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“Toronto 18” Jeremy D. Kowalski a Dissertation Submitt In and Out of Place: Islamitic Domestic Extremism and the Case of the “Toronto 18” Jeremy D. Kowalski A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Geography York University Toronto, Ontario May 2014 ©Jeremy D. Kowalski, 2014 ii Abstract In the aftermath of the tragic events of 11 September 2001 a veritable cornucopia of formal, practical, and popular materials have emerged that offer analyses of various dimensions of the phenomenon of Islamitic extremism. Unfortunately, despite the voluminous amount of analytical capital and resources expended, significant advances in our collective understanding of this phenomenon continue to be elusive. This situation is certainly evident when one surveys the current literature available that focuses on the processes of Islamitic extremization. To date, the predominant focus of this important research has been on the micro social relations and structures that make the development of particular subjectivities probable. Although this mode of inquiry is valuable, there is a danger in overly subjectivizing the process of extremization. As demonstrated through an analysis of the so-called Toronto 18—a group of Islamitic social actors apprehended in June, 2006, for activities that contravened the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA)—macro social relations and structures served a significant function in creating the conditions through which the process of extremization becomes probable. In the context of this analysis, the macro social relations and structures that made the ideological conditioning and political transformation of these Islamitic social actors probable include, what is referred to as, the following spheres of influence: Transnational, State, and Group. In effect, these spheres of influence formed a network of scales that converged and condensed in the place-specific context of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) and facilitated the transgression of some of the actors involved from a Dominant to a Subversive discursive formation and concomitant field of action and practice. However, to develop a greater appreciation for the context within which these processes took place required not only a re-evaluation of the conceptual and terminological tools used to apprehend this phenomenon, but an analysis of the historical processes and forces that made the emergence of particular discursive formations possible. If a comprehensive understanding of the processes of extremization are to be reached and effective counter- terrorism policies developed, the macro social relations and structures that make the emergence of particular extremist subjectivities probable need to be given greater consideration. Ignoring these relations and structures will potentially result in the continuation of counter-productive anti-terrorism policies and counter-terrorism practices which contribute to the oxygen of violence rather than facilitating the de-escalation of extremist activities. iii Acknowledgements The novelist Iris Murdoch once stated, “Writing is like getting married. One should never commit oneself until one is amazed at one’s luck.” As fortune would have it, I stand amazed at my own luck with respect to my doctoral committee. And so, it is with sincere gratitude that I thank my supervisor, Dr. William Jenkins, and my other two committee members, Dr. Sabah Alnasseri and Dr. Valerie Preston, for both individually and collectively supporting and mentoring me throughout the research and writing process. I am honoured to have learned from them. I would also like to thank the chair of my defence, Dr. Raju Das, for his leadership throughout the defence process and for his sage questions and insights. Similarly, I would like to extend my warmest appreciation to my internal-external examiner, Dr. Robert Latham, and my external-external examiner, Dr. Colin Flint, for their probing erudition and incisive comments. I have become a stronger academic because of them. Lastly, I would like to thank my partner, Alicia, my son Tristan, and my parents, David and Karen Kowalski, for their unwavering love and support throughout my doctoral program. Without them this journey would not have been possible. Of course, the crafting of a project of this scale and magnitude would not have been achievable without the cooperation, assistance, and selflessness of many people. As such, I would be remiss without thanking all of the individuals that agreed to participate in an interview and share with me their perspectives and experiences. The participation of these individuals contributed significantly to my ability to engage in a multilayered and textured analysis. Furthermore, I would like to thank Isabel Teotonio, the Toronto Star reporter that always made time to both speak with me and share information with me while we were at the courthouse in Brampton. As well, I would like to thank Kathryn Wells, a friend that acted as my attorney and helped me to navigate the judicial system and gain access to the court documents I needed to conduct my research. Indeed, writing requires that one turn over a library worth of books. To this end, I would like to thank the independent book seller Wordsworth Books in Waterloo for expeditiously getting me the books I needed and for keeping me in pages. iv Table of Contents Abstract..........................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………...iii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….v Prologue…………………………………………………………………………………………..1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..11 Chapter 1 “Toto, I have a feeling we’re not in Kansas anymore”: Conceptual Fissures in the Emerald City..……………………………………………………………………………………49 Chapter 2 Displacement and Condensation: Constructing the Homo Terrorismus and the Internalization of the Clash……………………………………………………………………………..87 Chapter 3 Through a Looking Glass Darkly: The Fearful Symmetry of Competing Discursive Formations……………………………………………………………………………………...142 Chapter 4 A Condition of Transgression: The Transnational Sphere of Influence……………190 Chapter 5 A Condition of Transgression: The State Sphere of Influence…………………..…217 Chapter 6 A Condition of Transgression: The Group Sphere of Influence……………………252 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..281 Epilogue………………………………………………………………………………………..301 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………...306 v List of Figures 1.1 “Homegrown”………………………………………………………………………………..12 2.1 “South Toronto Maple Leafs”……………………………………………………………….57 3.1 “Facing the Fury”…………………………………………………………………………...132 3.2 “Target: Bin Laden”………………………………………………………………………...133 3.3 “In Other News Today”…………………………………………………………………….140 4.1 Dominant/Transgression/Subversive Model……………………………………………….149 4.2 “Young Man/Old Man”…………………………………………………………………….150 4.3 “Dominant Discursive Formation”…………………………………………………………162 4.4 “Subversive Discursive Formation”………………………………………………………..175 5.1 “Canadian Security Regime”……………………………………………………………….231 1 Prologue And this place our forefathers made for man! This is the process of our love and wisdom To each poor brother who offends against us; Most innocent, perhaps—and what if guilty? Is this the only cure, merciful God? Each pore and natural outlet shrivelled up By ignorance and parching poverty, His energies role back upon his heart And stagnate and corrupt; till, changed to poison, They break out on him like a loathsome plague-spot. Then we call in our pampered mountebanks And this is their best cure: uncomforted And friendless solitude, groaning and tears And savage faces at the clanking hour, Seen through the steams and vapour of his dungeon, By the lamp’s dismal twilight. So he lies Circled with evil, till his very soul Unmoulds its essence, hopelessly deformed By sights of every more deformity!1 On 2 June 2006 approximately 400 police officers2 from various jurisdictions across the province of Ontario—codenamed operation O-Sage by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)—were involved in the concerted arrests of seventeen individuals living in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA).3 The individuals who were arrested were detained under provisions enshrined in Bill C-364, the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) ratified by Canadian parliament in December, 2001. The individuals arrested were described in one newspaper article in the following terms: “sources say the arrests involve a “homegrown” terrorism cell—Western youths who have never set foot in Afghanistan but allegedly were radicalized here, and who are thought 1 An excerpt from the Samuel Taylor Coleridge poem, “The Dungeon.” 2 Shepard, Bhattacharya & Josey, “Men attended ‘training camps’: Sources.” p. A1. 3 See, for example, Blanchfield, Mike & Woods, Alan. (2006, June 5). “Arrest tally will grow, insiders say.” National Post, p. A3, for an article citing sources indicating that more arrests relating to this case were anticipated. Approximately two months after the initial arrests of the seventeen suspects, an eighteenth was arrested. Hence, the codification of the group as the so-called “Toronto 18.” 4 See http://www2.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=2330951&Language=e&Mode=1 for a web-based copy of Bill C-36 (last accessed on 20 February 2010). 2 to be potentially as dangerous as the cells that once took orders from Osama bin Laden.”5 In another newspaper article, Luc Portelance, the assistant operations director
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