, even death, or shot by hunters, the entire group will upon their own family. However, in other continue to flee from the habitat, following parts of Kachin state, locals say the gibbon their leader. However, if the leader is killed, is an auspicious animal and that one who the group will be disorientated and wait encounters a gibbon in the morning has a for another leader to emerge and provide lucky day to look forward to. guidance. Local communities who have closely watched these behavioural traits Gibbons normally call in the morning. Lisu assume that a leader is important for snub- hunters from Putao in Kachin state say that if nosed monkeys. you hear gibbon calls in the afternoon, it is a bad sign and that someone from the village In his work on the Garos, Major Playfair will get in trouble soon. Locals in Myanmar notes that a Garo man wears a pagri (turban) also relate gibbon calls to predicting weather. that never quite covers the top of his head. For instance, if gibbons call in the morning, A story is told in connection with this to it is believed that the weather will be clear account for the grunting noise that the for the day. There is also a belief that gibbons hoolock makes when startled. It is said that usually call more around full moon days. the animal, looking down on men’s heads, There are also some interesting folklore and sees tangled patches of hair and thinking myths concerning the Myanmar snub-nosed that few brains could be underneath such monkey. Local communities in Myanmar untidy messes calls out “huh huh” in derision believe that Myanmar snub-nosed monkeys and runs off up the tree.44

102 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Myths, landscape change, and in Senapati district of , Devi and hunting practices Radhakrishna note that many communities While it is true that many beliefs and believe that eating the brain of the rhesus everyday religious practices result in the macaque imparts strength to postnatal protection of primate populations, the women, while consuming the flesh of Bengal landscape around them is changing, with slow loris is thought to cause illness among many forests being converted, cutting off some tribal communities.47 A popular myth connectivity and creating small unviable amongst many ethnic groups concerning the habitats and isolated sub-populations. It hoolock gibbon is that hoolock individuals is also true that hunting is sanctioned in give birth to offspring every full moon many communities, leading to the decline of and die every new moon, thus continuing primate numbers. the cycle of life. The Myoko festival of the Apatani community in the Lower Subansiri Several myths and beliefs also result in district involves men from the host village the hunting of primates, exacerbating hunting a macaque and bringing it back the pressures on their populations. There to the village where its head is placed on are two such myths in the Lakher () a special altar. In parts of Kachin state in community in Saiha, that make Myanmar, locals believe that a gibbon’s blood the gibbon particularly vulnerable. The first and brain cure headaches and that the blood is the belief that placing the forelimbs of a is good for heart diseases. gibbon over a pregnant woman’s abdomen lessen her pains during child birth, and the second that its blood is an effective cure for blood pressure and malaria. Many Lakhers wear bracelets made of gibbon bones to prevent rheumatism, for good health, and to ward off black magic. In Mizoram, people also believe that possessing a gibbon tooth and a piece of bone will keep them safe from misfortune.45 It is claimed that smallpox does not occur where gibbons occur and that there have never been cases of smallpox in Lakher country for this reason.46

In an article on the many cultural taboos and myths concerning primate species

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 103 Challenges and Thirteen out of the 16 species described in this provide good opportunities for joint management photobook are listed in the threatened categories of key primate species (gibbons and snub-nosed opportunities for of the IUCN Red List. All the species in the HI-LIFE monkeys), which are the key conservation targets landscape are faced with similar threats: poaching of both protected areas. Similarly, the Namdapha transboundary for wildlife trade, hunting for bush meat, extremely National Park and Tiger Reserve of India and the small and often isolated populations, and habitat Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary of Myanmar also collaboration loss, degradation, and fragmentation. present opportunities for joint gibbon conservation. In fact, all the protected areas in the landscape Conservation of these species is often challenged are connected, offering great opportunities for by inadequacies in funding, law enforcement, transboundary conservation. public awareness, scientific understanding and information, institutional capacity, and sectoral It is encouraging to see that in recent years coordination. All these are further complicated there have been increasing collaborations by the fact that many of these species are often among China, India, and Myanmar in the field distributed across national borders and many of of biodiversity conservation. We hope that such the issues related to the effective conservation of regional collaborations gain more support from these species and their habitats such as poaching, the concerned governments and the public in wildlife trade, and habitat fragmentation are also all three countries. of strong transboundary nature. Conservation efforts can benefit tremendously from cross-border collaboration in research, monitoring, patrolling, forest fire management, law enforcement, habitat restoration, corridor development, management planning, and mitigation of large- scale threats such as climate change impacts and infrastructure development.

For instance, closer collaboration between China and Myanmar can help establish a holistic picture as to the population size, habitat distribution, and status and conservation gaps in relation to Skywalker hoolock gibbon and the Myanmar snub-nosed monkey, two recently described but critically endangered species. The Imumbum National Park in Myanmar and the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve of China bordering each other

104 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA About the authors

Nawraj Pradhan is a Natural Resource Management and Policy Specialist under the Ecosystem Services thematic area at ICIMOD

Dilip Chetry is Vice President and Head of Primate Research and Conservation Division at Aaranyak, India

Frank Momberg is Programme Development Director, Asia Pacific Region at Fauna & Flora International

Lily Shrestha is a Research Associate under the Ecosystem Services theme at ICIMOD

Naw May Lay Thant is National Landscape Coordinator at Wildlife Conservation Society – Myanmar Program

Huang Zhipang is an Associate Professor at the International Centre of Biodiversity and Primate Conservation, Dali University, China

Nakul Chettri is Senior Biodiversity Specialist and Programme Manager of the Transboundary Landscapes Programme at ICIMOD

Yi Shaoliang is Programme Coordinator of the Landscape Initiative for the Far Eastern Himalaya at ICIMOD

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 105 Photographers

Aung Lin – FFI, Myanmar Dong Shaohua – China Ngwe Lwin – FFI, Myanmar Awadhesh Kumar – India Frank Momberg – FFI, Myanmar Nu Tao – China Bidyut Sarania – India Gao Ge – China Peng Jiangsheng – China Binanda Hatibarua – India Huang Zhipang – China Phub Dorji – Bhutan Bi Zheng – China Iftiaque Hussain – India Randall C. Kyes – University of Washington, USA Chen Yixin – China Laurie Hedges – UK Rupjyoti Rabha – India Chirantanu Saika – India Liao Shiqing – China Sabit Hasan – Bangladesh Diana Amonge – India Li Jiahong – China Udayan Borthakur – India Dilip Chetry – India Nabajit Das – India Wang Bin – China Dong Lei – China Nandini Velho – India WCS – Myanmar Yi Zhilin – China

Shutterstock.com Conservationist Don Mammoser Ezaz Ahmed Fabio Nodari Teekayu Wang Liqiang

106 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA Notes

Global status of primates Flagship species 1. Perelman et al. 2011 32. Molur et al. 2003 2. Springer et al. 2012 33. Walker et al. 2009 3. Finstermeier et al. 2013 34. Chetry et al. 2014 4. Pozzi et al. 2014 35. Chetry et al. 2010a 5. Smuts et al. 1987 36. Chetry et al. 2012 6. Fleagle 2013 37. Geissmann et al. 2011 7. Estrada & Garber 2020 38. Meyer et al. 2017 8. Ryland et al. 2020 39. Win Myint & Ei Ei Phyo (in preparation) 9. Fleagle et al. 1999 40. Momberg & Geissmann 2010 10. Bernard et al. 2016 11. Corlett 2009 12. Srivastava 2006a Bengal slow loris (p.2) 13. Kumar et al. 2009 Map source: Nekaris et al. 2020 14. Choudhury 2009 Species information compiled from: Biswas et al. 2009; Das 2009; Radhakrishna et al. 2006 15. Fan et al. 2011 16. Browne et al. 2011 Assamese macaque (p.8) 17. Chetry & Chetry 2011 Map source: Boonratana et al. 2020a Species information compiled from: Boonratana et al. 2020a 18. Chetry et al. 2007 19. Geissmann et al. 2013 Arunachal macaque (p.14) 20. Choudhury 2014 Map source: Kumar et al. 2020 21. Maurice et al. 2019 Species information compiled from: Kumar et al. 2020; Radhakrishna et al. 2012; Quinlan 2019; Sinha et al. 2006 Status of primates in the Far Eastern Himalaya Northern pig-tailed macaque (p.18) 23. Allen et al. 2010 Map source: Boonratana et al. 2020b 24. Wester et al. 2019 Species information compiled from: Boonratana et al. 2020b 25. Chetry et al. 2017 26. Chetry et al. 2019 Rhesus macaque (p.24) 27. Li et al. 2015 Map source: Boonratana et al. 2020a 28. Chetry et al. 2015 Species information compiled from: Cabram 2019; Singh et al. 2020 29. Fan et al. 2017 Stump-tailed macaque (p.28) 30. Southwick & Siddiqui 2001 Map source: Chetry et al. 2020 31. Srivastava 2006b Species information compiled from: Chetry et al. 2020; Rao et al. 2005

PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 107 White-cheeked macaque (p.34) Eastern hoolock gibbon (p.82) Map source: Chetry et al. 2015 Map source: Brockelman & Geissmann 2019 Species information compiled from: Chetry et al. 2015; Li et al. 2015 Species information compiled from: Chetry et al. 2014; Geissmann et al. 2013; Chetry et al. 2012; Chetry et al. 2010b; Fan & Ai 2011; Gupta & Sharma 2005; Rao et al. 2010 Black snub-nosed monkey (p.40) Map source: Long et al. 2020b Western hoolock gibbon (p.88) Species information compiled from: Long et al. 2020b; Xiang et al. 2007 Map source: Brockelman et al. 2019; Species information compiled from: Brockelman et al. 2019; Ray et al. 2015; Capped langur (p.50) Geissmann et al. 2013; Chetry & Chetry 2011; Das et al. 2011; Choudhury 2009; Walker Map source: Das et al. 2008; Choudhury 2014 et al. 2009; Kumar et al. 2009; Gupta & Sharma 2005 Species information compiled from: Choudhury 2014; Biswas et al. 2009; Das et al. 2008 Skywalker hoolock gibbon (p.92) Map source: Fan et al. 2020 Gee’s golden langur (p.56) Species information compiled from: Fan et al. 2020; Fan et al. 2017; Chan et al. 2017 Map source: Das et al. 2020 Species information compiled from: Chetry & Chetry 2009; Roy & Nagarjan 2018; Primates in the myths, folklore, and cultural practices of the region Srivastava 2006b; Wangchuk 2005; Horwich 2013 41. Zhang 2018 42. Playfair 1909 Myanmar snub-nosed monkey (p.62) 43. Kakati 1999 Map source: Geissmann et al. 2020 44. Teron 2009 Species information compiled from: Meyer et al. 2017; Chi et al. 2014; Geissmann et al. 2011 45. Gupta & Sharma 2005 46. Parry 1932 Phayre’s leaf monkey (p.70) 47. Devi & Radhakrishna 2013 Map source: Bleisch et al. 2020 Species information compiled from: Bleisch et al. 2020; Dowley 2019 Recent species-level phylogeny of the genus Trachypithecus has resulted in the elevation of the two known subspecies of the Phayre’s leaf monkey to species level, the renaming of one of them, the description of a new species (T. popa), and largely refined distributional ranges for all three species (T. phayrei {west of Irrawaddy/ Chindwin in Myanmar, Bangladesh and India), T. popa {lowland between Irrawaddy and Salween}, T. melamera {highland between Irrawaddy and Salween}). Please note that T. melamera is a highland species on the Shan Plateau, included in the Eastern Himalayan region, while the newly described T. popa is a lowland species.

Shortridge’s langur (p.76) Map source: WCS Myanmar (unpublished). Species information compiled from: Long et al. 2020a; Cui et al. 2016; Rao et al. 2011

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PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA 113 Partners

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114 PRIMATES OF THE FAR EASTERN HIMALAYA

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