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The Defense and Signaling Role of NADPH Oxidases in Eukaryotic Cells

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The Defense and Signaling Role of NADPH Oxidases in Eukaryotic Cells main topic Wien Med Wochenschr (2018) 168:286–299 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10354-018-0640-4 The defense and signaling role of NADPH oxidases in eukaryotic cells Review Michael Breitenbach · Mark Rinnerthaler · Manuela Weber · Hannelore Breitenbach-Koller · Thomas Karl · Paul Cullen · Sukaniya Basu · Dana Haskova · Jiri Hasek Received: 15 February 2018 / Accepted: 14 May 2018 / Published online: 6 August 2018 © The Author(s) 2018 Summary This short review article summarizes what Keywords Chronic granulomatous disease · Saccha- is known clinically and biochemically about the seven romyces cerevisiae · Actin cytoskeleton · Nox enzymes · human NADPH oxidases. Emphasis is put on the Reactive oxygen species connection between mutations in the catalytic and regulatory subunits of Nox2, the phagocyte defense Rolle der NADPH-Oxidasen eukaryotischer enzyme, with syndromes like chronic granulomatous Zellen in der Immunabwehr und disease, as well as a number of chronic inflamma- Signaltransduktion tory diseases. These arise paradoxically from a lack Übersicht of reactive oxygen species production needed as sec- ond messengers for immune regulation. Both Nox2 Zusammenfassung In diesem kurzen Übersichtsbei- and the six other human NADPH oxidases display sig- trag fassen wir den klinischen und biochemischen naling functions in addition to the functions of these Wissensstand zu den sieben menschlichen NADPH- enzymes in specialized biochemical reactions, for in- Oxidasen zusammen. Ein Schwerpunkt liegt dabei stance, synthesis of the hormone thyroxine. NADPH auf dem Zusammenhang zwischen Mutationen in oxidases are also needed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae den katalytischen und regulatorischen Untereinhei- cells for the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in ten von Nox2 – der NADPH-Oxidase der Phagozyten times of stress or developmental changes, such as mit Abwehrfunktion – und Syndromen wie der sep- pseudohyphae formation. The article shows that in tischen Granulomatose, aber auch einer Reihe von certain cancer cells Nox4 is also involved in the re- chronisch-entzündlichen Erkrankungen. Hervorgeru- structuring of the actin cytoskeleton, which is required fen werden diese durch einen Mangel an reaktiven for cell mobility and therefore for metastasis. Sauerstoffspezies, welche als Produkte der NADPH- Oxidase-Reaktion für die Immunregulation notwen- dig sind. Sowohl Nox2 als auch die anderen sechs Dedicated to Prof. Adi Ellinger on the ocassion of his menschlichen NADPH-Oxidasen haben neben ihren retirement. Funktionen in spezialisierten biochemischen Reaktio- M. Breitenbach () · M. Rinnerthaler · M. Weber · nen (Beispiel: Thyroxinsynthese) auch eine Funktion H. Breitenbach-Koller · T. Karl in der Signaltransduktion. In der Hefe Saccharomyces Department of Bioscienes, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, cerevisiae wird die NADPH-Oxidase Yno1 als Signal- Austria geber für die Restrukturierung des Aktinzytoskeletts [email protected] gebraucht, z.B. unter Stress oder bei der Bildung von P.Cullen · S. Basu Pseudohyphen. In bestimmten Tumorzellen ist die Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, NADPH-Oxidase Nox4 ebenfalls an der Restrukturie- The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA rung des Aktinzytoskeletts beteiligt – eine Vorausset- D. Haskova · J. Hasek zung für die Zellmobilität und damit auch für die Laboratory of Cell Reproduction, Institute of Microbiology Metastasierung dieser Tumoren. of AS CR, v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic 286 The defense and signaling role of NADPH oxidases in eukaryotic cells K main topic Schlüsselwörter Septische Granulomatose · Saccha- ing protein phosphatase PTP is reversibly inhibited romyces cerevisiae · Aktinzytoskelett · Nox-Enzyme · by the formation of sulfenic acid in critical cysteine Reaktive Sauerstoffspezies groups. The larger gene and protein family discussed here Introduction comprises not only Nox enzymes but also ferric reduc- tases, which play an important role in the mechanism This review paper presents: (i) an overview of the and regulation of iron uptake into cells. The whole su- present state of knowledge of the human NADPH ox- perfamily is therefore called IMR (integral membrane idases and their clinical relevance; (ii) the authors’ reductase) protein superfamily. The previously held own published analysis of the properties and biolog- opinion that only multicellular eukaryotic species ex- ical significance of the only NADPH oxidase of Sac- press Nox enzymes has been disproved by our analysis charomyces cerevisiae, Yno1; and (iii) the function of of the S. cerevisiae Nox enzme, Yno1 [8], and by the re- both Yno1 and Nox4 in the regulation of the actin cy- cent finding and functional analysis of bacterial Nox toskeleton, which may be important for the mobility enzymes [9]. of cancer cells, as studied in a neuroblastoma cell line. The most important authoritative and comprehen- The production of superoxide and a host of radi- sive review article dealing with the human NADPH cal and non-radical molecular species derived thereof, oxidases (Nox enzymes, for short), was published collectively called reactive oxygen species (ROS) and 10 years ago [10]. The most important conclusions through reaction with nitric oxide (NO), reactive ni- of these authors, together with the relevant literature trogen species (RNS), serves two functions: defense that has appeared in the meantime, are summarized against invading organisms as part of the innate im- below in the first part of this article. mune system and signaling. There is accumulating ev- idence for an involvement in an increasing number of Structure and reaction scheme of NADPH oxidases biologically important signal transduction processes. (Nox enzymes) NADPH oxidases are not the only intracellular sources of ROS. Normal cellular metabolism produces hydro- All known Nox enzymes are transmembrane pro- gen peroxide (H2O2) (examples: peroxisomal oxidases teins which, in a vectorial way, catalyze the one- that convert O2 to H2O2; the cytochrome P450 system electron reduction of dioxygen (O2)toproducesuper- – [1]; xanthine oxidase reaction and certain stressful or oxide (O2 ), an anion radical (see Fig. 1). The one- pathological conditions produce superoxide, and in- electron transmembrane reduction reaction is ac- directly H2O2 [examples: aged mitochondria through complished by four different sequential redox-active “leakage” of single electrons in complexes I and III co-factors: NADPH, FADH, and two non-identical [2]; production of methemoglobin in certain mutant b-type cytochromes. Fig. 2 shows the binding con- hemoglobins like HbS [3]]. Additionally, deleterious sensus sequences for these co-factors. As a negative ROS are also produced by biogenic and non-biogenic charge is created on the outside of the membrane, this environmental attacks from outside [for instance as must be compensated by a proton that is transported a secondary consequence of ionizing radiation, IR], through the membrane. No high-resolution three- leading to oxidative stress). dimensional structure of a whole-length Nox enzyme One of the most prominent authors in the field is known, mainly due to the reluctance of membrane of oxidative stress [4, 5] discriminates between ox- proteins to yield crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction. idative eustress (broadly equivalent to ROS signaling) However, in 2017 the dehydrogenase domain and the and oxidative distress, which is broadly equivalent to transmembrane domain of the cyanobacterial Nox5 a much larger level of ROS, ultimately leading in many ortholog were resolved to 2.2 and 2.05A, respectively cases to a series of events that can culminate in cell [11]. The hypothetical structure shown in Fig. 2 is death. It may be considered self-explanatory that sig- in excellent agreement with the combined structures naling (nearly exclusively through hydrogen peroxide) requires much lower levels of ROS and only a tran- sient elevation in a highly localized fashion in the cell, Fig. 1 Reaction equation of NADPH oxidases. The reaction while high local concentrations can be reached in cer- takes place in a vectorial manner. On the cytoplasmic side, tain cellar compartments in antimicrobial defense. In NADPH and O2 enter the reaction and electron pairs are both cases, degradation of ROS is of utmost impor- first transferred from NADPH to FADH. In the membrane, tance after the job is done, otherwise the persistence single electrons are transferred to the first and then to the of ROS would lead to chronic inflammatory diseases. second b-type cytochrome, and on the opposite side of Examples of these are discussed below. The first and the membrane, single electrons are transferred to the O2 best known example of ROS signaling is regulation of molecule, producing two molecules of superoxide in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Further metabolic reactions the activity of protein phosphotyrosine phosphatases are not completely known, leading to the probable signaling (PTPs) [6] in the course of growth factor stimulation of substance, hydrogen peroxide. This could be through the cultured human cells [7]. Activation of target proteins NADPH oxidase itself (as shown for human Nox4) or through by phosphorylation is increased when the counteract- a tightly coupled superoxide dismutase enzyme K The defense and signaling role of NADPH oxidases in eukaryotic cells 287 main topic brought to the fact that research performed over the last 10 years has increasingly shown that organ- and cell-specific expression, as well as biochemical
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